Murphy 1

Erica Murphy
Dr. Spielvogel: CAS 138T
11 April 2016
In a speech delivered in December 2013, President Obama reflected, I believe this is the
defining challenge of our time: Making sure our economy works for every working American.
I am convinced that the decisions we make will determine whether or not our children will
grow up in an America where opportunity is real.1 Due to a growing income gap and a lack of
economic mobility, the opportunity to emerge from economic hardship is an elusive task for lowincome American children. City governments should implement free, universal preschool so that
all American children can set out on parallel paths, overcoming any influence of economic
background and thus closing the income gap among American citizens.
Low-Income Americans: Shackled by the Income Gap and Economic Immobility
A vast income gap between the nations lower and upper classes severs American
society, stifling the opportunities of low-income citizens. According to Nicholas Fitz of Scientific
American, the top fifth of the nations families own over 84 percent of the wealth. The bottom
two-fifths, on the other hand, holds only 0.3 percent of the wealth.2 Despite progress made in
other areas of American society, the income gap is not closing, nor has it even remained
stagnant. Rather, the income gap is widening. Since the 1970s, the wages of the top 1 percent of
workers have skyrocketed, reaching values over 350 percent of their values in 1979, while the
wages of the other 99 percent have remained relatively constant.3 The figure below illuminates
this disparity.

Murphy 2

Figure 1: Average Income of Americans by Income Bracket: 1979-20074

As the rich get richer, they continue to accrue opportunities for higher education,
entrepreneurship, and financial investment, for instance to enhance their prosperity and solidify
their grip on the nations wealth. Meanwhile, such opportunities for economic and social
advancement remain more elusive to the lower and middle classes, causing a rigid class system
to congeal.
The lack of economic mobility in the United States perpetuates the income gap,
entrenching low-income youth in the cycle of poverty. Relative to European nations, economic
mobility in America is low. In Denmark, for example, low-income children are twice as likely to
rise to the top 20 percent income bracket compared to their counterparts in the United States.5
This reality contradicts the illusion of the American Dream, rooted in the hope of overcoming
ones background and securing success through hard work. In the article Harder for Americans

Murphy 3
to Rise From Lower Rungs, journalist Jason DeParle analyzes the factors responsible for this
economic immobility:
One reason for the mobility gap may be the depth of American poverty, which leaves
poor children starting especially far behind. Another may be the unusually large
premiums that American employers pay for college degrees. Since children generally
follow their parents educational trajectory, that premium increases the importance of
family background and stymies people with less schooling.6
By equalizing early-educational opportunities, policymakers can level the playing field among
children. Consequently, children would escape the influence of their socioeconomic backgrounds
and gain access to economic and social mobility.
Forgoing Preschool: Detrimental to Child Development
Insufficient access to preschool stifles the opportunity for low-income Americans to rise
to a higher standard of living. Researchers at Harvard Universitys Center on the Developing
Child have identified the time frames in which neural connections develop, as depicted in the
figure below. Neural connections are constantly forming from the prenatal period into the
teenage years, rendering the brain sensitive to experiences throughout childhood.7 Decisions
regarding early education are therefore particularly crucial to child development.

Murphy 4

Figure 2: Center on the Developing Child: Timeline of Human Brain Development8

Studies have revealed that failure to attend preschool sets a child back significantly.
Moreover, as family income decreases, this effect becomes more pronounced. According to
Halley Potter of U.S. News, children from households deemed poor lagged behind preschoolattending peers by 11 months by the time of kindergarten; near-poor children were 10 months
behind.9 The primary advantage enjoyed by students who have attended preschool involves
cognitive skills. In a study of over 14 thousand children, scholar Bruce Fuller and economist
Susanna Loeb discovered significant gains in reading and math proficiency among students who
attended preschool compared to those who did not. Moreover, these gains were particularly
distinct and lasting for low-income children, who, even in the fifth grade, retained an
advantage over low-income children who had forgone preschool. In contrast, for middle-income
children, the influence of preschool had abated by fifth grade.10 Despite its value to low-income
children, more than half of low-income three-year-olds and a third of low-income four-year-

Murphy 5
olds do not attend preschool.11 Forgoing preschool allows a students economic conditions to
exert an immediate, long-lasting influence on his or her success. Funding a universal prekindergarten program would set all American children out on an equal path and provide them
with equal opportunities regardless of socioeconomic status.
Funding of Preschools in the United States: Past and Present
Public funding for preschools in the United States emanates from a combination of
sources spanning the federal, state, and local levels of government.12 Head Start constitutes the
foundation of federal investment early childhood education. Through the Head Start program,
approximately 1,700 preschools and daycares receive federal grants to serve children of lowincome families.13 To gain access to these federally-funded services, families submit applications
directly to local Head Start programs, which assess their need and admit families at or below
the poverty level.14 Designed as to meet the needs of underprivileged children, Head Start
launched in 1965 as part of President Lyndon B. Johnsons War on Poverty. In 1998, the
government authorized Head Start to fund full-day and full-year programs. The Improving Head
Start for School Readiness Act of 2007 enacted measures to regulate the effectiveness of Head
Start programs. This act demands that programs adhere to a set of standards in order to maintain
funding, enhancing the quality of the educations they provide. Now directed by the
Administration for Children and Families in the Department of Health and Human Services,
Head Start has enhanced the early-education opportunities of over 32 million children throughout
the United States.15
Nevertheless, Head Start funding is not sufficient to support the entirety of the American
preschool system. As a result, 39 states have established state-funded preschool programs to
supplement federal funding within their boundaries. These 39 states provided an average of

Murphy 6
$3,841 per child in 2012.16 However, fluctuating annually, values for state funding lack
consistency. Preschools faced $500 million in state cuts in the 2011-2012 fiscal year, though this
gap was diminished by increases during the next two years.17 A significant portion of American
children depend on state funding: 28 percent of four-year-olds are enrolled in state-funded
programs, whereas only 11 percent are enrolled in Head Start.18 As displayed in the figure below,
the percentage of four-year-olds attending state-funded preschool programs varies by state, with
some states serving 71 percent of four-year-olds and others serving none.

Figure 3: Percent of Four-Year-Olds Served in State Pre-K19

In order to secure educational opportunities for all American children, a more reliable,
standardized, plenary source of funding for preschools must be developed.
The Solution: Implementing Universal Preschool at the City Level
With state and government funding unreliable and insufficient, city governments should
emulate the example of Washington, D.C., a paradigm of preschool education. Not limited to
four-year-olds or low-income children as many state-funded programs are, the Districts program

Murphy 7
provides free preschool to 66 percent of applicants, representing a variety of neighborhoods and
income brackets. 65 charter schools supplement these public preschools to provide education to
children as young as three years old in the district. Moreover, public preschools in Washington,
D.C., offer high quality education, marked by diverse classrooms led by well-educated, wellcompensated teachers.20 The District spends approximately $122 million on preschool each year,
deriving this money from taxpayers.21 Though taxation has certainly raised opposition from
residents, it has also stimulated a revival of D.C.s public school system by increasing taxpayers
stake in it: In recent years the citys preschool programs have drawn more families, including
middle-class families, into the citys public schools, helping to reverse a decades-long enrollment
decline.22 Thus, through early childhood education, Washington, D.C., is bringing together
students of various backgrounds and blurring the lines between economic classes. This
integration of the classroom environment has been shown to facilitate not only individual
academic success but also civic, social, and cognitive benefits.23 By uniting children of diverse
backgrounds and providing each child with tools for success, funding preschool in cities across
the nation would seal the economic divide in American society.
Implementing this policy reform would require a source of revenue. Taxation, as the
District of Columbia has employed, has proven an effective means of funding preschool
programs. However, city governments may face opposition in proposing tax increases.
Therefore, revenue could be reallocated from other areas. For example, school districts could
layoff administrators such as vice principles and human resources directors. The 235,110 school
administrators employed in the United States earn an average salary of $92,940.24 Redirecting a
portion of these funds toward early education would establish sturdy academic foundations for
American children. Alternatively, city governments could obtain funding from cigarette taxation.

Murphy 8
A 94-cent increase in cigarettes taxes nationwide would generate $7.5 billion in revenue
annually, allowing over 1 million more children to attend preschool at no cost.25 Funding a
universal pre-kindergarten program would set all children out on an equal path, providing them
with equal opportunities to succeed regardless of socioeconomic status.
Conclusion
Currently resting in the hands of federal and state governments, funding for preschool is
failing to meet the needs of American children. Particularly for low-income families, access to
affordable preschool is limited, perpetuating the economic divide between the upper and lower
classes. With the existing structure failing, city governments should take control of early
education funding. By increasing tax revenues, or by reallocating funding from areas not focused
on student success such as the salaries of school administrators and targeting it toward early
education, school districts can maximize the effectiveness of education spending. Enhancing
opportunities at the preschool level will resurrect the American Dream by providing all citizens
with the chance to succeed.

Murphy 9
Endnotes
1. Obama, President Barack. "Remarks by the President on Economic Mobility." White
House, Washington, D.C. 4 Dec. 2013. The White House. Web. 4 Apr. 2016.
2. Fitz, Nicholas. "Economic Inequality: It's Far Worse Than You Think." Scientific
American. 31 Mar. 2015. Web. 07 Apr. 2016.
3. The Economist Online. "The 99 Percent." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 26
Oct. 2011. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
4. Ibid
5. "Mobility, Measured: Class in America." Economist (US) 1 Feb. 2014. The Economist.
The Economist Online Newspaper, 1 Feb. 2014. Web. 9 Apr. 2016.
6. Deparle, Jason. "Harder for Americans to Rise From Lower Rungs." The New York
Times. The New York Times, 04 Jan. 2012. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
7. Center on the Developing Child. "InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood
Development." Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. 2007. Web. 09
Apr. 2016.
8. Ibid
9. Potter, Halley. "Pre-K Is Good, But Universal Pre-K Is Better." U.S. News & World
Report. 27 Mar. 2014. Web. 9 Apr. 2016.
10. Fuller, Bruce. "Preschool Is Important, But It's More Important for Poor Children." The
Washington Post. The Washington Post, 09 Feb. 2014. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
11. Ibid
12. Atlas. "Pre-K Funding Overview." Atlas. 08 June 2015. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
13. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. "About Us." Early Childhood

Murphy 10
Knowledge and Learning Center. 21 Mar. 2016. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
14. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. "How To Apply." Early Childhood
Knowledge and Learning Center. 20 Oct. 2015. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
15. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. "History of Head Start." Office of Head
Start. 22 June 2015. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
16. Atlas, http://atlas.newamerica.org/pre-k-funding
17. Barnett, W.S., M.E. Carolan, J.H. Squires, K. Clarke Brown, and M. Horowitz. "The
State of Preschool 2014." National Institute for Early Education Research. 2015. Web.
09 Apr. 2016.
18. Atlas, http://atlas.newamerica.org/pre-k-funding
19. Carolan, Megan, and Jim Squires. "Preschool for Y'All: The Rise of Early Education in
the South." Preschool Matters Today. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
20. Moser, Laura. "In D.C., Where Universal Free Preschool Is Becoming the Norm."
Motherlode Blog. The New York Times, 16 Sept. 2013. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
21. Layton, Lyndsey, and Susan Svrluga. "Obama Proposal Reflects Shift in VViews on
Early Childhood Education." The Washington Post. The Washington Post, 13 Feb. 2013.
Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
22. Brown, Emma. "Survey: D.C. Ranks First in Preschool Access, Funding." Washington
Post. The Washington Post, 13 May 2014. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.
23. Potter, http://www.usnews.com/debate-club/should-the-government-fund-universal-prek/pre-k-is-good-but-universal-pre-k-is-better
24. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. "Education Administrators, Elementary and Secondary
School." U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 30 Mar. 2016. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.

Murphy 11
25. Layton, Lyndsey. "Paying for Preschool with a $1 a Pack Cigarette Tax." The
Washington Post. The Washington Post, 10 Apr. 2013. Web. 09 Apr. 2016.