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T H E R E L A T IO N S H IP O F C O M M U N IT Y C O L L E G E C A M P U S C H IL D C A R E
C E N T E R S T O T H E A C A D E M IC S U C C E S S O F
S IN G L E M O T H E R S
by
K athleen C a rey -F le tc h e r
A Dissertation S ubm itted in Partial Fulfillment

of the R equirem ents for the D eg ree
D octor of Education
M O R G A N S T A T E U N IV E R S IT Y
M ay, 2 0 0 7
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ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation:
T H E R E L A T IO N S H IP O F C O M M U N IT Y C O L L E G E
C A M P U S C H IL D C A R E C E N T E R S T O T H E
A C A D E M IC S U C C E S S O F S IN G L E M O T H E R S
K athleen C arey-F letch er, Doctor of Education,
M ay 2 00 7
Dissertation chaired by:
R o sem ary G illett-K aram , PhD

School of Education and Urban Studies
G iven the profile of its nontraditional students, com m unity colleges have
invested heavily in cam pus child care centers and child care services. H ow ever,
it is unclear w hat im pact such services have on the student outcom es for certain
parent cohorts. T h e problem this study addressed is the need to determ ine if
there is a relationship betw een com m unity college cam pus child care (C C C C C )
centers and the acad em ic success of single m others.
R esearch into single m other child care support n eeds w as a reasonable
w ay to identify key support services which en ab le single m others to achieve
acad em ic success. T h e study investigated single m other aca d e m ic success
related to, estim ated ave ra g e grade, grade im provem ent, persistence, and
credits earn ed . C C C C C parenting support services and child care availability

factors w ere investigated.
T h e study em ployed a quantitative research m ethodology. S urvey d a ta
w ere solicited from C C C C C directors and single m others associated with 108
C C C C C m em bers of the National Coalition for C am p u s C hildrens C enters
(N C C C C ).
In order to a n aly ze the C C C C C factors that have influenced the acad em ic
success of single m other students descriptive and correlation statistics w ere
used w hen analyzing survey data. T h e m ajor findings of the study w ere related to
cam pus child care availability factors--child care on cam pus, the num bers of
parent support services available, and the num ber of available child c are hours
single m others reported using. Significant correlations w ere found betw een
C C C C C availability factors and grade im provem ent, persistence, and credits
earned.
T h e studys contribution w as a focus on identifying C C C C C availability
factors that influence the academ ic success of single m other students. T h e study
also provided insight to research on low -incom e single m others, a large and
growing cohort of heads of households in our society. T h e s e findings have
implications for com m unity college leadership related to access and persistence
support for all nontraditional students particularly w om en and single m others.
T H E R E L A T IO N S H IP O F C O M M U N IT Y C O L L E G E C A M P U S C H IL D C A R E
C E N T E R S T O T H E A C A D E M IC S U C C E S S O F
S IN G L E M O T H E R S
By
K athleen C a rey -F le tc h e r
has been approved

M ay 2007
D IS S E R T A T IO N C O M M IT T E E A P P R O V A L :
D E D IC A T IO N
I d edicate this study to the researchers w ho have p receded m e and on

w hose shoulders I stand: C aro le K eyes (1 9 8 0 ), L a V e rn a M. F a d ale and G e n e M.
W in te r (1 9 8 8 ), N ancy Koch Ritze (1 9 9 6 ), and Shirlene Hall Triplett (2 0 0 0 ). T h e ir
research and dedication to cam pus child care program s and parent student
a cadem ic success has provided a direction for this study and a path for my
journey.
ACKNO W LEDG M ENTS

T h e process of com pleting this dissertation would not h ave been possible
without the support and encou ragem en t of fam ily, friends, colleagues, and fellow
Cohort 7 m em bers. I am grateful for the collective help of m any generous souls.
This study w as possible only with the help of a village of supporters.
I acknow ledge Dr. R osem ary G illett-K aram , m y com m ittee chair and
m entor, for her ability to coach and lead m e through this unique acad em ic
passage. H e r steadfast belief in m e and her excellence as a te a c h e r h ave held
m e up. S h e enabled m y scholarly thinking skills to develop and encou raged m e
to use m y voice to tell a story which I h ave been yearning to tell for alm ost thirty
years.
I am grateful to Dr. S ylvester M cK a y and Dr. Joan Cobb, for being
excellent com m ittee m em bers. T h e ir technical advice and dissertation writing
expertise assisted m y success at every turn.
Dr. Christine M cP hail, Director of the C C L D P program , m ust be
acknow ledged for founding the program which m ad e it possible for m e to begin
and finish this research project.
Finally I w ant to acknow ledge and thank m y husband, Jim Fletcher, for his
undying faith in m e, steadfast love, encou ragem en t, support, and sacrifices m ade
for the c a u s e .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
C H A P T E R I: IN T R O D U C T IO N .............................................................................................
Background of the P ro b le m .....................................................................................
S ta te m en t of the P ro b le m .........................................................................................
P urpose of the S tu d y ..................................................................................................
R esearch Q u e s tio n s ...................................................................................................
H y p o th e s es.....................................................................................................................
11
Theoretical F ra m e w o rk ..............................................................................................
12
C onceptual Fram ew o rk of the S tu d y ...................................................................
14
V a r ia b le s .........................................................................................................................
16
S ignificance of the S tu d y ..........................................................................................
17
S cop e and L im ita tio n s ................................................................................................
19
Definition of T e rm s Used in the S tu d y .................................................................
20
S u m m a ry .........................................................................................................................
23
C H A P T E R II: R E V IE W O F T H E L IT E R A T U R E .............................................................
25
History of C am p u s C hildrens C e n te r s ..............................................................................
26
G en era l Issues R elated to W o m e n in H igher E d u c atio n..............................
30
P artic ip a tio n ......................................................................................................
30
R esearch G a p s ................................................................................................
31
D evelopm ental Issues ...................................................................................
32
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
C h allen g es Facing Single M o th er Students and Barriers

to P ersistence and A cadem ic S u c c e s s ...............................................................
36
C am p u s Support S tru ctu res.......................................................................
40
Socioeconom ic F a cto rs ................................................................................
44
W e lfa re R e fo rm ................................................................................................
48
P rogram s that Prom ote E ducational O pportunities

for Single M o th e r s .......................................................................................................
52
W o m e n in a C om m unity D evelopm ent P ro g ra m ...............................
53
C a lW O R K S .......................................................................................................
55
O pening D o o rs .................................................................................................
57
Child C a re A ccess M e a n s P arents in S ch o o l......................................
58
R esearch on the Im pact of C am p u s Child C a re on

P aren t A cadem ic S u c c e s s ........................................................................................
60
K e y e s ...................................................................................................................
61
R itz e .....................................................................................................................
62
F a d ale and W in te r..........................................................................................
64
T rip le tt..................................................................................................................
67
S u m m a ry .........................................................................................................................
68
C H A P T E R III: M E T H O D O L O G Y .........................................................................................
71
vii
Page
R esearch D e s ig n ..........................................................................................................
72
S etting and P articip an ts .............................................................................................
75
Instru m en ts......................................................................................................................
75
Purpose of S u rve y s........................................................................................
75
Pilot of Director S u rv e y ................................................................................
76
V a lid ity ...............................................................................................................................
79
R esearch P ro ce d u re ...................................................................................................
81
D a ta A n alysis..................................................................................................................
84
Descriptive S tatistics.....................................................................................
85
C o rre la tio n s ......................................................................................................
86
Inferential D a ta C o lle ctio n ..........................................................................
87
Protection of P articipants..........................................................................................
88
S u m m a ry .........................................................................................................................
88
C H A P T E R IV: A N A L Y S IS O F D A T A .................................................................................
91
Population and R esponse R a te ..............................................................................
91
D em ographic Descriptions........................................................................................
92
In dependent V ariable D escriptions.......................................................................
99
D e p e n d en t V ariable D e s c rip tio n s ........................................................................... 117

Testing H y p o th e s e s ...................................................................................................... 123
R esearch Q uestions ....................................................................................................124
viii
Page
H ypotheses T e s tin g ...................................................................................................... 143

S u m m ary of Findings....................................................................................................145
C H A P T E R V: S U M M A R Y , IM P L IC A T IO N S A N D R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
147
M ajor Findings of the S tu d y ....................................................................................... 148

Findings R elated to R esearch Q u e s tio n s ............................................................ 151
C o n c lu s io n .........................................................................................................................153
Conclusions R elated to Previous S tu d ie s ............................................................ 153
Im plications........................................................................................................................157
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s......................................................................................................... 161
Q uestions for Further S tu d y ....................................................................................... 170
A Final W o rd ..................................................................................................................... 172
R E F E R E N C E S .............................................................................................................................. 174
A P P E N D IX E S ............................................................................................................................... 192
A ppendix A: D irector S urvey Instru m en t...............................................................192
A ppendix B: Single M other S urvey In s tru m e n t................................................. 201
A ppendix C: Director S urvey C o v e r L e tte r.........................................................211
A ppendix D: Single M other C o v e r L e tte r ............................................................. 2 1 2
A ppendix E: Director C onsent F o rm ...................................................................... 2 1 3
A ppendix F: Single M other C onsent F o rm .......................................................... 2 1 5
A ppendix G: Debriefing F o r m ................................................................................... 2 1 7
ix
Page
A ppendix H: F ad ale and W in te r Perm ission to Use S u rv e y s ...................... 2 1 8

A ppendix I: N C C C C Sponsorship L e tte r.............................................................. 2 1 9
A ppendix J: Pilot S urvey In s tru m en t..................................................................... 2 2 0
A ppendix K: IR B A cceptance L e tte r ......................................................................2 2 5
LIST OF TABLES
Page
T a b le
T a b le 1: Single Mother: A g e ..................................................................................................... 9 3
T a b le 2: Single Mother: E thnicity............................................................................................ 9 5
T a b le 3: Single Mother: Fam ily In c o m e ............................................................................... 9 6
T a b le 4: Single Mother: E m p lo y m e n t................................................................................... 98
T a b le 5: Statistics of D em ographic V a ria b le s .....................................................................99
T a b le 6: Single M other S ource of Child C a re
Tuition P aym ent: S e lf................................................................................................ 1 00
T a b le 7: Single M others Receiving Child C a re Tuition
Subsidy: Social S e r v ic e s ........................................................................................ 101
Subsidy: C C A M P IS .................................................................................................... 103
Subsidy: O th e r............................................................................................................. 1 04
T a b le 10: S ource of Child C a re Tuition P aym ent: S ta tistic s ...................................... 1 06
T a b le 11: Single M others W h o R eport that R eferral
S ervices M a k e it E asier to Attend C o lle g e .................................................... 107
T a b le 12: Single M others W h o Report that
Advising S ervices M a k e it E as ie r to Attend C o lle g e ................................. 109
xi
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
T a b le 13: Single M others W h o Report that P arenting

Education M akes it E as ie r to Attend C o lle g e ............................................... 110
T a b le 14: P arenting Support Services: F requen cy Statistics..................................... 112
T a b le 15: Single M others W h o Report that Availability of
Child C a re M akes it E asier to Attend C o lle g e .............................................. 113
T a b le 16: Single M others W h o Report that N u m b e r of Services
A vailable M a k e it E asier to Attend C o lle g e ................................................... 115
T a b le 17: Single M others W h o Report that N u m b e r of Child C a re
Flours Used M a d e it E asier to Attend C o lle g e .............................................116
T a b le 18: Single M oth ers Estim ated A v e ra g e G ra d e s .................................................118
T a b le 19: Single M oth ers G rad e Im provem ent D ue
C am p u s Child C a r e ................................................................................................ 119
T a b le 20: N u m b e r of S em esters Single M others Attended
Beyond O n e S e m e s te r .......................................................................................... 121
T a b le 21: Credits E arned by Single M o t h e r s ...................................................................122
T a b le 22: Tuition Subsidy and EA G , G rad e Im provem ent,
P ersistence, and Credits E a rn e d .....................................................................126
T a b le 23: R eferral Services C orrelate with E A G , G rade
Im provem ent, P ersistence, and Credits E a r n e d ....................................... 128
xii
Page
T a b le 24: Advising S ervices C orrelations with E A G , G rad e

Im provem ent, Persistence, and Credits E a r n e d ........................................ 129
T a b le 25: P arent Education Services C orrelations with
E A G , G ra d e Im provem ent, Persistence,
Credits E a rn e d .........................................................................................................131
T a b le 26: Correlation: Availability of Child C a re and
Estim ated A v e ra g e G r a d e ................................................................................... 132
T a b le 27: Correlation: Availability of Child C a re
and G ra d e Im p ro v e m e n t...................................................................................... 133
T a b le 28: Correlation of Availability of Child C a re
on C am p u s and P e rs is te n c e ............................................................................. 134
T a b le 29: Correlation of Availability of Child C a re
and Credits E a rn e d ..................................................................................................135
T a b le 30: Correlation of N u m b er of S ervices and Estim ated
A v e ra g e G r a d e ......................................................................................................... 136
T a b le 31: Correlation of N u m b er of S ervices and
G rad e Im p ro v e m e n t............................................................................................... 137
T a b le 32: Correlation of N u m b e r of Services and P e rs is te n c e ................................. 138
T a b le 33: Correlation of N u m b er of S ervices and Credits E a rn e d ...........................139
xiii
Page
T a b le 34: Correlation of N u m b e r of Child C a re Hours Used and

E stim ated A verag e G r a d e ................................................................................... 140
T a b le 35: Correlation of N u m b er of Child C a re Hours Used
And G rad e Im p ro v e m e n t...................................................................................... 141
T a b le 48: Correlation: N u m b e r of Child C a re Hours
U sed and P e rs is te n c e ........................................................................................... 142
T a b le 49: Correlation: N u m b e r of Child C a re
Hours U sed and Credits E a r n e d ...................................................................... 143
xiv
L IS T O F F IG U R E S
Figures
P ag e
1. C onceptual Fram ew ork of the S tu d y .......................................................................
14
2.
Single
M other: A g e ...................................................................................................
94
3.
Single
M other: E thnicity..........................................................................................
95
4.
Single
M other: Fam ily In c o m e .............................................................................
97
5.
Single
M other: E m p lo y m e n t.................................................................................
98
6. Single M other S ource of Child C a re Tuition

P aym ent: S e lf ...................................................................................................................... 100
7. Single M other Receiving Child C a re Tuition
Subsidy: Social S e rv ic e s ................................................................................................ 102
8. Single M other Receiving of Child C a re Tuition
Subsidy: C C A M P IS ...........................................................................................................103
9. Single M other Receiving Child C a re Tuition
Subsidy: O th e r.....................................................................................................................105
10. Single M others W h o Report that Referral Services
M a k e it E as ie r to Attend C o lle g e ...............................................................................108
11. Single M others W h o Report that Advising Services
M a k e it E as ie r to Attend C o lle g e .................................................................................109
XV
LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

Figures
Page
12. Single M others W h o R eport that Parenting Education

M akes it E as ie r to Attend C o lle g e ................................................................................111
13. Single M others W h o R eported that Availability of
Child C a re M a k es it E as ie r to Attend C o lle g e ...........................................................114
14. N um ber of Child C a re S ervices Single M others
Report that M a k e it E as ie r to Attend C o lle g e ...........................................................115
15. Single M o th ers Estim ate A verag e G ra d e s ...............................................................118
16. Single M o th ers G rad e Im provem ent Due
C am p u s Child C a r e ........................................................................................................ 120
17. N um ber of S em esters Beyond O n e S e m e s te r .......................................................121
18. Credits E arned by Single M others at C urrent
C om m unity C o lle g e ...........................................................................................................123
19. Significant C o rre la tio n s .................................................................................................... 144
2 0. C om parisons of F ad ale and W in te r and
N C C C C S tudy Findings.................................................................................................... 155
1
CHAPTER I
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Although there is great diversity in the e xperien ces of w om en around th e
world, all w om en face com m on problem s and obstacles that a p p e a r to
vary m ore in d eg ree than in substance. T h e shared nature of th ese
obstacles to w o m e n s econom ic e m p o w erm en t m a ke s them global hum an
rights issues. (N icholas-C asebolt, Krysic, & H e rm ann -C urrie, 1 99 4 , p. 2 3 )
Background of the Problem

Millions of qualified students h ave not had access to higher education.
This is not only a personal loss, potentially curtailing earning pow er and
intellectual developm ent, but a loss to society as a w hole (Q uigley & Bailey,
2 0 0 3 ). T h e effects of this loss can be observed in the ranks of fe m a le students,
including single m others, w ho h ave not achieved their acad em ic goals, degrees,
or c are e r dream s (Houghton, 2 0 0 2 ; P olakow , 1993; Ritze, 1 99 6 ). Single w om en
live in the other A m erica and beco m e disenfranchised, disem pow ered, and
with no civic voice (P olakow , 1 99 3 , p. 172).
T h e com m unity college higher education m ovem ent has been dedicated
to an open-door policy of access to all regardless of socioeconom ic status, race,
religion, or gender. For d e ca d e s com m unity colleges have provided a m ajor
p athw ay for w om en to e n te r higher education (Tow nsend, 199 9 ). Four significant
2
historical events h ave led to the com m unity college m ovem ent and g re ater higher
education access (C ohen & B raw er, 2 0 0 3 ; Q uigley & Bailey, 2 0 0 3 ):
1. T h e 1 86 2 and 1 8 9 0 Morrill Acts or Land G rant Acts g ave im petus to
public-supported universities in every state. T h e s e universities
exp a n d e d access to public higher education by providing lower-cost
courses in a w ider range of fields than did private universities. C ourses
such as te a c h e r training attracted a g re ater variety of people previously
excluded from higher education (C o hen & Braw er, 2 0 0 3 ).
2. Joliet Junior C ollege, which opened in 1901, served as a m odel for
accessible higher education to all regardless of socioeconom ic status,
race, religion, or gender.
3. T h e 1 9 4 4 passage of the G l Bill of Rights provided financial assistance
to all veterans of W orld W a r II for the pursuit of education regardless of
socioeconom ic status, race, religion, or gender.
4. T h e Koos Com m ission initiative in 1 9 4 7 included the expansion of
access to higher education through the establishm ent of a netw ork of
public com m unity colleges that charged little or no tuition to m en and
w om en in need (A m erican Association of C om m unity C olleges, 200 2 ;
C o h en & Brawer, 2 00 3 ; Q uigley & Bailey, 2 0 0 3 ).
O n e focus of the presidency of H arry Trum an w as to help veterans
returning from W orld W a r II and to train those w ho had fought to preserve
dem ocracy. O n e of the acts of this adm inistration w as the creation of the Koos
3
C om m ission. T h e report of this com m ission had a strong im pact on A m e ric a s
dem ocratic tradition by m andating an o p en-door policy to higher education
through com m unity colleges (C o hen & B raw er, 2 0 0 3 ; Q uigley & Bailey, 2 0 0 3 ).
T h e report outlined the im plem entation of the p e o p le s college, which w as
charged with providing financial assistance to com petent students through the
14th grade. T h e Koos Com m ission charged colleges to m a ke higher education
accessible to all without regard to race, creed, sex, or national origin (P re sid e n ts
C om m ission on H igher Education, 194 7 ).
During the s am e p o st-W o rld W a r II period (1 9 4 5 -1 9 5 6 ), the num bers of
w om en entering college and attending com m unity college increased. Solom on
(1 9 8 5 ) suggested that junior or com m unity colleges b e ca m e the forced choice of
w om en w ho w an ted to attend college, b e cau se the senior colleges and
universities did not w ant them . D ue to the G l bill and the subsequent large influx
of m en into higher education, w om en as a group had limited access to senior
colleges and universities. W o m e n w ho pursued serious acad em ic studies did so
in a mostly m ale educational environm ent (S olom on, 1985).
W hile it w as true that w om en w ere n eed e d to take the place of m en in the
workforce during both world w ars and w ere offered varied types of advanced
training and professional opportunities, postw ar peacetim e brought educational
and em ploym ent setbacks for w om en (S olom on, 1 985). For four d e ca d e s after
W orld W a r II w om en struggled against the popular belief that they should not be
ed ucated and hold jobs that once belonged to m en.
4
In the 1960s the civil rights m ovem ent strengthened the w o m e n s rights
m ovem ent and further encou raged w om en to e n te r the realm s of education and
em ploym ent. A m ilestone during this period w as the inclusion of Title V II in the
1 96 4 Civil Rights Act, m aking sexual, racial, and religious discrim ination illegal in
th e w orkplace (Solom on, 1 98 5 ). This ruling encou raged and supported w om en
on cam puses in their pursuit of education that would prepare them to e n te r the
w orkforce. In the late 1 96 0 s and early 1 97 0 s undergraduate w om en gained
representation on faculty com m ittees and m ad e their opinions count on curricular
issues as well as social concerns on cam puses (S olom on, 1985).
By the 1 98 0 s m ore w om en w ere enrolled in colleges and universities than
w ere m en (Laden & Turner, 1995; Pearson, Shavlik, & Touchton, 1 9 8 9 ). This fact
has changed the role of colleges and universities, which for m any years now
have had to pay attention to the special needs of w om en as caregivers of
children. It is this idea that guides the research in this study.
T h e Koos C om m issions m an d ate rem inds com m unity colleges today of
th e roots of access to a college education in this nation. C om m unity colleges
w ere charged by the Koos Com m ission to actualize the principles of diversity and
unity. According to Q uigley and Bailey (2 0 0 3 ), each institution and local, state, or
fed eral ag ency w as exp ected to contribute to and sustain diversity and unity in its
own w ay. C om m unity college leaders w ere exp ected to a g ree on certain
com m on objectives that could serve as a stimulus and guide to individual
decisions and actions related to the operation of com m unity colleges. This idea
5
of com m on diversity and unity focuses the objectives of the com m unity colleges
and has been a repeated th e m e for researchers (C o hen & Braw er, 200 3 ;
Houghton, 2 0 0 2 ; Q uigley & Bailey, 2 00 3 ; Purnell, Blank, Scrivener, & S eu p ersad ,
200 4 ; R hoads & V a la d e z, 1996; Tw om bly, 1 99 3 ), w ho h ave discussed the
equitable and fair access of students to the inner circle of com m unity college
education as an im portant com m on objective.
R hoads and V a la d e z (1 9 9 6 ) posited that leaders in all levels of the
organization must hold the vision of inclusion and m ake a com m itm ent to the
practice of dem ocracy, which calls for com m unity colleges to com e to term s with
issues of gender, culture, socioeconom ic status, fam ily, and w ork life identity
differences. O rgan izational leaders are also responsible for the developm ent of
effective, collaborative, inclusive, and participatory student support service
system s. T h e s e system s ideally em b rac e and fulfill the m ultidim ensional service
needs of all traditional and nontraditional students (R h oads & V a la d e z, 1 9 9 6 ). A
m ore highly diverse student body can be served by im plem entation of a wide
array of flexible institutional support structures such as use of technology, c a re e r
d evelopm ent program s, flexible class schedules, and cam pus child care (Blimling
& W hitt, 1999; H arvey-S m ith, 2 0 0 3 , 2 00 5 ; Kom ives, W ood ard, & A ssociates,
200 3 ; Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, W hitt, & A ssociates, 2 0 0 5 ).
During the m id-20th century, com m unity colleges, like other higher
education institutions, exp erien ced an influx of nontraditional returning students.
C h a n g e s to A m erican cam puses in the 1970s w ere dram atic (K eyes & Boulton,
6
1995). M a n y of th ese ch ang es w ere a result of shifts in the nature of the
Am erican fam ily and the lives of college students. As social trends led to new
opportunities for w om en off cam pus, the nature of on-cam pus program s and
support structures for fe m a le students had to shift as well (Adelstein, S ed lacek, &
M artinez, 1983; K eyes, 1 98 0 ). In an attem pt to em brace the n eeds of m others on
cam pus, child care centers evolved in the 1 980s. C am pus child care program s
w ere im plem ented in addition to the existing laboratory schools; the latter w ere
structured around the purpose of providing environm ents for the study of young
children by college students enrolled in various disciplines. In contrast, cam pus
child care program s w ere initially im plem ented to provide education and care
program s for children w hile their m others w ere engag ed in their own educational
or em ploym ent pursuits on cam pus (Burton & Boulton, 1991; Carlson, 2 00 3 ;
O sborn, 199 1 ).
C oincidentally, this cam pus evolution took place at a tim e w hen the nation
began to focus on child care issues (O sborn, 1 99 1 ). C am pus leaders, keeping in
mind the th e m e of equitable and fair access of students to the inner circle of
com m unity college education, evaluated cam pus program s and identified specific
needs. Program and service m odifications w ere m ad e based on faculty and
student n eeds (Burton & Boulton, 1991; K eyes & Boulton, 1 99 5 ). C am p u s
childrens program s began to function differently from the traditional cam pus
laboratory m odel in several im portant ways: the a g es of children served, the
program hours, and scheduling. W h e re a s the traditional cam pus lab school
program s only served children a g es 3 - 5 on a half-day basis and on a fixed

schedule, the new program s also served infants and toddlers on a full-day basis,
with part-tim e and flex-tim e scheduling to support student-parent school needs
(Burton & Boulton, 199 1 ). C a m p u s child care program s em bodied a new
direction in student support services for student-parent fam ilies (K eyes &
Boulton, 1 99 5 ). C a m p u s child care has been seen as an effective inclusion and
access support structure for fe m a le students that e nhan ces acad em ic success
(Adelstein et al., 1983; F a d a le & W inter, 1988; Ritze, 1996; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ).
S ta te m en t of the Problem
T h e num ber of single m other students has continued to increase since the
1 96 0 s on m any college cam puses (Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ). T h e p ercentage of
u ndergraduates w ho w ere single parents increased from 10% in 1 9 9 5 -1 9 9 6 to
1 3 .3 % in 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 0 (Scott, 2 0 0 1 ; U .S . D ep artm en t of Education, 2 0 0 5 ) Keyes
(1 9 8 0 ) suggested that this increase began in the 1960s and 1 97 0 s as a result of
the w o m en s liberation m ovem ent, which encou raged w om en to s ee k access to
higher education.
T w o studies (F a d a le & W inter, 1988; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ) h ave investigated the
direct linkage betw een cam pus child c are services and student-parent a ca d em ic
success. F a d ale and W in te r focused on the im pact of com m unity college cam pus
child care (C C C C C ) on the acad em ic success of student-parents but did not
include m arital status data; in other words, they did not distinguish betw een
8
m arried and unm arried fe m ales. Triplett highlighted the cohort of African
Am erican student-parents in a study of the im pact of com prehensive cam pus
child c are on a ca d em ic success and student success at the S outhern Illinois
University cam pus child care center. T h e s e researchers suggested the need for
com prehensive exploration of the linkages betw een the acad em ic success of
student-parents and cam pus child care services on college, university, and
com m unity college cam puses (F a d a le & W inter, 1988; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ).
Single m other students live a com plex life as they com bine working and
going to classes with consideration of their childrens w ell-being (R itze, 1996;
Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ). Although single m others across all racial and cultural cohorts
exp erien ce challenges that are shared by other w om en aspiring to reach
aca d em ic goals, single parents have the unique obstacle of going to school w hile
being a parent (R itze, 1996; Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ). T h e com bination of th ese shared
challenges and the unique obstacle faced by single m other students places them
at risk academ ically. M a n y com m unity colleges and baccalau reate institutions in
this country are faced with the challenge of not only educating students but also
providing appropriate student support services, such as child care, for this cohort
of w om en (Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ).
T h e problem that this study ad d resses is the need to determ ine if there is
a significant relationship betw een C C C C C centers and the acad em ic success of
single m others. Single m other students have long been recognized but often
overlooked, at least from a research perspective. R esearch into their child care
9
support needs will likely identify specific key support services that will e n ab le
single m other students to achieve acad em ic success.
P urpose of the Study

T h e purpose of the study is to d eterm ine the significance of the
relationship of cam pus child care centers to the acad em ic success of single
m other students on com m unity college cam puses. T h e study will further
investigate the relationship of child care tuition subsidy, parenting support, and
availability of child care to single m others estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade
im provem ent, sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and credit earned.
R esearch Q uestions
T h e research problem is approached from the perspective of two research
questions that explore the relationship of cam pus child c are centers to the
acad em ic success of single m other students. This study aim s to investigate the
relationship betw een the dep en d en t variable of acad em ic success, with the
indicators (a) estim ated a v e ra g e grade, (b) g rade im provem ent, (c) sem esters of
continued enrollm ent, and (d) e arn e d credits, and the independent variable
cam pus child care services, with the indicators (a) cam pus child care parenting
support--child care tuition subsidy and referral, advising, and parent education
services--and (b) availability of child c are on cam pus, the num ber of parenting
services available, and the num ber of hours single m others h ave child care
10
a vailable for their use . M ore specifically, this study is guided by the following
research questions.
R esearch Q uestion
1:
Is there a correlation betw een child care parenting

support (child care tuition subsidy and referral,
advisory, and parent education services) and
acad em ic success (estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade
im provem ent, persistence--the n um ber of sem esters
of continued enrollm ent, and credits e a rn e d ) for single
mothers?
R esearch Q uestion
2:
R esearch question 2: Is there a correlation betw een

child care availability (child care on cam pus, the
num ber of parenting services available, and the
num ber of hours single m others h ave child care
available for their use) and a ca d em ic success
(estim ated a ve ra g e grade, grade im provem ent,
persistence num ber of sem esters of continued
enrollm ent in college, and credits e arn e d ) for single
mothers?
11
H ypotheses
B ased on the research questions listed above, two null hypotheses w ere
proposed for testing:
H0 1 :
R esearch question 1 H 0 1 : T h e re is no correlation betw een child
c are parenting support (child care tuition subsidy and referral, advisory,
and parent education services) and acad em ic success (estim ated a ve ra g e
grade, grade im provem ent, persistence--the num ber of sem esters of
continued enrollm ent, and credits e arn e d ) for single m others.
H o 2:
T h e re is no correlation betw een child care availability (availability of
child care on cam pus, the num ber of parenting services available, and the
n um ber of hours single m others h ave child care available for their use)
and aca d e m ic success (estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade im provem ent,
persistence num ber of sem esters of continued enrollm ent in college, and
credits e arn e d ) for single mothers.
T h e conclusions of F a d ale and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ), Ritze (1 9 9 6 ), and Triplett

(2 0 0 0 ) suggest that these hypotheses are worth testing for the cohort of
com m unity college single m other students. T h e previous studies focused on the
cohort of student-parents on com m unity college and university cam puses,
w h ereas this study focuses on the cohort of single m other students on
12
com m unity college c a m p u s e s -a cohort that very fe w studies h ave focused on. A
gap in research m ay be filled by extending research to include the realm of
com m unity college single m others.
Theoretical Fram ew ork

R itze (1 9 9 6 ) suggested that persistence, retention, graduation, transfer,
and ultim ately a ca d em ic success for single m other students are im pacted by
structural and environm ental cam pus factors. According to Ritze, on-site child
c are on a cam pus has structural significance and might predict long-term
persistence and influence the socialization process and aca d e m ic success of
single m other students. T h e availability of cam pus child care could affect
students social and acad em ic integration and, in turn, affect long-term
persistence of single m other students. Although research on college student
developm ent dem onstrates that the tim e and energy students devote to
educationally purposeful activities is the best predictor of success, it is also
im portant to understand that students learn m ore effectively in environm ents that
are perceived by students to be inclusive and affirming (H arvey-S m ith , 2 00 3 ; Kuh
et al., 2 0 0 5 ).
Tinto (1 9 9 3 ) theorized that persistence to graduation and subsequent
d eparture from college is directly influenced by a students com m itm ent to
g raduate from a particular institution and to attaining a particular goal. H ow ever,
it has also been postulated that both academ ic and social integration play a
13
significant role in persistence and acad em ic success am ong com m unity college
students, and that student purpose and com m itm ent are greatly influenced by
that integration (H arvey-S m ith, 2 0 0 3 , 2 00 5 ; Kuh et al., 2 0 0 5 ). Tinto (1 9 9 3 )
recognized the im portance of social integration as part of his effective retention
principle, which states that effective retention program s focus on the integration
of traditional and nontraditional students alike into a variety of social com m unities
on the college cam pus. Thus, the realization of effective retention in a com m unity
college m ay be based on the developm ent of program s, such as cam pus
childrens centers, to foster com plete social integration for single m other students
(R itze, 1996; Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ).
C a m p u s childrens centers, as a structural and environm ental student
support service, beco m e part of a central contextual and theoretical overview of
Tin tos student integration theory (R itze, 1996; Tinto, 199 3 ) and a re considered a
significant part of a cam pus structural and environm ental support for studentparents (H arvey-S m ith, 2 00 3 ; Kuh et al. 2 00 5 ; Ritze, 199 6 ). Integration theory as
a retention m odel has been presented by R itze to address the topic of
nontraditional student persistence and aca d e m ic success through the direct and
indirect im pact of on-site child care on the acad em ic success of single m other
students, including graduation and transfer to other colleges. This study
proposes to extend R itze s use of integration theory to explore a ca d em ic
success, as defined by estim ated a ve ra g e grade, grade im provem ent, sem esters
of continued enrollm ent, and earn ed credits for single m others.
14
C onceptual Fram ew o rk of the Study
T h e conceptual fram ew ork provided a guide to investigate the two
research questions. Figures 1 depicts the relationship betw een the variables.
Independent Variables
Campus Child Care
Services
Dependent Variables
Academic Success
Parenting Support
Tuition Subsidy
Referral Services
Advisory Services
Parent Education
Estimated Average
Grade
Child Care Availability

Availability of child care on
campus
Number of Services
Number of hours mothers use
child care services
Parenting Support
Tuition Subsidy
Referral Services
Advisory Services
Parent Education
Grade Improvement

campus
Number of services
Number of hours mothers
use child care services
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the relationship of community college campus child

care centers to the academic success of single mothers
15
Conceptual Framework of the Study (Continued)
Independent Variables
Campus Child Care Services
Dependent Variables
Academ ic Success
Parenting Support
Tuition Subsidy
Referral Services
Advisory Services
Parent Education
PersistenceNum ber of semesters of

enrollment beyond one
sem ester

campus
Num ber of services
Num ber of hours mothers
Parenting Support
Tuition Subsidy
Referral Services
Advisory Services
Credits Earned
Parent Education

campus
Num ber of services
Num ber of hours mothers
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the relationship of community college campus child

care centers to the academic success of single mothers
16
V ariab les
T h e dep en d en t variable to be investigated in this study is academ ic
success, with the following indicators: (a) estim ated ave ra g e grade, (b) grade
im provem ent, (c) persistence --sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and (d)
earned credits. T h e independent variable in this study is cam pus child care
sen/ices with indicators: (a) cam pus child care parenting s u p p o rt- child care
tuition subsidy; and referral, advising, and parent education services, and (b)
availability of child care on cam pus, the num ber of parenting services available,
and the num ber of hours single m others have child care available for their use.
In this study estim ated a v e ra g e g rade is an operational variable that
describes the a v e ra g e grades for single m others in fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 . Child care
tuition subsidy is available from tw o m ajor subsidy program s: (a) state hum an
services child care subsidies, which are disbursed through local social sen/ices
departm ents to help low -incom e fam ilies defray som e or all of the costs of
purchasing care from child care providers (A d am s & Snyder, 2 0 0 3 ); and (b) the
federal Child C a re Access M e a n s P arents in School (C C A M P IS ) program , which
supports the participation of low -incom e parents in postsecondary education
through the provision of cam pus child c are services (U. S. D epartm ent of
Education, 2 0 0 5 ).
Parenting support services are provided by child care cen ter directors and
teachers. Child care cen ter staff refers parents to educational, parenting, and
fam ily resources on cam pus and in the com m unity; offer advising on parenting
17
issues and problems; and provide training in parenting skills developm ent
(F a d a le & W inter, 1 988).
Child C a re Availability is availability of child care on cam pus, the num ber
of parenting services available, and the num ber of hours single m others have
child c are available for their use. Hours of availability m ay be expressed in the
num ber of hours, days, w eeks, and m onths a child care cen ter is open for
operation. This is the availability of service parents can count on for support
when they h ave classes, work, or need to study (Carlson, 2 0 0 3 ).
O th er baseline variables to be included in the study are the socio-educational
factors of age, ethnicity, incom e, and em ploym ent.
Significance of the Study

This studys research focus attem pts to expand know ledge of how
C C C C C services are related to levels of aca d e m ic success for single m other
students. T h e study could reveal inform ation related to the im pact of the current
inequitable societal treatm ent of African A m erican single m others leaving w elfare
(E ubanks, 2 0 0 4 ). Inform ation from this study m ay be used to provide data for
advocacy initiatives related to w elfare reform and its im pact on the lives of
nontraditional fe m a le students (E ubanks, 2 0 0 4 ; Folbre, 2 00 1 ; Polakow , 1 99 3 ).
T h e higher education com m unity is likely to find the results of the research
helpful in theoretical and m ethodological discussions related to postsecondary
attrition and persistence of nontraditional fe m a le students (Adelstein et al., 1983;
18
B ean & M etzn er, 1985; C a b re ra , Nora, & C a s te n e d a , 1 99 3 ). T h e results m ay
contribute to further know ledge about the linkages betw een student integration
and attrition, educational attainm ent, fam ily life, and econom ic success,
particularly with reference to poor, single m others (R itze, 1 99 6 ).
A fe w researchers (Boswell, 2 0 0 3 ; C arlson, 2 00 3 ; Kyle, C am pion, &
O g den, 1 99 9 ) h ave suggested that higher education institutions are facing
internal issues related to the continuation of cam pus child care as budget
constraints increase. T h e results of this study m ay be im portant to cam pus child
care cen ter adm inistrators w hen trying to defend the existence of and save
im portant program s or to im plem ent new program s that support student-parents.
T h e findings could support expansion of cam pus child care services overall and
specifically for fe m a le students (Burton & Boulton, 1991; Carlson, 2 0 0 3 ; K eyes &
Boulton, 199 5 ).
O n a political and advocacy level, this study m ay provide information
im portant to initiatives that influence policym akers at local, state, and federal
levels to continue to support w elfare reform s, educational reforms, and im portant
higher education subsidy and grant program s such as C C A M P IS (M arx, 2 00 2 ;
Triplett, 2 00 0 ; W h ite, 2 0 0 1 ). It is further possible that this study will give voice to
single m other students. It m ay prom ote further study of single m other students
and lead to e n h an cem en ts of support program s for these w om en . Finally, the
findings m ay contribute to a d e e p e r understanding of the educational, econom ic,
political, societal, and em ancipation issues that are relevant to single m others
19
and their children in our country and around the world (H oughton, 2 00 2 ;
N icholas-C asebo lt et al., 1994; Polakow , 1993; Ritze, 199 6 ).
S co p e and Limitations
It w as assum ed that cam pus child care centers would h ave available the
longitudinal data necessary to an sw er survey questions regarding the parental,
socioeconom ic, and acad em ic success status of previous and current single
m other students. A limitation is that th ese data w ere not alw ays readily available.
It w as assum ed that the cam pus child care center director participants
would be objective in reporting longitudinal data related to the relationship of
C C C C C centers to the aca d e m ic success of single m others. It w as assu m ed that
single m others would be honest in self-reporting and relating the facts of their
perceptions and e xperien ces with cam pus child care.
Lim itations of the study include the fact that the research sam ple w as
limited to a select set of 108 cam pus childrens centers located on the cam pu ses
of com m unity colleges that are m em bers of the National Coalition for C am p u s
C h ildrens C enters. This is only a sm all representation of the 1 ,1 5 8 com m unity
colleges nationw ide (Phillippe & Sullivan, 2 0 0 5 ). This m ay m ean that the results
of the study cannot be g en eralizab le to the larger higher education com m unity,
other com m unity colleges, or b a ccalau reate institutions.
T h e tim e fram e of the study is 2 0 0 4 -2 0 0 6 . This places a fiv e-se m e ster
p a ram e te r on the data collection and does not allow for a longer longitudinal
20
p erspective of the significance of the relationship betw een and am ong the
variables. Lastly, the g en d er and m arital status limitation of the study narrows the
findings to single fe m a le students and m ay prohibit generalization of findings to
m arried or m ale students.
Definition of T e rm s Used in the Study

For the purposes of clarity and consistency, the following key term s are
defined:
A cadem ic success: T h e dep en d en t variable in this study, with the following
indicators: (a) estim ated a ve ra g e grade, (b) grade im provem ent, (c)
sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and (d) earned credits.
Availability of child care: Child care includes the existence of child care on
cam pus, the num ber of parenting services available, and the num ber of
hours single m others have child c are available for their use. This num ber
consists of the num ber of hours, days, w eeks, and m onths that a cam pus
child care cen ter is open for operation (Carlson, 2 0 0 3 ).
C am p u s child care centers: Child care centers that are located on com m unity
college cam puses (K eyes, 1 98 0 ).
Child c are tuition subsidy: Tw o m ajor subsidy program s will be considered in this
study: (a) state hum an services child care subsidies that are disbursed
through local social services departm ents to help low -incom e fam ilies
defray som e or all of the costs of purchasing care from child care
providers (A d am s & Snyder, 2 0 0 3 ); and (b) the federal C C A M P IS

program , which supports the participation of low -incom e parents in
postsecondary education through the provision of cam pus child care
services (U. S. D ep artm en t of Education, 2 0 0 5 ).
C o m prehensive child care: Child care centers that include parenting support and
fam ily support services as well as educational program s and nurturing for
children enrolled (Kinch & Schw einhart, 1998).
Correlation: A statistical technique used to m easu re and describe a relationship
b etw een tw o variables (G ra ve tter & W a lln au , 2 0 0 4 ).
D ata: M e a su re m e n ts or observations (G ra ve tter & W allnau, 2 0 0 4 ).
E arned credits: T h e num ber of credits a single m other has earn ed w hile taking
classes at her current com m unity college
Estim ated a v e ra g e grade: T h e operational term used for this study that describes
a single m others a v e ra g e grades for fall sem ester 2 0 0 6 .
G rad e im provem ent: Indicates w h eth er or not a single m others g rades im proved
w hile her child w as enrolled in the cam pus child care center.
G raduation: R eceiving a deg ree or certificate for com pletion of an aca d e m ic or
w orkforce developm ent program (Tinto, 1993).
Nontraditional student: A financially independent student w ho attends school part
tim e, works full tim e, delays enrollm ent after high school, has depen dents,
is a single parent, or does not h ave a high school diplom a (U .S .
D ep artm en t of Education, National C e n te r for Educational Statistics,
2002 ).
Parenting support services: Parenting support services provided by child care
cen ter directors and staff to refer parents to com m unity and cam pus
resources for educational, parenting, and fam ily support; advise parents
on parenting issues and problem s; and train parents through form al
parenting skills developm ent education (F a d a le & W inter, 1 98 8 ).
Persistence: Having an enrollm ent status of being registered in a higher
education acad em ic program or institution for m ore than one s em ester
(F a d a le & W inter, 1988; Ritze, 199 6 ).
S em esters of continued enrollm ent: T h e actual num ber of sem esters that a
single m other has attended the com m unity college she w as enrolled in for
fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 .
Single m other student: A fe m a le student w ho is a single/ lone/ o n e-p aren t fam ily
head of household primarily responsible for parenting the children
(H anson, Heim s, Julian, & S ussm an, 199 4 ).
Socio-educational variables: Baseline and operational variables to be included in
the study, including factors of age, ethnicity, incom e, and em ploym ent.
Traditional student: O n e w ho is betw een ages of 18 and 22 and lives on or n ear
the cam pus, has few nonacadem ic responsibilities, is supported by
som eone other than him- or herself, has tim e to attend classes full tim e,
possesses a d eq u ate study skills, has fe w outside responsibilities, and
23
m ay not be in school for job or professional training (H o o p er & M arch,
198 0 ).
S um m ary
T h e scope of this study is grounded in the objective of the com m unity
co llege--the equitable and fair access of students to the inner circle of com m unity
college education (A m erican Association of C om m unity C olleges, 2 0 0 2 ; C ohen &
B raw er, 2 0 0 3 ; Q uigley & Bailey, 2 0 0 3 ). M oreover, the com m unity college is
charged with delivering support services that ensure the integration and
persistence of both traditional and nontraditional students (Blimling & W hitt,
1999; H arvey-S m ith, 2 0 0 3 ; Kom ives et al., 2 0 0 3 ; Rhoads & V a la d e z, 1 99 6 ),
D em ocratic issues in higher education related to the idea of inclusion are
as real today as they w ere during the tim e of the Koos Com m ission (C o hen &
Braw er, 2 0 0 3 ; Frye, 1995; G illett-K aram , 1995; G illett-K aram , R oueche, &
R oueche, 1991; Q uigley & Bailey, 2 0 0 3 ; Rhoads & V ala d e z, 1996; Tw om bly
199 3 ). Single m other students n eed special support through structural and
environm ental accom m odations that ensure access and persistence. This study
of the relationship of cam pus child care to the acad em ic success of this student
cohort is significant to all discussions of structural and integration theory and
support for all students (R itze, 1996; Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ). T h e following literature
review will extend the ideas set forth in this introduction and explore a num ber of
24
additional lenses through which the a ca d em ic success of single m others can be
view ed for the purpose of this study.
25
C H A P T E R II
R E V IE W O F T H E L IT E R A T U R E
T h e need to provide data on the relationship of com m unity college
cam pus child care to the acad em ic success of single m other students guides the
literature review in this chapter. S ince the 1 96 0 s the num bers of single m others
have continued to increase on m any college cam puses. T h e com plex life of
th ese students--w ho work, go to school, and raise children--is a topic worthy of
study. This population has often been overlooked from a research perspective
(Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ).
T h e goal of this chapter is to describe issues related to aca d e m ic success
in higher education, including those that are unique to single m other students.
T h e following a rea s of study related to single m other students are review ed:
1. the history of cam pus childrens centers (Boswell, 2 0 0 3 ; Carlson, 2003;
O sborn, 1991);
2.
general issues related to w om en in higher education (Feiger, 1991;

G illigan, 1982; Gittell, 1986; K eyes, 1980; K eyes & Boulton, 1995;
L aP aglia, 1994; Long & Blanchard, 1991; Thom as, 2 00 1 ; W im bish,
B um phus, & Helfgot, 1995);
3. the challenges that single m other students face and barriers to

persistence and academ ic success (C e n te r for W o m e n Policy Studies
[C W P S ], 2 00 2 ; Eubanks, 2 0 0 4 ; G oldberg, 2 00 2 ; Hanson, H eim s,
Julian, & S ussm an, 1994; H o o p er & M arch, 1980; L eC o m p te &
26
Dworkin, 1988; Marx, 2 0 0 2 ; M athur, Reichle, Straw n, & W iseley, 2 00 4 ;
Ritze, 1996; S chobert, 2 0 0 0 ); and
4.
program s that prom ote educational opportunities for w om en, especially

single m others (Boressoff, 2 00 5 ; C W P S , 200 2 ; Eubanks, 2 00 4 ;
G oldberg, 2 00 2 ; Loprest & Zedlew ski, 1999; M arx, 2 0 0 0 ; M athur et al.,
2 00 2 ; Purnell, Blank, Scrivener, & S eup ersad , 2 0 0 4 ).
This review also includes the sem inal research on the im pact of cam pus
child care that serves as the foundation of this study (F a d a le & W inter, 1988;
K eyes, 1980; Ritze, 1996; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ) and the proposed m ethodology for the
study.
History of C am p u s C hildrens C enters

A review of the history of cam pus childrens centers provides a context for
th e issues exam ined in this study. T h e evolution of early care and education
centers on cam pus began with program s designed primarily to serve as
laboratory sites for early childhood te a ch e r training. T h e first cam pus childrens
program dates back to the lab school at the University of C hicago opened in
1 8 9 6 by the educational pioneer John D e w ey (O sborn, 1 991).
C a m p u s program s continued to provide te a c h e r training and parent
education during the 1 920s. In the 1 93 0 s and 1 94 0 s these cam pus laboratory
settings exp an d ed and enco m passed the em erg e n c y nursery schools of the
Depression and W orld W a r II. During the 1 95 0 s and 1960s early childhood
27
program s and laboratory schools focused on educational research spurred by the
studies of Bloom (1 9 5 6 ), B runer (1 9 6 0 ), Hunt (1 9 6 1 ), and P iaget (1 9 65 ); this
research acknow ledged the im pact of poverty on m any fam ilies. T h e civil rights
m ovem ent prom pted cam puses to design program s to assist poor children and
their fam ilies (C arlson, 2 0 0 3 ; K eyes & Boulton, 1995; O sborn, 1 991).
T h e 1 97 0 s brought dram atic chang e to college and university cam puses.
T h e num bers of nontraditional students increased, w o m e n s issues w ere raised,
and the student activism that w as born in the 1 9 6 0 s continued. T h e s e
developm ents supported the ad va n c em e n t of cam pus childrens centers, which
m oved beyond the research and training mission of the laboratory schools to
child care support program s for faculty, staff, and students. S ince the 1 97 0 s
cam pus childrens centers h ave taken on the role of serving nontraditional
students and attracting and retaining staff and faculty. W h e re laboratory schools
h ave not existed on cam puses, child care program s have provided educational
support for te a c h e r training, observation, and research (C arlson, 2 00 3 ; K eyes &
Boulton, 1995; O sborn, 1991).
M a n y cam pus changes w ere a result of shifts in the nature of the
Am erican fam ily and the lives of college students. As social trends led to new
opportunities for w om en off cam pus, the nature of on-cam pus program s and
support structures for fe m a le students had to shift as well (Adelstein, S ed la c ek , &
M artinez, 1983; K eyes, 1 980). Coincidentally this cam pus evolution took place at
a tim e w hen the nation began to focus on child care issues (O sborn, 199 1 ).
28
C am pus leaders, keeping in mind the th em e of equitable and fair access of
students to the inner circle of com m unity college education, e valu ated cam pus
program s and identified specific needs.
P rogram and service m odifications w ere m ad e based on faculty and
student needs (Burton & Boulton, 1991; Keyes & Boulton, 1 9 9 5 ). C am p u s
childrens program s began to function in new w ays that differed from the
traditional cam pus laboratory m odel in several im portant ways: the a g es of
children served, the program hours, and scheduling. W h e re a s the traditional
laboratory school program s only served children ages 3 -5 on a half-day basis
and on a fixed schedule, the new program s also served infants and toddlers on a
full-day basis, with part-tim e and flex-tim e scheduling to support student-parent
school needs (Burton & Bolton, 1 99 1 ). T h e s e expanded child care services
e nh an ced inclusion and access support structures for w om en as they pursued
acad em ic goals (Adelstein et al., 1983; F a d ale & W inter, 1988; R itze, 1996;
Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ).
At the beginning of the 2 1 st century the num ber of cam pus childrens
centers w as growing to m eet the needs of diverse student and faculty
populations. T h e need for th ese program s had increased b ecau se of a steady
increase in the num bers of fe m a le faculty and students on A m erican cam puses
(Boswell, 2 0 0 3 ; Carlson, 2 0 0 3 ). T h e p ercentage of full-tim e faculty w ho w ere
fe m a le rose from 2 2 .5 % in 1 97 5 to 3 6 % in 2 0 0 0 -2 0 0 1 (A m erican Association of
University Professors, 2 0 0 1 ). T h e percen tag e of undergraduates w ho w ere single
29
parents increased from 1 0 % in 1 9 9 5 -1 9 9 6 to 1 3 .3 % in 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 0 (Scott, 2 00 1 ;
U .S . D epartm ent of Education, 2 0 0 5 ). In 2 0 0 2 th e re w ere 2 ,5 0 0 cam pus child
care centers serving approxim ately 4 ,0 0 0 colleges and universities (Boswell,
2 0 0 3 ). T h e 2 0 0 2 m em bership survey of the N ational Coalition for C a m p u s
C h ildrens C enters (N C C C C ), a support and advocacy organization, revealed
that 1 9 ,2 6 6 children attended N C C C C cam pus program s, and 9 2 % of those
atten d ees w ere children of students (Boressoff, 2 0 0 2 ).
C am p u s childrens centers h ave fit into the com m unity college cam pus in
a w ay that is unique to each cam pus and its political environm ent. Although it
m ay be difficult for so m e higher education adm inistrators to understand the need
and value of childrens centers on their cam puses (Boswell 2 0 0 3 ; Keyes &
Boulton, 1 99 5 ), th ese centers have flourished and becom e part of the cam pus
service fabric and cam pus culture (Carlson, 2 0 0 3 ).
Child care services for faculty, staff, student, and com m unity parents have
been provided in a m yriad of ways: all-day, half-day, hourly, evening, w ee k en d ,
infant, toddler, preschool, and schoo l-age care in any com bination (Carlson,
2 0 0 3 ). S o m e program s are sm all, serving 1 0 -2 0 children; others serve 3 0 0 or
m ore children. Institutions have designed their program s to m eet the particular
n eeds of the cam pus that they serve (Bosw ell, 2 0 0 3 ; Carlson, 2 00 3 ; K eyes &
Boulton, 1 99 5 ). T h e s e centers h ave supported the academ ic success of all
student-parents for d e ca d e s and have especially assisted w om en in reaching
30
their a ca d em ic goals (Adelstein et al., 1983; F a d a le & W inter, 1988; Ritze, 1996;
Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ).
G en era l Issues R elated to W o m e n in H igher Education

T h e general higher education issues that w om en face are discussed in
relation to: (a) enrollm ent and w o m e n s participation in higher education
(Adelstein et al., 1983; Feiger, 1991; Gittell, 1986; K eyes, 1980; Keyes &
Boulton, 1995; LaP aglia, 1994; Long & Blanchard, 1991; T hom as, 2 00 1 ;
W im bish et al., 1995); (b) the neglect of w om en in com m unity college research
and publications (Tw om bly, 1993; G illett-K aram , 1989; s ee also G illett-K aram ,
R oueche, and R oueche, 1991); and (c) theories related to the developm ent of
adult fe m a le students and their specific cam pus needs (Feiger, 1991; Gittell,
1986; K eyes, 1980; Keyes & Boulton, 1995; LaP aglia, 1994; Long & Blanchard,
1991; W im bish et al., 1995).
Participation
S ince 1970, w o m e n s undergrad uate enrollm ent has increased at least
twice as fast as m e n s. In 1 97 8 their enrollm ent num bers surpassed those of m en
(Adelstein et al., 1983; Feiger, 1991; Gittell, 1986; K eyes, 1980; Keyes &
Boulton, 1995; LaP aglia, 1994; Long & Blanchard, 1991; T h o m as, 2 00 1 ;
W im bish et al., 199 5 ). W o m e n s undergraduate enrollm ent is expected to
continue to increase at a fa s te r rate than m e n s (R o o n ey et al., 2 0 0 6 ). In 1997,
31
w om en m a d e up 5 5 % of undergraduate students and alm ost 5 8 % of students in
th e com m unity college student body. About half of the fe m a le student population
w as adult w om en a g e 2 5 years or older (Thom as, 2 00 1 ; W h ite, 2 0 0 1 ). T h e high
enrollm ent of adult fe m a le students in com m unity colleges is due in part to the
fact that com m unity colleges are view ed by m any single m other students as a
good place to further their education, ach ieve g re ater econom ic security, and
reach a better standard of living for them selves and their children (H erideen,
1 998).
In The Condition o f Education 2006, R ooney et al. (2 0 0 6 ) show ed that
since 1 98 2 w om en have earn ed a g re ater num ber and proportion of b achelors
d eg rees than m en. In 2 0 0 3 -2 0 0 4 w om en earn ed 5 7 % of all bachelors degrees,
and in 2 0 0 5 6 1 .4 % of all w om en a g es 2 5 - 2 9 had com pleted at least som e
college; 3 2 % of this sam e ag e category com pleted bachelors degrees.
Research Gaps
Long and Blanchard (1 9 9 1 ) stated that although w o m e n s participation in
higher education continued to grow through the early 1 990s, much of the wellknown research and publications concerning com m unity colleges and students
(e.g., Astin, 1988; C ohen and Braw er, 1987; Cross, 1971; Nora, 1993;
Richardson and Bender, 1 98 7 ) neglected to consider the specific issues of
fe m a le students. G ap s in literature about com m unity college w om en w ere further
confirm ed by a literature review conducted by Tw om bly (1 9 9 3 ). This review
32
pointed out the fact that college research articles published betw een 1 9 7 0 and
1989 did not reflect an interest in com m unity college fe m a le students. Tw om bly
(1 9 9 3 ) and G illett-K aram (1989; s ee also G illett-K aram , R oueche, and R oueche,
199 1 ) urged com m unity college researchers to not only address w o m e n s issues
in com m unity colleges but also focus research on the intersection of g e n d e r and
ethnicity for a look at the status of minority fe m a le students in com m unity
colleges.
Developm ental Issues

In the 1 97 0 s and 1980s the w aves of w om en enrollees forced com m unity
colleges to develop program s and services for w om en (Feiger, 1991; Gittell,
1986; K eyes, 1980; Keyes & Boulton, 1995; LaP ag lia, 1994; Long & Blanchard,
1991; W im bish et al., 1 995). In the developm ent of these program s and services,
som e colleges w ere guided by theories related to the developm ent of adult
fe m a le students. A sem inal work w as G illigans In a Different Voice (Gilligan,
1982; s ee also G illigan, 1 9 8 7 /
G illigans research focused on the m oral developm ent of adult w om en and
w as founded in the developm ental works of Erikson (1 9 6 4 ), P iaget (1 9 6 5 ), and
especially Kohlberg (1 9 8 1 ). Eriksons theory explained how hum an developm en t
and psychology w as intertwined with sociology, politics, and life histories (Evans,
Forney, & G uido-DiBrito, 1 99 8 ). P iaget studied only m ale students and related
insights only to m ale m oral developm ent.
33
K ohlbergs theory of moral developm ent related to the cognitive or thinking
d evelopm ent of people and specifically to how people m a ke m oral judgm ents.
His theory of m oral developm ent stated that people progressed in their moral
reasoning through a series of six stages, which could m ore generally be
classified in three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.
Kohlberg believed that m ost adults did not progress past the conventional stage,
which is oriented to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of duty.
As people progressed through th ese levels of developm ent, Kohlberg believed
that m oral developm ent w as solely a transform ation in a persons thinking and
thought structures of w hat w as right and w hat w as wrong (E van s et al., 199 8 ).
Gilligan believed that w om en reach the s am e moral developm ent level as
do m en, but that w om en reach this level according to a concept of care and
connection rather than Kohlbergs concept of law and duty, which solely related
to thought structure transform ation. According to Gilligan (1 9 8 7 ), each g en d er
arrives at an understanding of justice and care from different, albeit equal,
processes. T h e m ale voice observed by Gilligan (1 9 8 2 ) w as a patriarchal voice of
justice based on equality, fairness, and reciprocity, which treated individuals as
s ep arate and independent of one another. T h e fe m a le voice observed by Gilligan
w as a voice of care that w as relational and implied an orientation of individuals
being attached to one another. From th ese observations Gilligan suggested that
w o m a n s m otives, m oral com m itm ents, psychological growth, and points of view
differed from those of m en.
34
G illigans theory of fe m a le developm ent focused on fe m a le relational
orientation and b e ca m e a basis for the developm ent of appropriate support
services for adult w om en on cam puses (W im bish et al., 1 9 9 5 ). T w o other studies
of w om en in the com m unity college also used Gilligan as their model; th ese w ere
studies on the leadership of w om en by G illett-K aram (1 9 8 9 ) and D esjardins
(1 9 8 9 a , 1 989b ). G illett-K aram looked at fe m a le and m ale com m unity college
presidents in the early 1980s and found that the Gilligan m odel w as a good tool
to learn about differences in leadership styles. D esjardins had been responsible
for helping to develop a w o m e n s m ovem ent within the A m erican Association of
Junior and C om m unity C olleges (A S J C C ), now the Am erican Association of
C om m unity C olleges. S h e and her c o lle a g u e s -M ild re d Bullpit, Eileen Rossi, and
other W e s t C o ast fe m a le com m unity college le a d e rs -w e re am ong the organizers
of the A m erican Association of W o m e n in C om m unity and Junior C olleges
(A A W C J C ). D esjardins sat on the board of directors as the liaison for the
A A W J C C National Institute for Leadership D evelopm ent. T h e ir w ork in the
com m unity college culture supported fe m a le leaders and students alike
(A m erican Association for W o m e n in C om m unity Colleges, 2 0 0 6 ).
M a n y student affairs personnel used G illigans theory as a fram ew ork for
understanding how adult fe m a le students m ad e m eaning out of the cam pus
environm ent and how they learned on cam pus (Kuk, 1990). G illigans theory of
w o m e n s developm ent describes three stages, which instructed student affairs
personnels understanding of fe m a le students: (a) orientation and individual
35
survival, w hen w om en primarily took care of them selves; (b) goodness and truth,
w hen w om en took care of others and them selves; and (c) m orality of
nonviolence, w hen w om en cared about others and them selves through equality
betw een self and others (G illigan, 1 9 8 2 ). Gilligan believed it to be im portant for
student affairs personnel to understand w hat w om en felt through th ese stages of
d evelopm ent in order to break down barriers to persistence for adult fe m a le
students. K om ives, W o o d ard , and Associates (2 0 0 3 ) suggested that G illigans
w ork pointed to fe m a le students p reference for relational involvem ent on cam pus
as opposed to a m ore justice-rights, m ale-oriented approach to student affairs
program s and services.
T h e w ork of F ad ale and W in te r (1 9 9 1 b ) further suggested that student
persistence on cam pus could be linked to relational and interpersonal
characteristics of cam pus support structures. S tudent perceptions of the cam pus
environm ent being positive and engendering a sense of relational belongingness
a p p ea re d to be an im portant com ponent of student persistence (F a d a le & W inter,
1 9 9 1 a ). As a result of these findings, program s and services w ere d eveloped that
facilitated w o m e n s self-concept through g ender-related counseling, cam pus
structures based on relationship developm ent, and a w eb of inclusion
philosophy of student developm ent that supported a sense of belongingness
(Belensky, Clinchy, G oldberg, & T aru le, 1986; Chickering & Reisser, 1993;
F a d ale & W inter, 1991a; H elgesen, 1995; Rogers, 1989).
36
C h allen g es Facing Single M o th er Students and
Barriers to P ersistence and A cadem ic S uccess
Investigations of fe m a le com m unity college students in the late 1 98 0 s and
1990s found that they actively m a d e thoughtful academ ic plans (LaP aglia, 1 994).
Studies (Feiger, 1991; Gittell, 1 98 6 ) revealed w o m e n s m ultiple roles to be
com plex and challenging as they balanced fam ily and social expectations with
the com m itm ent of attending college. Student-m others discussed difficulties of
juggling the role of student with the m any responsibilities of m otherhood (Feiger,
1991).
T h o m a s (2 0 0 1 ) exam ined the m otives, obstacles, and support system s of
reentry college w om en, ag e 2 5 and over, attending a w o m en s college. T h e
results of the study led to identification of specific educational barriers of African
Am erican reentry w om en and confirm ed the trem endous growth of nontraditional
fe m a le students on college cam puses in the early 21st century. T h e study
show ed that educational institutions w ere being forced to reexam in e their goals,
philosophies, and program s regarding the influx of fe m a le students. R itze (1 9 9 6 )
posited that w hile the structure of fam ily life had changed substantially, the
structures of the educational environm ent had not. Solutions to the m a n ag e m e n t
of work, school, and fam ily responsibilities w ere at an individual and idiosyncratic
level, not at a cam pus structural solution level (R itze, 1996).
T h o m a s suggested that the fa c e of reentry w om en at the turn of the 21st
century w as quite different from the fa c e on cam puses in the 1970s, w hen
37
w o m en on cam pus w ere predom inantly W hite, m iddle-class housew ives in their
mid to late 3 0s with som e college education. In the early 2 0 0 0 s reentry w om en
w ere m uch m ore diverse ethnically, socioeconom ically, and educationally. M any
w ere first-generation college students, and a growing num ber w ere African
Am erican (Thom as, 2 0 0 1 ).
R esearch shows that w om en have consistently expressed conflict
betw een school and fam ily (Adelstein et al., 1983; Astin, 1976; B allm er & C ozby,
1981; D iN u zzo & Tolbert, 1981; G eis ler & Thrush, 1975; Hersh, 1980; Ritze,
1996; S chobert, 2 00 0 ; T h o m as, 2 0 0 1 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). T h o m a s (2 0 0 1 ) and W h ite
(2 0 0 1 ) suggested that the blending of school and fam ily is a particularly
challenging act for reentry college w om en. T h e new culturally diverse cohort of
nontraditional adult fe m a le students has often experien ced a disproportionate set
of situational challenges and barriers to persistence (Benshoff, 1991; Houghton,
2 00 2 ; Schobert, 2 00 0 ; T hom as, 2 0 0 1 ). T h e y h ave com m only faced m ultiple
noncollege com m itm ents and responsibilities, including the roles of single head
of the household, m other, worker, fam ily financial m anager, and fam ily caretaker.
In addition they h ave frequently exp erien ced lack of support from friends and
fam ily, lack of classroom peers their age, and limited social acceptability on
cam pus for their student status (Benshoff, 1991; Richter-Antion, 1986; Terrell,
1990).
T h e challenges and barriers for reentry African A m erican fe m a le students
h ave been particularly difficult (Ferguson, 1992; Tinto, 1 99 3 ). Role conflict and
38
role overload have been m ajor obstacles for African Am erican fe m a le students.
In a study of 147 adult fe m a le students (Thom as, 2 0 0 1 ), 7 4 % indicated that they
felt conflict b etw een having and raising children and continuing their educations.
S o m e m others perceived child care w hile they w ere in classes as helpful. Most
m others perceived taking care of their children to be a full-tim e job and disliked
th e idea of having som eone raise their children w hile they w ere in school and
studying. H ow ever, th ese m others also identified institutional support barriers as
including financial costs, lack of financial assistance, and the lack of child care or
lack of a d eq u a te child care on cam pus (G arcia, 1987; T hom as, 2 0 0 1 ).
D im ensions of stress experien ced by the nontraditional adult fe m a le
student w ere discussed by W h ite (2 0 0 1 ) and H erideen (1 9 9 8 ). T h e students
reentry m ay h ave occurred after a stressful life-changing experien ce. M a n y adult
w om en return to college after a job loss, divorce, death of a spouse, children
leaving the nest, or c are e r limitations due to lack of education (Johnson,
Schw artz, & Bower, 2 0 0 0 ; M ohney & Anderson, 1 98 8 ). W h ite (2 0 0 1 ) said that
th ese exp erien ces m ay increase the cam p u s-related stress felt by adult fe m a le
students.
T h e act of balancing fam ily responsibilities in addition to c are e r or job
dem an d s and roles of m otherhood m ay lead to discom fort or feelings of guilt
about adopting the additional role of student (H erideen, 1 9 9 8 ). In H e rid e e n s
study, the guilt and stress w ere felt despite the fact that m ost m others indicated
that a prim ary motivation for enrolling in school w as to im prove their lives for the
39
benefit of their children. If a fe m a le student added to that scenario being a single
m other, the student stress w as likely to increase.
Tinto (1 9 7 5 ) suggested that nontraditional students enrollm ent and
persistence w ere highly im pacted by a students pre-college experiences,
attributes, and com m itm ents. T h e s e experien ces, attributes, and com m itm ents
likely im pact an individuals level of stress. G arcia (1 9 8 7 ) observed that
nontraditional, predom inantly fe m a le student populations identified external
factors such as financial problem s, fam ily disputes, and child care needs as
m ajor obstacles to persistence.
In a study of 3 5 0 adult fe m a le students, Johnson et al. (2 0 0 0 ) found that
8 4 % of the w om en w ere responsible for children in their hom e. T h e s e w om en
considered child care availability as one of their m ost pressing concerns. T h e
w ork of th ese researchers corroborated the belief that child care facilities on
cam pus offer a highly valuable persistence support resource for th ese students
(K eyes, 1980; F a d ale & W inter, 1988, 1991a; Ritze, 1996; T h o m as, 2 00 1 ;
Triplett, 2 00 0 ; W h ite, 2 0 0 1 ).
O th e r researchers h ave described various persistence factors for single
m other students. O n-cam pu s and off-cam pus factors for single m others and for
w om en in general are intertwined and represent a com plex grid of hurdles that
m any single m other students must o vercom e in order to access and persist in
higher education (Adelstein et al., 1983; Astin, 1976; B allm er & C ozby, 1981;
D iN u zzo & Tolbert, 1981; Hersh, 1980; Schobert, 200 0 ; T hom as, 2 00 1 ; W hite,
40
2 0 0 1 ). Although G illigans theory provided a foundation for cam pus system s that
h ave the potential to support a sense of belongingness and b reak down barriers
for single m other students (F a d a le & W inter, 1 99 1 b ), these system s h ave been
lacking on m any cam puses, and off-cam pus resources and support h ave not
alw ays been available (Adelstein et al., 1983; Ritze, 1996; Schobert, 2 00 0 ;
Thom as; 2 00 1 ; W h ite, 2 0 0 1 ).
Campus Support Structures

Gittell (1 9 8 6 ) and LaP aglia (1 9 9 4 ) found that a ca d em ic success of w om en
w as due to program s and college support services that lessened the burdens of
everyd ay life. S o m e of the program s and services that positively im pacted the
success of fe m a le students w ere availability of financial aid, peer-group support
system s, m ore flexible class scheduling, and on-cam pus child care. Laden
(1 9 9 4 ) found that successful com pletion of aca d e m ic goals w as m ore likely for
minority low -incom e w om en who received financial aid, participated in support
program s, received child care support, and w ere offered extended child care
hours.
Gittell and S teffy (2 0 0 0 ) found that as the 2 1 st century daw ned, w om en
and other com m unity college students w ere still facing the sam e challenges
related to m oney, work, school, and fam ily responsibilities that fe m a le students
faced in the 1 98 0 s and 1990s. In a study of L a G u ard ia C om m unity C ollege (N e w
York) students w ho had left the institution, 5 4 % of the students interview ed listed
41
their m ain reasons for leaving college as lack of m oney, problem s with financial
aid, w ork responsibilities, increasing personal and fam ily financial needs, being
o verw helm ed, and ultim ately being unable to balance family, work, and school
responsibilities (Gittell & S te ffy ,2 0 0 0 ). Although both m en and w om en cited
financial issues as the prim ary reason for leaving college, w om en included
pregnancy as a part of their financial struggle. Gittell and S teffy identified
additional financial burdens for w om en related to pregnancy and the lack of
affordable child care either at LaG u ard ia or off cam pus as reasons for w om en
leaving college.
In a study at the University of M aryland, Adelstein et al. (1 9 8 3 ) looked at
the underlying dim ensions, needs, and characteristics of returning fe m a le
students. T h e study w as conducted at a tim e w hen cam pus environm ents w ere
not alw ays supportive of w om en and cam pus support program s w ere being
developed without input from returning adult fe m a le students. D em ographic data
and data related to dem ographics and cam pus psychological and program
support needs w ere collected from 2 8 8 diverse returning fe m a le students, ages
2 5 -5 0 . T h e goal of the study w as to identify fe m a le students needs for cam pus
support so that university leaders might understand them and plan m ore
effectively to m eet those needs. T h e study identified several dim ensions,
underlying characteristics, needs, and concerns of returning w om en , including
th e following concerns:
42
1. W o m e n w ere concerned with establishing cohesive peer-support
system s through w orkshops, counseling, advising, and special
returning w om en program s.
2. W o m e n with older children at hom e w ere concerned about conflicts of
their student role with parenting responsibilities and about coping with
guilt.
3. W o m e n with young children w ere concerned with arranging child care
outside of the hom e, general d em ands of child care, guilt at not being
able to cope better or spend m ore tim e with their children, and guilt
about not spending m ore tim e on cam pus.
4.
W o m e n had acad em ic concerns related to needs for basic skills,

refresher courses, a ca d em ic skills, counseling, study space, test
anxiety, tim e m a n ag e m e n t, and acad em ic advising support.
As a result of the study, Adelstein et al. (1 9 8 3 ) suggested that cam puses

plan program s and cam pus service structures, such as child care, to accom plish
specific objectives for specific groups of returning fe m a le students, rather than
provide general program s aim ed at all returning w om en.
G iven the large num ber of fe m a le students who are responsible for
children, providing a safe place for children w hile the m others are on cam pus
could alleviate som e to the stress of going to school for adult w om en (Carlson,
2 00 3 ; F a d ale & W inter, 1991a; Ritze, 1996; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). Alleviating child care
stress as a concern could provide additional access, integration, and
43
encou ragem en t for this population to persist in their academ ic pursuits. F a d ale
and W in ter (1 9 9 1 a ) studied 5 0 0 com m unity college students, 9 5 % of whom w ere
fem ale, and found that cam pus child care program s had contributed not only to
th e acad em ic success of students but also to their continued enrollm ent and
persistence.
Like A delstein et al. (1 9 8 3 ), W h ite (2 0 0 1 ) recom m ended cam pus support
services that m eet the specific and unique needs of nontraditional fe m a le student
populations. T h e s e students a p p e a r to need support services and counseling
that differ from those of traditional students (Adelstein et al., 1983; Ritze, 1996;
Schobert, 2 00 0 ; T h o m as, 2 00 1 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). T h e increased stressors
challenges, and additional responsibilities of reentry w om en call for unique
services on cam pus, such as (a) instruction in relaxation techniques and stress
m an ag em en t, (b) c a re e r d evelopm ent and vocational counseling, and (c)
provision of a safe place for children w hile the m other is on cam pus. B ecause
com m unity colleges have been the principal higher education resource for
reentry w om en and because this population is a big portion of the com m unity
college student body, W h ite (2 0 0 1 ) recom m ended that com m unity college
cam puses provide structural support services and program s uniquely designed to
m eet the needs of this student cohort, to ensure that fem ale students are
encouraged to persist until they m eet their aca d e m ic goals. T h e following section
of this review describes socioeconom ic characteristics and issues related to
persistence and acad em ic attainm ent.
44
Socioeconomic Factors
Education is a key ele m e n t of the A m erican dream , because a college
education is a m ajor pathw ay to econom ic self-sufficiency and social flexibility for
m any in the United S tates (C o h en & B raw er, 2 0 0 3 ; Q uigley & Bailey, 2 0 0 3 ).
T od ay, a college d e g ree is a m ajor key to unlocking the door to econom ic
success. C a rn e v a le and D esrochers (2 0 0 2 ) suggested that postsecondary
education is no longer an option but rather a basic job requirem ent. This is
especially true for w om en because w om en in our society earn less than m en who
have achieved less educationally (D a y & N ew burger, 2 0 0 2 ). T h e low -incom e
socioeconom ic status of single m other students has had a negative im pact on
their ability to gain access to and persist in com m unity colleges nationw ide
(C W P S , 200 2 ; Gittell, 1986; Gittell & Steffy, 2 0 0 0 ; H ooper & M arch, 1980; Laden,
1994; LaP aglia, 1994; Terenzini, C a b re ra , & Bernal, 200 1 ; T hom as, 2 0 0 1 ; W h ite,
2 0 0 1 ).
Financial factors and socioeconom ic status have specifically been
identified as barriers to persistence for all low -incom e students, including single
m other students (C W P S , 2 0 0 2 , 2 0 0 6 ; Gittell, 1986; Gittell & Steffy, 2 00 0 ; Laden,
1994; LaP aglia, 1994; T hom as, 2 00 1 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). For exam ple, Gittell and
Steffy found that 3 1 % of students w ho left L a G u ard ia Com m unity C ollege before
com pleting their acad em ic goals did so because of issues with m oney, problem s
with financial aid, and the need to focus on work.
45
In 2 0 0 4 the C e n te r for W o m e n Policy Studies (C W P S ) reported that
3 4 .9 % of fe m a le students are low incom e. C om m unity college and b a ccalau reate
schools alike h ave identified single m others as predom inantly low -incom e
students (Terenzini et al., 2 0 0 1 ). T h e ir low -incom e status m ay have originated
from a chang e in socioeconom ic support and econom ic need to enroll in college
d ue to divorce, becom ing w idow ed, or loss of em plo ym ent (Huff & Thorpe, 1 99 7 ).
Alm ost two thirds of low incom e w om en with children attended an institution that
w as 2 years or less than 2 years, com pared with 4 8 .9 % of all fe m a le students
(C W P S , 2 0 0 4 ).
M ore than one half (5 9 .1 % ) of low -incom e independent fe m a le students
are parents, and 3 9 .6 % are m ore likely to be single parents com pared with all
fe m a le students (2 5 .9 % ). Am ong low -incom e African A m erican w om en 6 2 .3 %
are likely to be single parents, follow ed by Latinas (4 5 .1 % ), A m erican Indian and
N ative A laskan w om en (3 6 % ), W h ite w om en (3 0 .1 % ), Pacific Islander and N ative
H aw aiian w om en (2 1 .6 % ), and Asian Am erican w om en (2 0 % ) (C W P S , 2 0 0 4 ).
T h e percentage of single parents and single m others in the United S tates
has grown since 1970. In 1 9 7 0 9 out of 10 fam ilies (9 0 % ) w ere head ed by two
parents and 10% w ere h e ad e d by single parents (G lass & R ose, 1 99 4 ). As the
2 1 st century daw ned 7 5 % of fam ilies w ere h ead e d by two parents and 2 4 % w ere
h ead ed by single parents; 6 6 % of the single-parent fam ilies w ere head ed by
w om en (U .S . Bureau of the C ensus, 2 0 0 1 b ). In 1 9 7 0 3 7 .1 % of poor fam ilies w ere
h ead e d by single mothers; in 2 0 0 5 5 2 .8 % of poor fam ilies w ere head ed by single
46
m others (U .S . Bureau of the C ensus, 2 0 0 5 ). In the 1980s and 1 99 0 s the poverty
rate for single m others increased rapidly, and by 1 9 9 5 two thirds of all adults
living in poverty w ere w om en with children (Huff & Thorpe, 1 99 7 ). In 2 0 0 4
w om en w ere the m ajority (5 9 % ) of the approxim ately 1 6.5 million undergraduates
in U .S . postsecondary educational institutions; 3 4 % of those w om en w ere lowincom e postsecondary students with personal or fam ily incom es of less than
$ 2 5 ,0 0 0 (U .S . D epartm ent of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2 0 0 4 ).
Single m other heads of households have been living with financial
challenges for d e cad es (K am erm an & Kahn, 1988; U .S . Bureau of the Census,
2 0 0 5 ). T h e unique characteristics of this cohort of postsecondary students
require attention by policy m akers as they develop higher education policy
(C W P S , 2 0 0 4 ).
K ag er and S to esz (1 9 9 4 ) found that upon enrollm ent in college the
ave ra g e single m other had two children, received little or no child support,
w orked at least part tim e, or w as receiving Aid to Fam ilies with D e p en d en t
Children (A F D C ). According to the C W P S (2 0 0 4 ), little has changed for these
m others since the m id -1 99 0 s as our country attem pted to reform the w elfare
system . Traditionally, most low -incom e fe m a le students h ave w orked as they
have struggled to m ake it financially. D espite the fact that returning to school has
been seen as a positive decision by low -incom e w om en, their lives h ave been
m arginally supported and they h ave m aintained a shaky financial balance over
m any d e cad es of poverty (K ag er & S toesz, 1 99 4 ). H o w ever tenuous the financial
Al
situation has been for single m others and their fam ilies w hen they h ave sought a
college d eg ree, the pursuit of education has s ee m e d like a reasonable step
tow ard m oving out of poverty for th ese w om en (Huff & Thorpe, 1997; K a g e r &
S toesz, 1994; Law rence & Bernstein, 1993; T h o m a s, 2 0 0 1 ).
It has been typical for th ese w om en to take longer to com plete their
postsecondary education because of w ork and child care responsibilities (C W P S ,
2 0 0 4 ). P ersistence has been difficult for th ese students despite the fact that
m any possess all of the requisite skills, talents, and abilities (H oughton, 2 0 0 2 ).
Single m others h ave frequently ended up as m em bers of the working poor class
instead of pursuing higher educational endeavors and contributing to society
(Houghton 2 0 0 2 ). Bolm an and Deal (1 9 9 2 ) and others (C W P S , 2 0 0 2 ; Polakow ,
1993; Ritze, 1 99 6 ) suggested that poverty exacts a high price and leads
ultim ately to econom ic failure for individuals and society. T h e socioeconom ic
status of single m others has perpetuated the fem inization of poverty, a state
w here w om en and children have been disenfranchised and disem pow ered and
their civic voice silenced (P olakow , 1 9 9 3 ). Prevention or reversal of this state of
poverty and socioeconom ic failure for single m other students m ay begin by
rem oving barriers to access, persistence, and ach ievem en t of acad em ic success
(C W P S , 2 00 2 ; Houghton, 2 00 2 ; Polakow , 1993; T hom as, 2 0 0 1 ; W h ite, 2 0 0 1 ).
48
W elfare Reform
Loprest and Zedlew ski (1 9 9 9 ) believed that low -incom e w om en and their
children deserve the s am e higher educational access and persistence support
that scores of m en and som e w om en enjoyed at the end of W orld W a r II through
the Gl bill. W e lfa re reform should assist low -incom e, single m other h eads of
households through training and higher education academ ic program s to reach a
goal of self- sufficiency (C W P S , 2 0 0 2 ). H ow ever, the 1 99 6 T em p o rary
A ssistance for N e e d y Fam ilies (T A N F ) w elfare reform program severely
restricted the college opportunities of m ore than 5 6 % of w o m en receiving public
assistance w ho w ere high school graduates, had earned G E D s , or had attended
som e college (C ox & Spriggs, 2 00 2 ; Kahn & Polakow , 2 0 0 0 ; Loprest &
Zedlew ski).
W e lfa re, a program in which the governm ent distributes benefits to
im poverished persons to en ab le them to m aintain a m inim um standard of w ell
being, has been a controversial issue throughout the history of the United S tates
(R odgers, 1 98 8 ). Prior to the G rea t D epression of the 1 930s, state and local
governm ents generally took m inim al responsibility for assistance to the poor.
B ecause responding to the extrem e levels of poverty during the D epression w as
beyond the capacity of local and state governm ents, the N e w D eal of President
Franklin D. Roosevelt introduced federal initiatives to assist states in m aintaining
a m inim um standard of living for all (R odgers, 198 8 ).
49
B etw een the 19 3 0 s and the 19 50 s , federal program s w ere established
that provided additional w elfare benefits, including m edical c are (M edicaid),
public housing, food stam ps, and S upplem ental Security Incom e (S S I). From the
1 960s through the 1980s, criticism of public w elfare grew to the point w here
w orkfare program s w ere being im plem ented to m ove people a w a y from
governm ent d e p en d en cy to the w orkplace. T h e 1 99 0 s paved the w ay for radical
ch ang es in federal w elfare law, with P resident W illiam J. Clinton signing the
Personal Responsibility and W o rk O pportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996,
generally known as the W e lfa re Reform Act. This bill elim inated som e federal
w elfare program s, placed perm anent ceilings on the am ount of federal funding
for w elfare, g a ve each state a block grant of m oney to help run its own w elfare
reform program s, and m andated each state to create a new w elfare plan that m et
new federal criteria. U n d er the new criteria federal funds could be used to
provide a total of only 5 years of aid in a lifetime to a fam ily (C W P S , 2 00 2 ;
G oldberg, 2 0 0 2 ).
S ince 1996, w hen w elfare law established T A N F , block grant d a ta have
been collected that described the characteristics of fam ilies receiving cash
assistance and the characteristics of the fam ilies that are successful in finding
and keeping jobs (C W P S , 2 00 2 ; G oldberg, 2 00 2 ; M athur et al., 2 0 0 4 ). Findings
of T A N F research vary by state b ecau se the T A N F block grant passed by
C ongress in 1 9 9 6 g ave states flexibility to help low -incom e parents m ove into
em ploym ent w hile satisfying a w eekly w ork requirem ent.
50
S o m e states allow ed parents as m uch as 18 to 2 4 months of education
and /o r training for em plo ym ent preparation; others allow ed only 3 months.
S tates also varied in the num ber of hours a w e e k that T A N F parents w ere
required to w ork in addition to attending educational or training program s. S o m e
required 2 4 -3 2 hours; others had program s w here com m unity college classroom ,
laboratory, and classroom work hours counted tow ard the w eekly w ork
requirem ents for T A N F student-parents (the California W o rk O pportunity and
Responsibility to Kids [C a lW O R K s ] program ) (C W P S , 2 00 2 ; G oldberg, 2 00 2 ;
M athur et al., 2 0 0 4 ).
T h e effects of restrictions on higher education opportunities m ay be seen
in the following exam ples: (a) T h e City University of N ew Y ork (C U N Y ) reported a
drop in w elfare recipient enrollm ents of 7 7 % (Applied R esearch C enter, 2 00 1 );
(b) 15 M assachusetts com m unity colleges reported a 4 6 % drop in w elfare
recipient enrollm ents b etw een 1 9 9 5 and 1 9 9 7 (K ates, 1998); and (c) 7 M ichigan
colleges reported drastic declines, with one reporting a 6 0 % d e cre a se and others
in the state showing declines of up to 5 0 % in w elfare recipient enrollm ent (Kahn
& Polakow , 2 0 0 0 ).
In 2 0 0 2 , the H ouse and S e n a te passed the Personal Responsibility, W ork,
and Fam ily Prom otion Act, which reauthorized T A N F funding for an additional 5
years. This bill increased the m inim um w ork requirem ent for recipients by 5 % per
year. T h e increase in w ork requirem ents supported the federal goal of states
having 7 0 % of their recipients working by fiscal 2 0 0 7 . T h e bill continued to fund
51
child c are and increased child care funding by $ 5 .5 billion (C W P S , 2 0 0 2 ). T h e
n ew bill limited vocational educational training to 12 months for any individual
and excluded postsecondary education that would perm it an individual to earn a
b achelors or advanced d e g ree (C W P S , 2 0 0 6 ).
T h e C W P S (2 0 0 2 ) suggested that the provision in the 2 0 0 2 bill limiting
vocational educational training to 12 m onths ignored significant evidence that the
investm ent in postsecondary education perm anently m oves w om en and their
fam ilies from w elfare to jobs with c a re e r opportunities. Postsecondary education
has been known to lead w om en out of poverty into progressively higher paying
positions with benefits (C W P S , 2 0 0 2 ), and m any believe that the im portance of
postsecondary education in poverty reduction cannot be overestim ated (C W P S ,
2 00 6 ; G oldberg, 2 00 2 ; M a th u r et al., 2 0 0 4 ; R itze, 1 99 6 ). T h e 2 0 0 0 U .S . C ensus
(U .S . Bureau of the C ensus, 2 0 0 1 a ) reported that am ong people living below the
federal poverty level, one third (3 3 % ) h ave a high school diplom a and only 9 .3 %
have a college degree.
W h e re states have used the T A N F block grant to include education and
training for successful w ork placem ent, T A N F has been seen as supporting
independence for w om en (C W P S , 2 00 2 ; G oldberg, 200 2 ; M athur et al., 2 0 0 4 ).
W h e re states have chosen to use the T A N F block grant to simply place
recipients into low -paying jobs for the short term without education or training,
T A N F has been perceived as a barrier to education, independence, and
52
successful w ork placem en t for all w elfare recipients and especially parents and
single m others (C W P S , 2 00 2 ; G oldberg, 2 00 2 ; M ath u r et al., 2 0 0 4 ).
T h e C W P S (2 0 0 2 , 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 0 6 ) suggested that the reported successes of
T A N F , which w ere defined as reductions in w elfare rolls, obscured the facts that
w om en h ave been unable to access higher education opportunities; have been
unem ployed, underem ployed, and m aking m edian hourly w ag es ranging from
$ 5 .3 5 to $ 7 .1 5 per hour in d e ad -en d jobs; and h ave rem ained living in poverty
but off the w elfare roles (D ilger et al., 2 0 0 1 ). In 1 9 9 9 5 2 % of w om en who had left
w elfare lived below the poverty level, and 2 2 % returned to public assistance
(Loprest, 2 0 0 1 ).
Program s T h a t Prom ote Educational

O pportunities for Single M others
O n e response to the econom ic needs of fam ilies h e ad e d by w om en living
in poverty has been the im plem entation of com prehensive program s designed to
provide opportunities to obtain a college education (E ubanks, 2 00 4 ; G oldberg,
2 00 2 ; M arx, 2 0 0 2 ). T h e following discussion review s exam p les of successful
program s that have attem pted to im prove the educational and socioeconom ic
lives of single m others. T h e s e program s have directly supported the educational
en deavors of nontraditional low -incom e parents through access and persistence
support system s and serve as m odels for future effective program s (C W P S ,
2 00 0 ; Eubanks, 2 00 4 ; M arx, 2 0 0 2 ). All of th ese program s h ave attem pted to
53
address not only T A N F recipient independence but also access, persistence
factors, and barriers to w orkforce training and higher education.
Women in Community Developm ent Program

T h e first program review ed is the W o m e n in C om m unity D evelopm ent
(W IC D ) program , a unique B oston-based collaborative effort which has provided
access for low -incom e w om en to higher education (M arx, 2 0 0 2 ). T h e program
w as created in 1 9 9 7 as a collaborative effort of the C ollege of Public and
C om m unity S ervice, a m entoring program called Project H ope, and the W o m e n s
Institute for Housing and Econom ic D evelopm ent. T h e prim ary goal of the joint
venture w as to provide access for low -incom e w om en to a 4 -y e a r college d e g ree
in hum an services or com m unity developm ent. A secondary goal w as to provide
low -incom e w om en with an opportunity to be lifted up and out of poverty through
a com m unity developm ent approach that builds the leadership capacity of lowincom e w om en.
T h e W IC D program w as developed to com bat issues of poverty and
g en d er inequalities. According to M arx (2 0 0 2 ), although w om en h ave m ad e
significant progress in Am erican culture, they are disadvantaged econom ically
and burdened by issues that are not a burden for m en. W o m e n are m ore likely
than m en to assum e em otional and financial child-rearing responsibilities and to
be poor. T h e y are also m ore likely than m en to raise children rather than pursue
a career, and they w ork in low er paying jobs.
54
T h e W IC D program w as led by the W o m e n s Institute, which m anaged the
overall coordination of the initiative, grant writing, supervision, and fiscal
oversight of the program . T h e re w ere no student fe e s for the program ; courses
w ere taught by the W o m e n s Institute staff for free, and grants w ere sought to
cover other student expenses. Each student w as given grant-supported financial
assistance in the form of tuition w aivers, grants to cover student fees, and book
vouchers. T h e program also sponsored individual developm ent accounts w here
financial aid w as given to w om en in a 3:1 m atch agreem en t. T h e grants w ere for
th e purpose of buying hom es, starting businesses, or continuing education. T h e
key services provided by the program included p e er support, aca d e m ic guidance,
job referrals, professional developm ent opportunities, and leadership training.
In an effort to e valu ate the program , interviews w ere conducted to solicit
participant satisfaction and information about the strengths and w ea k n e ss e s of
th e program from the participants. O ve r half of the respondents described
th em selves as very satisfied with the program ; 8 3 % of the very satisfied
participants attained a bachelors d e g ree and graduated; 9 0 % of respondents
indicated that they would like to pursue postgraduate education in som e form;
5 0 % of the g raduates continued their education to attain a m a sters degree; 4 0 %
of participants m aintained their original educational focus throughout the course
of the program; and 6 0 % of the participants indicated that their original
educational focus had changed to a higher level educational aspiration.
55
T h e evaluation (M arx, 2 0 0 2 ) affirm ed the success of the W IC D program in
assisting low -incom e w om en to access higher education, to com plete degrees,
and to find em ploym ent. T h e majority of the participants found the program
supportive, em pow ering, and highly responsive. T h e program w as com plim ented
first and forem ost for the large num ber of highly talented g raduates w ho would
not have otherw ise had an opportunity to achieve a college d eg ree. T h e only
m ajor participant w ea k n e ss fe e d b ac k focused on the lack of financial resources
for the program to support the e xp en se of child care and transportation for
participants. Having young children and working full tim e rem ained difficult
despite the strength of the program s.
C alW O RKs
C a lW O R K s w as established in 1 9 9 7 as C alifornias version of w elfare
reform and w as funded with the federal block grant. T h e program w as a
collaborative effort with the 108 com m unity colleges statew ide, which delivered
education and training program s to T A N F parents. T h e s e parents w ere allow ed
to apply 32 w eekly hours of education and training tow ard the federally required
3 2 w eekly hours of w ork (M ath u r et al., 2 0 0 4 ).
E ach recipient received 6 0 months of assistance to (a) work; (b)
participate in 1 8 -2 4 months of w elfare-to-w ork activities, including education and
training; and (c) give back to the com m unity through a com m unity service project.
Each individual w elfare-to-w o rk plan included attendance at one of C alifornias
56
1 08 com m unity colleges. In 2 0 0 0 , 2 8 % of all C alifornia adult T A N F recipients
participated in attending one of th ese colleges. T h e s e participants w ent to school
while m aintaining a job in the w orkforce for up to 3 2 hours w eekly or counted
educational participation tow ard their w ork exp erien ce requirem ent. T h e student
support services for recipients enrolled in the com m unity colleges included child
care, w ork study opportunities, com m unity service coordination support, job
d evelopm ent advising, and job placem ent. T h e C alifornia com m unity college
system had 100 cam puses with on-site child care available (M ath u r et al., 2 0 0 4 ).
A research study com pared C a lW O R K s fe m a le students with traditional
fe m a le students w ho w ere perceived to be m ore privileged. T h e goal of the study
w as to d eterm ine how em plo ym ent and earnings of previous w elfare recipients
com pared over tim e with those of other college students. T h e study show ed that
th e m ore education a C a lW O R K s student-parent had, the higher the em ploym ent
rate in the 2 years after leaving school. E m ploym ent w as higher for vocationaltechnical d eg rees and certificates than for nonvocational d e g ree s and
certificates. C a lW O R K s students w ere tw ice as likely to be em ployed year-round
after attending a com m unity college as before attendance. C a lW O R K s w o m e n s
earnings also grew fa s te r than the earnings of other college w om en in the
com parison study. C a lW O R K s participants, with or without a high school d eg ree,
w ho attended college earned m ore even w hile in school than the general w elfare
population, with or without a high school d eg ree (M ath ur et al., 2 0 0 4 ).
57
Opening Doors
O pening Doors w as a dem onstration project launched by M a n p o w e r
D em onstration R esearch Corporation (M D R C ). T h e project provided for a largescale experim ental evaluation of innovative strategies to help com m unity college
students com plete their d eg ree program s. R esearch on this project exam ined
w hat U .S . com m unity colleges can do to m eet the needs of low -incom e
nontraditional students using a diverse set of guidance, counseling, and other
student support services (Purnell et al., 2 0 0 4 ). T h e supplem ental support
structures investigated include child care, transportation, and book and supply
vouchers.
S o m e com m unity colleges involved in O pening Doors provided on-site
child care. C a m p u s child care typically m et at least part of the students child
care needs. S o m e colleges offered child c are services at nonstandard hours; for
exam ple, L a G u ard ia C om m unity C ollege provided on-site care with S aturday
hours, and the Rock C re e k cam pus of Portland Com m unity C ollege (O regon)
allow ed drop-ins to their evening child care program .
A nother form of child care support available to com m unity college
students w as child care tuition subsidy. T h e Louisiana T A N F grant resources
provided funds to students to cover child care costs while the student-parent w as
attending college classes or training designed to contribute to the process of
moving that student off of w elfare into a successful work p lacem en t situation. O n cam pus child care and child c are subsidy program s supported aca d e m ic success
58
for all student-parents, including low -incom e single m other students (Purnell et
al., 2 0 0 4 ). All of th ese program s contributed to the educational and em plo ym ent
success of m any w om en w ho w ere previously w elfare recipients.
T h e W IC D program , C a lW O R K s , and O pening Doors are e xa m p les of
w ays that local com m unities, agencies, states, and com m unity colleges have
supported low -incom e m others to attain aca d e m ic and em plo ym ent success.
T h e y m odel educational program s that m ight be replicated by others w ho w an t to
support low -incom e students by providing educational program s, m entoring,
financial assistance, econom ic and w orkforce developm ent, p e er support,
counseling, aca d e m ic guidance, job referrals, job placem ent, professional
d evelopm ent opportunities, leadership training, child care support, child care
subsidy, transportation, and other support structures. T h e next section of this
review ad d resses our nations most com prehensive cam pus child care tuition
subsidy program (M arx, 2 00 2 ; M athur et al., 2 0 0 4 ; Purnell et al., 2 0 0 4 ).
Child Care Access M eans Parents in School

Federal funds for cam pus child care tuition and child care program
en han cem en ts w ere m a d e available in 1 9 9 8 through the Child C a re A ccess
M e a n s P arents in School (C C A M P IS ) program . T h e purpose of this program is to
support the participation of low -incom e parents in postsecondary education
through the provision of cam pus child care services. Through this $ 6 0 million
program , colleges h ave been eligible for grants of up to 1% of the institutions
59
Pell G rant dollars aw ard ed to students annually (W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). T h e s e funds have
supported low -incom e students to enroll and rem ain in school and their children
to participate in child care program s conveniently located on the college cam pus
(U. S. D ep artm en t of Education, 2 0 0 5 ).
S ince 1 99 8 th e s e funds have supported 431 colleges and universities to
develop early childhood programs; open new cam pus centers; open new infant,
toddler, and schoo l-age care classroom s; and provide child care tuition subsidy
for Pell G rant student-parents (N C C C C , 2 0 0 4 ). Proponents of this program
believe that cam pus child care program s are at the intersection of two of the
most powerful, cost-effective engines to the e c o n o m y -h ig h e r education and
quality child care. Public assistance recipients w ho attend college are
significantly m ore likely to leave w elfare perm anently. W h e n cam pus child care is
conveniently available, low -incom e students are m ore likely to graduate in fe w e r
years, h ave a higher grade point averag e, and dem onstrate higher rates of
persistence and graduation. Knowing that their children are cared for and
ed ucated in a quality c a re -b a s ed childrens program appears to support their
a ca d em ic success (Boressoff, 2 0 0 5 ).
D espite the apparent success of th e s e w elfare reform program s, it is
possible that th ese types of program s will not be ab le to continue b ecau se of the
provisions of the 2 0 0 2 reauthorization of T A N F . W h e n states do not support
m ore than 12 m onths of vocational educational training or do not allow
60
postsecondary education activities to count toward work requirem ents,
participants m ay simply m ove into poverty-level em plo ym ent (C W P S , 2 0 0 2 ).
R esearch on the Im pact of C am p u s Child C a re

on P arental A cadem ic S uccess
This section reviews th e sem inal works that are the foundation of the
proposed study and that provide a historical context of cam pus child care
research. T h e scholarly literature also includes studies on the related topics of
cam pus child care and cam pus support for fe m a le students, but the works
described here dem onstrate research in the specific a re a of cam pus child care
and its relationship to student-parents.
T h e foundational w ork of Keyes (1 9 8 0 ) identified the educational and
service features of cam pus child care in a study of 19 N e w York m etropolitan
a re a universities. Ritze (1 9 9 6 ) investigated on-site cam pus child care as a
cam pus support structural solution for the com plexities of fam ily life. S h e studied
the impact of on-site cam pus child care on the persistence of poor, urban,
minority populations of nontraditional students.
T w o studies specifically investigated the relationship of cam pus child care
program s to the acad em ic success of student-parents. T h e com m unity college
setting w as explored by F a d a le and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) in a study of the nontraditional
student classification of student-parents attending 2 4 cam puses of the S tate
University of N e w York (S U N Y ) com m unity colleges. Triplett (2 0 0 0 ) contributed a
61
case study of one universitys com prehensive child care c e n te rs im pact on the
acad em ic success of student-parents. Triplett (2 0 0 0 ) replicated the F a d a le and
W in ter (1 9 8 8 ) study, with an additional analysis of the survey responses of
African A m erican student-parents to d eterm ine the im pact of com prehensive
cam pus child care on the acad em ic success of this population.
Keyes
T h e purpose of the K eyes (1 9 8 0 ) study w as to describe how cam pus child
care centers in the N ew York m etropolitan a re a w ere designed in term s of
selected educational and service features. K eyes investigated a sam ple of
cam pus child care centers on university and college cam puses. T h e results of
parent interviews show ed that parents used child care centers on cam puses that
e m p h asized service because they need ed custodial care for their children.
P arents suggested the following ch ang es in service: m ore flexibility in hours,
som e additional educational program m ing for the children, and financial changes.
No one in this parent cohort actually asked for additional support services. This
study suggested an em erging m odel of cam pus child care centers beginning in
the early 1 9 8 0 s that m erged two sep a ra te m odels of cam pus childrens centers:
(a) educational laboratory schools and (b) child care services. Keyes
recom m ended that future research include investigations into national cam pus
child care trends to understand parental needs, in order to provide the kind of
cam pus child care services most appropriate to individual cam pus populations.
62
'Ritze
Like A delstein et al. (1 9 8 3 ), Ritze (1 9 9 6 ) w as interested in investigating
cam pus structural solutions for both poor and m iddle-class w om en . Ritze posited
th at w hile fundam ental chang es and structural solutions had been occurring in
fam ily life by the m id -1 99 0 s, structural solutions had not occurred for w om en in
either the w ork or educational environm ents. T h e research of R itze (1 9 9 6 )
specifically focused on one structural solution to the com plexities of fam ily life for
fe m a le students on cam pus on-site cam pus child care arrangem ents.
T h e m ajor concern of R itze (1 9 9 6 ) w as the im pact of on-site cam pus child
care structures and environm ents within the higher education setting on
persistence and acad em ic perform ance of a poor, urban, minority population and
nontraditional student retention. R itze a g ree d with C a b re ra et al. (1 9 9 3 ) that
environm ental factors did not m erely sh ap e college com m itm ents (Tinto, 199 3 )
but influenced the socialization and integration processes of traditional and
nontraditional students in higher education and encou raged persistence. Ritze
(1 9 9 6 ) believed that on-site cam pus child care facilities could offer fe m a le
students multiple m ethods of interacting with faculty, staff, and other students. In
addition to the cam pus role of giving students a depen d ab le, structured source of
child care, child c are services might also im prove poor w o m e n s odds of
persistence (Furstenberg & H ughes, 199 5 ).
T h e study w as conducted at Bronx C om m unity C ollege in N e w York. O n e
part of the research w as based on analysis of enrollm ent and a ca d em ic data
63
from fall 1991 to spring 1 99 4 for a cohort of fe m a le students with dep en d en t
children. T h e total sam ple included 4 5 8 poor, urban w om en with children. T h e
persistence rate w as calculated from all students w ho w ere either still enrolled or
g raduated by spring 1 99 4 . A second d a ta b as e w as a n alyzed that consisted of a
sam ple of 145 fe m a le students with children; the students com pleted a S tudent
E xp erience S urvey in spring 1994. This d a ta b as e included a full-range of
reported characteristics, behaviors, and attitudes of the participants as well as a
sin gle-sem ester persistence m easure. Finally, to en h an ce the m eaning of the
statistical findings from the prim ary and secondary analysis, in-depth interviews
w ere conducted with fe m a le students with children, drop-outs, and graduates.
Results of the study w ere consistent with the expectation of the
researcher. Participation in on-site cam pus child care arrangem ents had a strong
independent im pact on the long-term persistence am ong w om en with children.
P arents reported feeling stress and personal conflict about attending college
while their children w ere young. T h e cam pus child care arrangem ents w ere
preferred by m others because they provided for the childrens education and
psychological developm ent as well as their health and general w ell-being.
T h e descriptive findings pointed to the im portance of a feeling of belonging
that w as generated by cam pus child care participation. R elated to integration,
parents felt as though they belonged not only to the child care cen ter but also to
the college. T h e y a p p ea re d to be socially integrated and fulfilled in the pursuit of
their education.
64
R itze s recom m endations from this study include the need for longer term
assessm en t of the benefits of on-site cam pus child care; further investigation into
th e idea that cam pus child care relates to w elfare reform issues of single parents
of small children, because the study found that cam pus child c are im pacted
highly on a p aren ts ability to com plete asso ciates d egrees or other
technical/training program s; and further investigations that address cam pus child
care centers as structural and environm ental cam pus structures that can
significantly im pact the educational and status attainm ent processes of poor,
urban m others w ho attend com m unity colleges.
Fadale and Winter

F a d a le and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) studied the im pact of cam pus child care
services on the acad em ic success of student-parents at the S U N Y com m unity
colleges. T h e prim ary purpose of the study w as to determ ine the relationship of
th ese cam pus child care services to enrollm ent, persistence, and the acad em ic
success of student parents. For the purposes of this study, acad em ic success
w as defined as com pletion of a degree/certificate program , transfer, or
continued enrollm ent (F a d a le & W inter, 1988, p. iii). Tw o surveys w ere used in
this study: one w as filled out by the directors and staff of the child care centers,
and the other w as filled out by the student-parents. S urvey responses w ere
collected from 2 4 S U N Y com m unity colleges.
65
T h e survey responses suggested a strong relationship betw een the
existence of cam pus child care services and the academ ic success of studentparents. M ore than 8 0 % of the student-parents cited cam pus child care
availability as a very im portant factor in their decision to enroll. Alm ost 6 0 %
indicated that continued college enrollm ent would not have been possible without
cam pus child c are services. A nother 4 6 % identified cam pus child care as a firstpriority factor that facilitated their attending college, and an additional 2 9 .5 %
identified cam pus child care as a second-priority factor in allowing them to attend
college.
Additional categories of cam pus child care supplem ental services w ere
reported: (a) helpful social interactions with p e er student-parents, (b) advisory
role of child c are teachers and directors, (c) assistance in solving parenting
problem s, (d) child care environm ent providing a cam pus hom e base, (e) child
c are parent and child support resulting in parental p e ace of mind, and (f) support
of childrens m aturation and educational growth, which indirectly yet positively
affected student-parent success.
T h e study suggested that student-parents w ere m ore involved in the
educational environm ent and persisted in their educations once they achieved
som e acad em ic success during the first s em e s te r of enrollm ent. A q u arter (2 6 % )
of the student-parents indicated that in subsequent sem esters they add ed m ore
courses and felt m ore integrated into the cam pus. M ore than 8 0 % indicated that
66
cam pus child care services w ere very im portant in helping them m ake decisions
to increase course load and persist to com pletion of their acad em ic goals.
C o m p ared with the general student population of S U N Y com m unity
colleges, student-parents achieved acad em ic success to a significantly greater
e x te n t- approxim ately 2 0 % greater. From 1 9 8 5 to 1988 approxim ately 2 ,4 0 0
student-parents received cam pus child care services from the com m unity
colleges in this study. M ore than 3 3 % received a degree, 3 0 % continued their
education, and m ore than 2 2 % transferred to an other college. Thus, based on
th e study definition of aca d e m ic success cited earlier, m ore than 8 6 % of the
surveyed population of student-parents w as successful.
M ore than 8 1 % of student-parents a g es 2 1 - 4 0 (9 5 % of the study sam ple)
indicated that child care availability w as critical to their decision to enroll. M ore
than 8 7 % of the surveyed student-parents e arn e d an annual incom e of less than
$ 1 5 ,0 0 0 and indicated that cam pus child c are w as im portant to their decision to
pursue higher education. F e m a le student-parents m ad e up 9 6 .2 % of the study
sam ple and e m p h asized child care as an im portant issue for w om en seeking to
im prove their socioeconom ic status through higher education.
F a d a le and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) found that alm ost all (9 8 % ) of the studentparents responding to their survey w ere overw helm ingly com plim entary of the
quality of child care and support given to them and their children. All service
recom m endations regarding cam pus child care given by student-parents w ere
positive and w ere shared in a w ay that affirm ed the current level of services.
67
Triplett
T h e Triplett (2 0 0 0 ) study, which w as a modification of the F a d ale and
W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) investigation, w as designed to determ ine the im pact of cam pus
child c are on the academ ic success of student-parents at S outhern Illinois
University in C arbondale, Illinois. T h e F a d ale and W in te r study suggested that
there w as conclusive evidence of a strong relationship betw een the existence of
cam pus child care services and the acad em ic success of student-parents.
Triplett initiated a sim ilar study on the university cam pus instead of the
com m unity college cam pus and expanded the m ethodology to include a staff and
program director questionnaire, a student-parent questionnaire, and follow -up
interviews of a volunteer sam ple group of participants that included studentparents, staff, and the program director. T h e site for the case study w as one
university cam pus child care center.
In the Triplett study, a ca d em ic success w as dem onstrated using three
factors identified by self-report: cum ulative g ra d e point ave ra g e, retention, and
program com pletion. T h e study confirm ed a positive correlation am ong the
factors. It w as concluded that the analysis of responses provided by studentparents dem onstrated, through their perceptions, that the com prehensive
cam pus child care program had a positive im pact on retention and program
com pletion as indicators of acad em ic success.
T h e conclusion of Tripletts study leads to the need for further investigation
into sen/ices that positively affect a s tudent-parents em otional and social
68
structure; the different needs of African A m erican student-parents com pared with
the needs of W h ite student-parents, particularly in the a rea s of parenting, child
developm ent, and personal counseling; and issues related to increased support
and funding for additional services in com prehensive cam pus child care for
student-parents.
Evidence presented in the findings of the sem inal studies (F a d a le &
W inter, 1988; Keyes, 1980; Ritze, 1996; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ) and other research
(Carlson, 2 00 3 ; Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ) suggested that there is a relationship betw een
com m unity college cam pus child care and the academ ic success of most
student-parents. This proposal suggests that an additional investigation into the
relationship of com m unity college cam pus child care and the a ca d em ic success
of single m other students m ay add unique d a ta to current literature. Furtherm ore,
this information m ay be related to the suggestion that cam pus child care
availability is not only necessary for initial consideration of enrollm ent but also
contributes strongly to persistence, integration, and continued aca d e m ic success
for student-parents in the single-m other cohort (F a d a le & W inter, 1988, 1991a;
1991b; Ritze, 1996; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ).
S u m m ary
S ince increasing minority and nontraditional student access has been a
com m unity college priority for d ecades, m oving that em phasis to persistence
m akes sense: access without persistence ap p ears to benefit no one (F a d a le &
69
W inter, 1991b, p. 1 ).T h e unique history and mission of cam pus childrens centers
and the diversity of program s that have m et the changing needs of studentparents over the past d e cad es provide the background for studying support
structures for single m other students.
T h e significance of socioeconom ic, gender, and persistence factors for
w om en in higher education is key to the developm ent of a fram ew o rk for this
study. G illigans theory adds a perspective of fe m a le students needs for
belongingness and an apparent preference for relational and interpersonal
involvem ent on cam pus that is significant. W ith this foundation for the study and
th e recom m endations of sem inal researchers (e.g., F ad ale & W inter, 1988;
Keyes, 1980; R itze, 1996; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ) it w as possible to view this study
through a w ider lens of the com m unity c o lleg es responsibility to m eet every
students needs through cam pus service and structural support system s (R itze,
1996).
P revious research of the positive im pact of cam pus childrens centers on
th e acad em ic success of student-parents and the apparent paucity of em pirical
d a ta on the relationship betw een cam pus child care and the aca d e m ic success of
single m other students suggest that this study is likely to extend existing
literature. T h e use of quantitative survey m ethodology w as intended to explore
new d a ta through the use of two surveys which w ere m odified replications of the
F ad ale and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) surveys.
T h e rationale for using quantitative research m ethods in this study w as

that the questions and hypotheses of the study required the exam ination of the
relationship of the independent v a ria b le s -p a re n tin g support (child care tuition
subsidy and referral, advising, and parent education services) and child care
availability ( availability of child care on cam pus, the num ber of parenting
services available, and the num ber of hours single m others have child care
available for their use) and the d e pen dent variable, as indicated by estim ated
a v e ra g e grade, grade im provem ent, p e rs is te n c e -s e m e s te rs of continued
enrollm ent, and earn ed credits (Best & Kahn, 2 0 0 3 , Carroll & Carroll, 2 00 2 ;
C resw ell, 2 0 0 5 ; Hinkle et al., 2 0 0 3 ). Furtherm ore, this m ethodology helped to
discover w hat the specific indicators and characteristics of those relationships
w ere (Carroll & Carroll, 2 0 0 2 ).
T h e research design discussed in the following c h ap ter provided unique
d a ta on the relationship of cam pus childrens centers to the aca d e m ic success of
single m other students, a population of higher education students that has long
been recognized but often overlooked in the research a re n a (Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ).
71
C H A P T E R III
M ETHO DO LO G Y
This chap ter describes the research design and m ethodology used for this
study of the relationship of com m unity college cam pus child care (C C C C C ) to the
a ca d em ic success of single m others. It briefly review s the purpose, problem ,
questions, hypotheses, and conceptual fram ew ork being investigated by the
study and outlines:
1.
R esearch design
2.
Setting and participants,
3.
Instrum entation,
4.
Validity,
5.
R esearch procedure,
6.
D a ta analysis, and
7.
Protection of participants.
Single m other students h ave long been recognized but often overlooked in
higher education research. Studies seem to be limited that focus on single
m others and their acad em ic success. This study investigates the relationships
betw een cam pus child care s e rv ice s -re la te d independent v a ria b le s -p a re n tin g
support and child care availability and the d e pen dent variable of acad em ic
success--a single m others estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade im provem ent,
sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and earn ed credits.
72
This focus seem s reasonable because the past several d e ca d e s have
seen the n um ber of single m others increase on m any college cam puses. T h e
p ercentage of undergraduates w ho w ere single parents increased from 1 0 % in
1 9 9 5 -1 9 9 6 to 1 3 .3 % in 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 0 (Scott, 2 0 0 1 ; U .S . D ep artm en t of Education,
2 0 0 5 ). R esearch questions, hypotheses, and conceptual fram ew ork of the study
are related to the findings of previous research investigating the relationship of
cam pus child care to the acad em ic success of student-parents (F a d a le & W inter,
1988; Ritze, 1996; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ).
O th e r variables to be included in the study are the socio-educational
factors of single m other age, ethnicity, incom e, and em ploym ent. T h e s e are
considered baseline control or operational variables for this study.
R esearch Design
A survey design w as used to investigate the correlation betw een C C C C C
centers and the a ca d em ic success of single m other students. T h e quantitative
research m ethodology approach supports the collection of large am ounts of data
with an econom ical expenditure of tim e and m oney. It is also the preferred
m ethod w hen the objective is to g e n era lize and m a ke inferences about a
population by analyzing a large am ount of num eric data (C resw ell, 2 0 0 3 ).
T h e descriptive nature of the survey design provided a quantitative or
num eric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a
sam ple of that population. T h e goal of this descriptive research w as to identify
73
th e basic nature of universal conditions, practices, or attitudes by seeking
accurate descriptions of activities, processes, and personal behaviors related to
cam pus child care centers and the acad em ic success of single m others.
O n e of the reasons for using a quantitative research design is that the
study findings m ight beco m e g en eralizab le (Carroll & Carroll, 2 0 0 2 ; C resw ell,
2 0 0 3 ). T h e findings on the relationship betw een C C C C C program s and the
acad em ic success of single m other students, as revealed in this sam ple of the
m em bership of the National Coalition for C a m p u s C hildrens C enters (N C C C C ),
a p p e a r to be g e n era lizab le to the larger population of com m unity college
m em bers of the N C C C C nationw ide.
T h e survey design w as a m odified replication of a study done by F ad ale
and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) in the S tate University of N e w Y ork S ystem of C C C C C
centers. Tw o surveys w ere used to collect data from (a) directors of C C C C C
centers and (b) single m other students w ho h ave children currently enrolled in
these centers.
T h e rationale for using quantitative research m ethods in this study is that
th e questions and hypotheses of the study require the exam ination of the
relationships betw een variables. This approach is central to being able to answ er
th e research questions and to test the hypotheses through the use of a survey
instrum ent (C resw ell, 2 0 0 3 ). Furtherm ore, it w as a a goal of the study to discover
th e characteristics of those relationships (Carroll & Carroll, 2 0 0 2 ).
74
T h e research problem w as approached from the perspective of two
research questions that explored the relationship of cam pus child care centers to
the acad em ic success of single m other students. This study aim ed to investigate
th e relationship betw een cam pus child care services with indicators: (a) parenting
support--child care tuition subsidy and referral, advising, and parent education
services--and (b) child care a va ilab ility -a va ila b ility of child care on cam pus, the
n um ber of parenting services available, and the num ber of hours single m others
have child care available for their use to a ca d em ic s u c c e s s -e s tim a te d a v e ra g e
grade, g rade im provem ent, sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and earned
c re d its -fo r single m others with children enrolled in C C C C C centers across the
nation. M ore specifically, this study w as guided by two research questions
related to the correlation betw een the independent variables and d epen dent
variable indicators described in chapter I.
Figure 1, conceptual fram ew ork (see chap ter I), depicts the possible
relationships of the independent variable to the dep en d en t variable of the study.
Descriptive statistics w ere applied to each dem ographic, independent, and
dep en d en t variable to d eterm ine frequencies of responses. Each independent
variable w as correlated with each dep en d en t variable indicator to obtain
statistical data that described the correlations betw een the variables. Correlation
statistical testing for all pairs of variables depicted in the conceptual fram ew ork
w as perform ed by the application of bivariate testing and the use of P earson r
(C resw ell, 2 0 0 5 ).
75
Setting and Participants
D a ta w ere solicited from a sam ple of 108 cam pus child care centers
nationw ide that are com m unity college m em bers of the N C C C C . T h e N C C C C is
a nonprofit educational m em bership organization that supports research and
activities affecting college and university early childhood education and service
settings, fam ily and w ork issues, and the field of early childhood education in
general. T h e N C C C C expresses its mission through new sletters, publications,
co nferences, and grants (N C C C C , 2 0 0 6 ). T w o surveys w ere adm inistered in this
study: one for directors of these 108 C C C C C centers and the other for the single
m other students w ho had children enrolled in th ese centers fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 .
Instrum ents
T w o -s ta g e sam pling w as used in this study (N ardi, 2 0 0 6 ). T h e surveys
used to collect data w ere based on those used in the original F a d ale and W in ter
study (1 9 8 8 ): one for cam pus child care center directors and one for single
m other students.
Purpose of Surveys
T h e first stage of sam pling involved the directors of C C C C C centers. T h e
director instrum ent w as designed to obtain longitudinal and current d a ta about
num bers of single m others being served and acad em ic success of single m other
students from fall 2 0 0 4 through fall 2 0 0 6 . T h e second stage of sam pling involved
76
th e single m other students with children enrolled in the C C C C C centers. T h e
single m other student instrum ent w as designed to obtain data on dem ographics,
educational status, factors facilitating college attendance, perceived im portance
of child care cen ter services to college enrollm ent, persistence, and benefits to
m others beyond basic child care services (see A ppendixes A and B). T h e tw ostage sam pling allow ed inferences to be m a d e by two levels of participants
involved in the relationship of the C C C C C centers: the directors of th ese centers
and the single m other students th em selves (N ardi, 2 0 0 6 ).
Pilot o f Director Survey

Although a pilot w as not required for th e s e surveys due to the previous
validity of the original surveys (F a d a le & W inter, 198 8 ), the director survey w as
piloted in O cto b er 2 0 0 6 with a small sam pling of the population of cam pus child
care directors. T h e reason for this pilot w as the research ers concern about the
directors ability to access the longitudinal data required for com pletion of the
survey. T h e director survey (see A ppendix J) w as sent to seven directors of
M aryland cam pus child care centers on O ctober 6, 2 0 0 6 , with the request that
they fill out the survey to the best of their ability with longitudinal data and give
fe e d b ac k concerning the navigation of the Zoo m eran g survey tool. T h e directors
w ere asked to an sw er the following questions:
1.
H ow much tim e did it take to fill out the survey?
77
2. W e re longitudinal enrollm ent and aca d e m ic ach ie v em e n t data
requested readily available for fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 4 through fall s em ester
2006?
3.
H ow did the Zoo m eran g survey tool work?
4.
Directors w ere also asked to m ake recom m endations to im prove the

survey.
Four of the directors returned the surveys. T h re e directors w ere too

o verw helm ed by the com plexity of the survey and chose to not com plete it, but
th ey did m a ke som e com m ents. T h e s e com m ents are included in the following
discussion.
In response to the question on how m uch tim e it took to fill out the survey,
th e four directors w ho filled out the survey said it took m ore than 3 -5 hours to
locate the longitudinal data to fill out the survey. T h e survey alo n e only took
about 3 0 m inutes to com plete. T h o s e w ho did not com plete the surveys expected
it to take a day or m ore to com pile the longitudinal information about past
enrollm ents and acad em ic success of single m others. Directors also said that
th ey did not expect there to be any information in the child care cen ter files or the
college files specifically identifying the single m other student cohort. T h e y simply
g ave up.
In response to the question about availability of enrollm ent and acad em ic
a ch ievem en t data, no directors w ere able to find d a ta on aca d e m ic ach ievem en t
of student parents or single m others. T h re e of the directors w ere able to obtain
78
som e of the longitudinal dem ographic information, but four w ere unable to find
historical dem ographic information on fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 4 through spring
s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 .
Directors m ade the following recom m endations to im prove the survey:
1. that the term academ ic y e a r be clearly identified by indicating fall and
spring sem esters;
2. that the length of the director survey be shortened;
3. that the research er send a pre-survey em ail to directors that explains
the survey and the need for longitudinal data so that directors can
prep are the data a h ea d of time;
4. that enrollm ent and aca d e m ic achievem ent questions from the director
survey also be placed in the single m other survey for self-reporting;
5. that the survey be m odified to include m ore clo sed-ended questions
with ranges of percentages or num bers rather than expecting directors
to fill in the blanks (for exam p le, check all that apply or choose o n e );
and
6. that a statem ent be added to the beginning of the survey to indicate
that every question does not have to be answ ered and that estim ates
of percentages or num bers are acceptable.
T h e s e recom m endations w ere used by the researcher to m odify and
im prove the current surveys and cover letters (see A ppendixes A, B, C, and D).
79
Validity
As in the F a d a le and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) study, two survey instrum ents w ere
distributed to cam pus child care centers for directors and single m others. In this
case, the surveys w ere distributed electronically through the Z o o m e ran g survey
tool. Both instrum ents included Likert S cale, o p en-ended, and forced-choice
questions.
T h e two survey instrum ents in the F ad ale and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) study w ere
found valid through a statistical definition of validity or the judgm ent of the
researchers at the tim e. Validity w as ascertained by F ad ale and W in te r by
answ ering tw o questions: (a) W a s the instrum ent m easuring w hat it w as
supposed to m easure? (b) W a s the sam ple being m easured representative of the
behavior or trait being m easured? According to F ad ale and W in te r this technique
for ascertaining validity w as an acceptable validity test (Leedy, 1997; Best and
Kahn, 2 0 0 3 ). T h e y did not report a test for p value. F ad ale and W in te r (1 9 8 8 )
found that 8 8 .9 % of their sam ple responded to the survey and 5 6 % of the
responses w ere usable.
T h e validity of the m odified N C C C C single m other survey for this study,
which included updated questions related to factors facilitating college
attendance, w as partially reestablished during data analysis of this study
(C resw ell, 2 0 0 3 ). It w as established for the single m other survey. Validity w as
ascertained by the N C C C C researcher by answ ering two questions: (a) W a s the
instrum ent m easuring w hat it w as supposed to m easure? (b) W a s the sam ple
80
being m easured representative of the behavior or trait being m easured? It w as
possible to d eterm ine the single m other survey instrum ent m easured a ca d em ic
success as defined in the independent and d e pen dent variable indicators of this
study. T h e instrum ent w as further validated because the sam ple being
m easu red single m other students with children enrolled in C C C C C centers fall
sem e s te r 2 0 0 6 w ere representative of the single m others with children enrolled in
a larger population of cam pus child c are centers on the cam puses of the total
m em bership of N C C C C (Leedy, 1997; Best and Kahn, 2 0 0 3 ).
By the s am e standards used for the single m others survey, th e validity of
th e m odified N C C C C director survey w as not confirm ed. Validity can be defined
as the accuracy and the operationalization of d a ta collected which correctly
indicated w hat its supposed to in relation to the study (Nardi, 2 0 0 6 ). T h e basic
validity of the directors survey w as evaluated by answ ering the questions: a)
W a s the instrum ent m easuring w hat it w as supposed to m easure? (b) W a s the
sam ple being m easured representative of the behavior or trait being m easured ?
It w as found that the directors survey did not m easure w hat it w as supposed to
m e as u re --th e variables related to the N C C C C study.
T h e directors survey w as found to m easu re longitudinal data related to
population num bers of student parents and single m others with children enrolled
in C C C C C centers over a two y e a r period, fall 2 0 0 4 through fall 2 0 0 6 . W h ile the
survey asked two questions related to aca d e m ic success factors of the N C C C C
study: child care subsidy and persistence enrollm ent beyond one s e m e s te r it
81
did not address how th ese factors w ere related to the academ ic success of single
m others. T h e inquiry w as related only to num bers of parents w ho received child
care tuition support and enrollm ent of students beyond one sem ester. T h e data
did not reveal N C C C C study variable data regarding the relationship of parenting
support or child care availability and the aca d e m ic success of single m others.
R esearch P rocedure
D a ta w ere collected from a population of approxim ately 108 C C C C C
cen ter directors working in the 108 C C C C C centers included in the N C C C C
m em bership nationw ide. This population is a part of the general population of
2 ,5 0 0 cam pus child care centers that serve approxim ately 4 ,0 0 0 colleges and
universities nationw ide and approxim ately 4 4 6 cam pus child care centers that
are m em bers of N C C C C (Bosw ell, 2 0 0 3 ). S eco n d -stag e data w ere also collected
from the population of single m others w ho had enrolled their children in the sam e
1 08 C C C C C centers for fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 and spring s em e s te r 2 0 0 7 . Directors
w ere asked to take part in th e study and to report docum ented data related to
longitudinal and current enrollm ent and acad em ic success of single m others with
children enrolled in their cam pus child care program s.
Child care cen ter directors w ere also asked to solicit survey participation
from the population of individual single m other students with children currently
enrolled in their child care centers. T h e im plem entation of this process
represented a type of snowball sam pling. T h e a d van tag e of this sam pling
82
technique w as that it allow ed for the recruiting of large num bers of participants
for the study.
T h e single m other participants w ere asked to take part in the study by
relating their dem ographic characteristics and personal perceptions of the
relationship of their current C C C C C cen ter to their individual enrollm ent,
persistence, and acad em ic s u c c e s s -e s tim a te d a ve ra g e grade, grade
im provem ent, sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and earn ed credits . P arents
w ere asked to indicate their perceptions of the significance of their current
C C C C C c e n te rs services beyond basic care of their child(ren)child care tuition
subsidy and referral, advising, and parent education services.
Surveys w ere distributed on line using the Zoom eran g on-line survey tool.
T h e Z o o m eran g cover letters, greetings, and debriefing docum ents w ere sent
from the P resident of N C C C C and the researcher. All docum ents solicited the
participants assistance in survey com pletion and explained th e purpose of the
research. T h e surveys explained the purpose of the research, outlined
instructions to follow w hen filling out the survey, and explained the inform ed
consent information.
T h e directors w ere sent both surveys on line through Zoom eran g . Both
surveys w ere accessible through U R L s sent through Z oom erang . T h e directors
survey cover letter solicited the directors support in com pleting the director
survey. A second cover letter w as sent to the directors with the parent survey.
83
T his letter solicited the directors support in recruiting their single m other student
parents with children currently enrolled in their cam pus child care center.
Directors w ere asked to com m unicate with all single m others. T h e y w ere
requested to give each single m other flyers advertising the study U R L, hard
copies of the surveys to fill out, tim e on child care center com puters to access
survey U R Ls, and N C C C C thank-you ink pens provided by the researcher. T h e
flyers used to solicit single m other participation explained that once the parent
signed on to the U R L she would be provided with information related to parent
survey purpose, instructions, informed consent, and debriefing (s e e A ppendixes
C ,D ,E ,F , and G ). All participant directors w ere m ailed an appropriate supply of
N C C C C pens to distribute to all single m other students who participated in the
study as a thank-you for participation in the research project.
Estim ated tim e for parent survey com pletion w as 10 m inutes. E stim ated
tim e w as som ew hat longer for directors to com plete the director survey becau se
th ey n e ed e d to locate child care cen ter and college data to com plete the
longitudinal survey questions related to previously enrolled student parents.
O n c e the survey d a ta w ere subm itted through Zoo m eran g on line, the
d a ta w ere put into S P S S (Statistics Program for Social S ciences). S P S S 15 w as
used to apply statistical applications and testing (S P S S , 2 0 0 4 ). W h e n statistical
applications testing w as com plete, data analysis began. T h e re w e re 5 0 director
responses and 9 8 single m other participant responses to the surveys.
84
D a ta Analysis
A survey design allow ed the sam ple d a ta collected to be quantitatively
a n alyzed to determ ine the correlation betw een C C C C C and the a ca d em ic
success of single m others. Descriptive and correlation statistical applications
w ere used to help organize and interpret the d a ta collected (G ra ve tter & W allnau ,
2 0 0 4 ). T h e s e applications helped to describe, explain, and explore all variables.
T h e y also clarified how characteristic services of the C C C C C centers relate to
th e acad em ic success characteristics of the single m others (N ardi, 2 0 0 6 ).
T h e d a ta w ere organized, interpreted, and sum m arized for each data
source to an sw er research questions and to test the hypotheses. T h e process of
analysis looked for correlations and relationships betw een and am ong variable
categories related to the independent variable indicators of parenting support
(including child c are tuition subsidy and referral, advising, and parent education
services) and availability of com m unity college child care (availability of child care
on cam pus, the num ber of parenting services available, and the num ber of hours
single m others have child care available for their use) and aca d e m ic success
(estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade im provem ent, p e rs is te n c e -s e m e s te rs of
continued enrollm ent, and earn ed credits (Carroll & Carroll, 2 0 0 2 ; Cresw ell,
2 0 0 3 , 2 0 0 5 ). B aseline d a ta collected described characteristics of single m other
participants--age, ethnicity, incom e, and em ploym ent as well as the independent
and d epen dent variables of the study. T h e baseline operational variables for the
study w ere sum m arized, organized, and simplified by use of descriptive statistics.
85
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics provided baseline data on all variables and w as
n e ed e d to test the hypotheses of the study. Displaying and describing the basic
freq uency distribution for each variable w as the first step in analyzing data. O n ce
th e data from the research instrum ents w ere collected, the data w ere entered
into a S P S S d atab ase. T h e processes used in descriptive statistics em ployed
techniques that took raw scores and organized them into a form that w as m ore
m a n ag e a b le. T h e data w ere graphed for e a s e in displaying and inspecting
individual responses. Frequency tables or graphs organized the scores so an
entire data set could be easily seen (G ravetter & W allnau, 2 0 0 4 ). T h e tables and
graphs show ed how often each response w as given by the respondents for each
item (N ardi, 2 0 0 6 ) and m a d e it e as y to get a sense of w hat w as typical or
ave ra g e, and the center part of the data w as provided (G ra ve tter & W a lln au ,
200 4 ; Hinkle et al., 2 0 0 3 ).
F requen cy distribution analysis w as used to gain a sense of the im portant
baseline independent variables that related to the acad em ic success of single
m other students. T h e central part of the distribution that w as created with
frequency distribution techniques indicated w here the m ost scores a p p ea re d for
th e group on ave ra g e. Descriptive statistical techniques helped to determ ine
which item s w ere variables that w arranted further analysis (Carroll & Carroll,
200 2 ; G rav e tte r & W a lln au , 2 00 4 ; Nardi, 2 0 0 6 ). Frequency graphs and charts
86
m ad e it possible to see the shape of the distribution.(G ravetter & W a lln au , 2 00 4 ;
Hinkle et al., 2 0 0 3 ).
Correlations
C orrelation statistics w ere used to determ ine if relationships exist betw een
two or m ore independent and d e p en d en t variables and if so w hat the
characteristics of those relationships w ere. O nly relationship correlations w ere
tested. B ivariate correlations w ere useful statistical techniques as they tested the
extent to which variables occurred together and how related they w ere. T h e y also
sym bolized the strength and the direction of the relationship betw een two
variables (Carroll & Carroll). T h e correlations of all independent and d e p en d en t
variable indicators w ere tested by using P earson r. Correlation statistics did not
explain the c au s e -a n d -e ffe c t m echanism s betw een the variables explored
(G ravetter & W a lln au , 2 0 0 4 ). C orrelations only suggested w h e th e r a relationship
existed (Carroll & Carroll, 2 0 0 2 ).
T h e re w as no m anipulation of the variables by the research er (G ra ve tter &
W allnau, 2 0 0 4 ). D a ta w ere interpreted to test the null hypotheses and to explain
w h ether or not a correlation existed betw een the independent and d epen dent
variables (G ra ve tter & W allnau, 2 0 0 4 ). B ecause the null hypotheses stated that
there is no relationship and that the variables w ere independent, the tests m erely
evaluated the probability that the perceived relationships resulted from chance
(Best & Kahn, 2 0 0 3 ; Carroll & Carroll, 2 0 0 2 ; Fink, 2 0 0 6 ).
87
T h e m ethodology described here added to the data collected by F ad ale
and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ), R itze (1 9 9 6 ), and Triplett (2 0 0 0 ) by analyzing and including
d a ta focusing on a cohort of single m other students and the relationship of
C C C C C to their aca d e m ic success. T h e descriptive and correlation statistical
analysis described above broaden ed the research perspective on the relationship
of C C C C C to the acad em ic success of single mothers.
Inferential data collection

P earson r a s a param etric statistic w as useful in the analysis of data
related to the generalizability of sam ple data to population d a ta (Best & Kahn,
2 0 0 3 , Carroll & Carroll, 2 00 2 ; C resw ell, 2 0 0 5 ; Hinkle et al., 2 0 0 3 ). Inferential data
w ere collected from the correlation testing using P earson r. and allow ed the
researcher to m a ke generalizations from the sam ple data to a larger population.
Inferential statistics w ere necessary in this study because the study w as
gathering d a ta from only a small research sam ple. T h e total population
param eters w ere then estim ated or inferred from the sam ple (N ardi, 2 0 0 6 ).
O n c e the d a ta set w as described, the next step w as to interpret the
outcom e. Inferential statistics w ere used to do this and to a n sw e r the question of
w hether the sam ple d a ta w ere gen eralizab le. T h e difference betw een the sam ple
statistics or inform ation gathered and the param eters of the larger population, the
sam pling error, w as analyzed. This error w as taken into account w hen sam ple
d ata w ere an alyzed and generalizability conclusions w ere drawn (N ardi, 2 0 0 6 ).
H ypotheses testing procedures w ere used that allow ed for decisions to be m ade
88
about the study results by com paring the data of the sam ple with the population
to determ ine the nature of the relationship b etw een the values (C resw ell, 2 0 0 5 ).
Protection of Participants
T h e survey could be com pleted anonym ously by all participants. T h e
participant cover letters, instructions, and consent section of the surveys
indicated that cam pus child care center directors could give identification
information if they chose to do so. S tudent-parent participants w ere not asked for
identification information. T h e consent section of the survey contained
assurances of confidentiality and the option to discontinue participation at any
tim e (see A ppendixes E, F and G ). T h e entire research design w as intended not
only to protect the participants but also to protect the integrity of the study from
beginning to end.
S u m m ary
T h e survey design w as intended to explore the relationship of com m unity
college cam pus child care to the acad em ic success of single m others. T h e intent
of this survey design m ethodology w as to replicate the F ad ale and W in te r study
(1 9 8 8 ), using m odified surveys from that study. T h e research questions explored
four indicators of aca d e m ic success: estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade
im provem ent, sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and earn ed credits. T h e
questions also explored the possible im portance of cam pus child care benefits
89
beyond basic child care services: cam pus child care parenting support--child
c are tuition subsidy and referral, advising, and parent education services child
c are availabilityavailability of child care on cam pus, the num ber of parenting
available for their use.
T h e study sam ple included single m other students with children enrolled in
C C C C C centers fall s em ester 2 0 0 6 . T h e directors of those child care program s
w ere surveyed to provide data on longitudinal and current enrollm ent of single
m others and their acad em ic success. T h e independent variable indicators of
cam pus child care parenting support (child care tuition subsidy and referral,
advising, and parent education services) and child care availability (availability of
child c are on cam pus, the n um ber of parenting services available, and the
nu m ber of hours single m others h a ve child care available for their use) w ere
correlated with the four indicators of the dep en d en t variable of academ ic
success: estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade im provem ent, sem esters of continued
enrollm ent, and earned credits. T o a n alyze the data, statistical applications w ere
used, including descriptive and correlation statistics. T h e P earson r application
w as used to test the bivariate correlations betw een independent and dep en d en t
variables (B est & Kahn, 2 00 3 ; Carroll & Carroll, 2 0 0 2 ).
This research design allow ed for the collection of a large set of data. It
w as hoped that the findings would reveal statistically significant data that would
contribute to sem inal literature on cam pus childrens centers and the acad em ic
90
a ch ievem en t of student parents, adding a perspective on the relationship of
com m unity college cam pus child care to the aca d e m ic success of single
m others.
91
C H A P T E R IV
A N A L Y S IS O F D A TA
T h e purpose of the study w as to investigate the significance of the

relationship of com m unity college cam pus child c are (C C C C C ) centers to the
acad em ic success of single m other students. This chapter presents the analysis
and findings of survey d a ta that w ere collected. Forty-eight C C C C C program
director responses w ere collected, and 98 single m others responded to the
survey. A detailed description of the single m other participants of the study is
shared along with descriptions of the variables investigated. Part one of the
discussion revolves around the statistical description of the variables, along with
th e tables and figures that support the findings. Part two is devoted to the
discussion of the research questions, including the testing of the hypotheses.
Population and R esponse R ate

D a ta w ere retrieved from two sam ples for this study: directors of C C C C C
centers and single m other students w ho had their children enrolled in C C C C C
centers. T h e s e centers w ere m em bers of the National Coalition for C am p u s
C hildrens C en ters (N C C C C ) during fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 .
T w o surveys w ere sent to 108 directors of N C C C C com m unity college
cam pus child care centers. O n e survey w ent to the program directors and the
second survey w as sent to the single mothers; both w ere distributed by the
92
directors of each child care center. T h e N C C C C research er found that 4 8 % of
th e 108 directors in the sam ple responded to the survey. Ninety four percent of
those responses w ere usable, for 4 9 useable survey responses. O f 108 single
m other surveys 101 w ere retrieved. Ninety seven percent of those surveys w ere
usable, for 9 8 usable survey responses.
T h e single m other survey d a ta w as used to a n alyze the relationship of
C C C C C to the acad em ic success of single m other students. T h e directors
survey w as not used as that survey w as found to be invalid the questions did
not fully represent the variables they w ere supposed to be surveying. It w as not
possible for the researcher to draw m eaningful and justifiable inferences from the
scores on the directors survey related to the relationship of C C C C C and the
aca d e m ic success of single m others (C resw ell, 2 0 0 5 ). T h erefo re, due to validity
problem s, the study relied only on the single m others survey d a ta results.
D em ographic Descriptions
Demographic Baseline Variables

T h e following section includes descriptions of the baseline dem ograph ic
characteristics of the single m other students who responded to the single m other
student survey. T h e specific dem ographic characteristics include age, ethnicity,
fam ily incom e, and em ploym ent.
93
Age
T h e m ajority of the single m others participating in this study w ere 2 1 - 3 0
years of age. T h e second largest group w as 3 1 - 4 0 , follow ed by m others 41
years of a g e or older. T h e re w as only a small num ber of m others w ho reported
being ag e 2 0 or younger.
T a b le 1 and Figure 2 provide descriptions of the ag e of single m others
with children enrolled in C C C C C centers that w ere m em bers of the N ational
Coalition for C a m p u s C h ild ren s C en ters (N C C C C ) in fall 2 0 0 6 .
T a b le 1.
Single M other Age Range
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
6.1
6.1
6.1
2 1 -3 0
55
56.1
56.1
6 2 .2
3 1 -4 0
28
2 8 .6
2 8 .6
9 0 .8
41 and
O ver
9 .2
9 .2
1 0 0 .0
98
1 0 0 .0
1 00.0
Frequency
Valid
2 0 and
U nder
Total
94
60
Under
20
21-30
31-40
-----
40 and
Over
Single Mother Age Range
Figure 2. F requen cy of Single M other A g e R ange
Ethnicity
Ethnic dem ographics show ed that the m ajority of m others w ere W hite.
African A m erican m others m ad e up the second largest group, follow ed by Latino
mothers; tw o m others reported being Haitian.
T a b le 2 and Figure 3 provide descriptions of the ethnicity of single
m others with children enrolled in C C C C C centers that w ere m em bers of the
N C C C C in fall 2 0 0 6 .
95
Table 2.
Single M other Ethnicity
Frequency
Valid
Percent
P ercent
C um ulative
Percent
Valid
African
Am erican
W hite
Latino
and
O thers
33
3 3 .7
3 3 .7
3 3 .7
51
5 2 .0
5 2 .0
8 5 .7
14
1 4.3
14.3
1 0 0 .0
98
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
Total
40
30
African
A m erican
W hite
Latino
and
Others
Single M other Ethnicity
Figure 3. F requen cy of Single M other Ethnicity
96
Fam ily Income
Although the m ajority of the single m others w ere em ployed, they earn ed
less than $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 annually, and close to 4 0 % of the m others earn ed less than
$ 9 ,0 0 0 annually. A sm aller num ber earn ed betw een $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 and $ 2 9 ,9 9 9 and
only a very sm all num ber of the single m others surveyed earn e d m ore than
$ 3 0 ,0 0 0 . O n e single m other e arn e d m ore than $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 .
T a b le 3 and Figure 4 provide dem ographic fam ily incom e descriptions for
single m others with children enrolled in C C C C C centers that w ere m em bers of
th e N C C C C in fall 2 0 0 6 .
T a b le 3.
Single M other Fam ily Income
Frequen cy
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
Valid
U n d er $ 9 ,9 9 9
38
3 8 .8
3 8 .8
3 8 .8
$ 1 0 ,0 0 0 -1 9 ,9 9 9
30
3 0 .6
3 0 .6
6 9 .4
$ 2 0 ,0 0 0 -2 9 ,9 9 9
22
2 2 .4
2 2 .4
9 1 .8
$ 3 0 ,0 0 0 -3 9 ,9 9 9
4.1
4.1
9 5 .9
$ 4 0 ,0 0 0 and over
4.1
4.1
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
Total
98
97
1---^
U nder
$ 1 0 ,0 0 0 -
$ 9 ,9 9 9
1 9 ,0 0 0
1-------------^
------1----------^
$ 2 0 ,0 0 0 -
$ 3 0 ,0 0 0 -
$ 4 0 ,0 0 0
2 9 ,9 9 9
3 9 ,9 9 9
and Over
Single M other Fam ily Income
Figure 4. Frequen cy of Single M o th er Fam ily Incom e
Employment
T h e m ajority of the single m others surveyed are em ployed. H ow ever, the
em plo ym ent data collected do not indicate if their em ploym ent is full tim e or part
tim e.
T a b le 4 and Figure 5 provide dem ographic em plo ym ent descriptions for
single m others with children enrolled in C C C C C centers that w ere m em bers of
th e N C C C C in fall 2 0 0 6 .
98
Table 4.
Single M other Employment
Frequen cy
Valid
P ercent
V alid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
Y es
56
57.1
6 1 .5
6 1 .5
No
34
3 4 .7
3 7 .4
9 8 .9
1.0
1.1
1 0 0 .0
91
9 2 .9
1 00 .0
7.1
98
1 0 0 .0
N o A nsw er
Missing S ystem
Total
60
Single M other Em ploym ent
Figure 5. Frequen cy of Single M other E m ploym ent
99
T a b le 5 provides a statistical profile of all dem ographic variables.
T a b le 5.
Statistics of Demographic Variables
A ge
(as coded)
Ethnicity
(as coded)
Fam ily Incom e

(as coded)
E m ploym ent
S tatu s(as coded)
M ean
2.41
1.81
2 .0 4
1 .4 0
S tandard
Deviation
0 .7 4 3 8 6
0 .6 6 8
1 .0 7 3 7 8
0 .5 1 4
V arian ce
0 .5 5 3
0 .4 4 7
1 .1 5 3
0 .2 6 4
Independent V ariable Descriptions

T h e re are two independent variables: (a) cam pus child care parenting
support (tuition subsidy and referral, advising, and parent education services)
and (b) availability of cam pus child care (availability of cam pus child c are on
cam pus, num ber of services provided by cam pus child care, and num ber of
available hours single m others used child care services).
Parenting Support
Tuition Subsidy
A m ajority of the single m others in this study reported that they paid for
child care them selves. A few of them received social services, Child C a re A ccess
100
M e a n s P arents in School (C C A M P IS ), and other child care tuition subsidies.
S e lf payment.
Descriptive statistics analysis of the subsidized child care tuition data
revealed that the m ajority of single m others paid all or som e portion of their child
care tuition them selves. T a b le 6 and Figure 6 portray the self paym ent
descriptive analysis of single m other tuition subsidy paym ent.
T a b le 6.
Single M other Source of Child Care Tuition Payment: Self ___________________

Frequency
P ercent
55
43
98
No
Total
Valid
P ercent
56.1
4 3 .9
1 0 0 .0
C um ulative
Percent
56.1
4 3 .9
1 00 .0
56.1
1 0 0 .0
40
Yes
No
Single Mothers' Source of

Child Care Tuition
Payment: Self
Figure 6. Frequen cy of Single M oth ers S ource of Child C a re Tuition: Self
101
Social services subsidy.
O v e r a third of the m others surveyed received social services tuition
subsidy across the cohort of single m others with children enrolled fall 2 0 0 6 at
N C C C C cam pus child care centers. T a b le 7 and Figure 7 portray the social
service subsidy paym ent descriptive analysis for single m others.
T a b le 7.
Single Mothers Receiving Child Care Tuition Subsidy: Social Services
Frequen cy
Valid
P ercent
Valid
Percent
C um ulative
Percent
Y es
38
3 8 .8
3 8 .8
3 8 .8
No
60
6 1 .2
6 1 .2
1 0 0 .0
Total
98
1 0 0 .0
100 .0
Yes
No
Single Mothers Receiving

Child C a re Tuition Subsidy:
S ocial Services
Figure 7. F requen cy of Single M others Receiving Child C a re Tuition Subsidy:

Social Services
C C A M P IS subsidy.
Less than a third of the single m others surveyed received child care tuition
subsidy from C C A M P IS . T a b le 8 and Figure 8 portray the C C A M P IS subsidy
p aym ent descriptive analysis.
103
Table 8.
Single Mothers Receiving Child Care Tuition Subsidy: C C A M P IS
Frequen cy
Valid
yes
No
Total
Missing
System
Total
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
28
2 8 .6
2 9 .2
2 9 .2
68
96
2
6 9 .4
9 8 .0
2 .0
7 0 .8
100.0
1 0 0 .0
98
1 00 .0

C C A M P IS
Figure 8. Frequen cy of Single M others Receiving Child C a re

Subsidy: C C A M P IS
104
O ther subsidy.
O th e r subsidies that w ere reported can be categorized as fam ily support,
com m unity college institutional child care tuition subsidy grants, child support,
fed eral block grants, and com m unity developm ent grants. O th er sources of child
care tuition paym ent m ad e up less than a third of the paym ent sources reported
by single m others. T a b le 9 and Figure 9 portray the other subsidy paym ent
descriptive analysis.
T a b le 9.
Single Mothers Receiving Child Care Tuition Payment: O ther
Frequen cy
V alid
Missing
Total
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
Y es
27
2 7 .6
28.1
28.1
No
Total
S ystem
69
96
2
98
7 0 .4
9 8 .0
2 .0
1 0 0 .0
7 1 .9
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
105
70
60
5*
50
40
30
20
10
0
Yes
No

Other
Figure 9. Frequen cy of Single M others Receiving Child C a re

Subsidy: O ther
T a b le 10 provides a profile of all cam pus child care paym ent sources:
m others paying all or part of the tuition, social service subsidy, C C A M P IS
subsidy, and other sources of tuition paym ent or subsidy.
106
Table 10.
Source of Child Care Tuition Payment: Statistics
Self
Social
Services
C C A M P IS
O th er
V alid
98
98
96
96
Missing
M ean
1.44
1.61
1.71
1.72
S tandard Deviation
0 .4 9 9
0 .4 9 0
0 .4 5 7
0 .4 5 2
V aria n c e
0 .2 4 9
0 .2 4 0
0 .2 0 9
0 .2 0 4
Referral, Advising, and Parent Education Services

P arenting support services provided by child care c en ter directors and
teachers include referral, advising, and parent education services. R eferral
services include child care center staff referring single m others to educational,
parenting, and fam ily resources on cam pus and in the com m unity. Advising
services offered by child care center staff include advising parents on parenting
issues and problem s. Child care center directors and teaching staff m ay also
provide educational program s for single m others, including training in parenting
skills developm ent (F a d a le & W inter, 1 98 8 ). T h e single m other survey data
included inform ation about which of these parenting support services w ere
considered by parents to m a ke it e as ier for them to go to college. S tudy findings
107
revealed the frequency with which m others considered each service helpful to
them in going to college.
Referral services.
T h e m ost helpful of the three types of parenting support services
investigated ap p ears to be referral services, including child care cen ter staff
referring single m others to educational, parenting, and fam ily resources on
cam pus and in the com m unity. N early a third of the m others perceived that
referral services m ad e it e a s ie r for them to go to college.
T a b le 11 and Figure 10 portray the frequency distributions for referral
services and single m other perceptions of how supportive they are in m aking it
e as ier to go to college.
T a b le 11.
Single Mothers Who Report that Referral Services M ake It Easier to Attend
College
Frequen cy
V alid
Y es
No
Total
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
29
2 9 .6
2 9 .6
2 9 .6
69
7 0 .4
7 0 .4
1 0 0 .0
98
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
108
cd
40
Single Mothers W ho Perceive

that Referral Services Make it
Easier to Attend College
Figure 10. F requen cy of Single M others W h o Report that

R eferral S ervices M a k e it E asier to Attend C ollege
Advising services.
Advising services offered by child care cen ter staff include advising
parents on parenting issues and problem s. T h e s e services w ere reported by
single m others to be less helpful than referral services. Less than a fourth of
single m others surveyed indicated that advising services m a d e it e a s ie r for them
to attend college.
T a b le 12 and Figure 11 describe the frequency distributions data for the
usefulness of C C C C C advising services.
Table 12.
Single Mothers Who Report that Advising Services M ake It Easier to Attend
College
Frequency
Valid
Y es
No
Total
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
Cum ulative
P ercent
21
2 1 .4
2 1 .4
2 1 .4
77
7 8 .6
7 8 .6
1 00 .0
98
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
Single Mothers W ho Perceive

that Advising Services Make it
Figure 11. Frequen cy of Single M others W h o R eport that

Advising S ervices M a k e it E asier to Attend C ollege
110
Parent education and training services.

P aren t training and educational program s for single m others, including
training in parenting skills developm ent, w ere apparently perceived to be less
helpful to single m others than either referral or advising service. T a b le 13 and
Figure 12 depict the frequency distribution data for the usefulness of C C C C C
parent education and training services.
T a b le 13.
Single Mothers Who Report that Parent Education M ake It Easier to Attend
College
Frequen cy
V alid
Y es
No
Total
15
83
98
P ercent
Valid
Percent
C um ulative
P ercent
15.3
8 4 .7
1 0 0 .0
15.3
8 4 .7
1 00 .0
15.3
8 4 .7
1 0 0 .0
111
^
Yes
1----No
S in g le M o thers W h o P erceive that

P aren t E d u c atio n S ervices M a k e it
E a s ie r to A tte n d C o lleg e
Figure 12. Frequen cy of Single M others W h o R eport that

P aren t Education S ervices M a k e it E as ie r to Attend C ollege
T a b le 14 provides a profile of all C C C C C center parent support services

investigated for single m other perceptions of how these services m a ke college
easier: referral services, advising services, and parent education and training
services.
112
Table 14.
Parenting Support Services: Frequency Statistics
Valid
Missing
M ean
Std. Deviation
V aria n c e
R eferral
Services of
C C C M a k e It
E asier to
Attend C ollege
Advising
S ervices of
C C C M a k e It
E as ie r to
Attend C ollege
P aren t Education
O ffered by C C C
M a k es It E as ie r to
Attend C ollege
98
98
98
1.70
0 .4 5 9
0 .2 1 0
1.79
0 .4 1 2
0 .1 7 0
1.85
0 .3 6 2
0.131
Note: C C C = child care center.

Child care availability consists of the existence of child care on cam pus,
th e num ber of parenting services available, and the num ber of hours single
m others have child care available for their use. All of these factors h ave been
investigated in this study. Availability of cam pus child care has been described as
the availability of service parents can count on for support w hen they have
classes, work, or need to study (C arlson, 2 0 0 3 ).
113
Availability of Child Care on Campus
A large m a jo rity -n e a rly three-fourths--of single m others indicated that they
perceived the existence of C C C C C as a positive support structure. T h e y
perceived that the availability of the C C C C C services m a d e it e a s ie r for them to
attend college. T a b le 15 and Figure 13 depict the frequency distribution of the
responses of m others regarding the availability of on cam pus child care.
T a b le 15.
Single Mothers Who Report that Availability of Child Care M akes It E asier to
Attend College
Frequen cy
V alid
Y es
No
Total
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
71
7 2 .4
7 2 .4
7 2 .4
27
2 7 .6
2 7 .6
1 0 0 .0
98
1 0 0 .0
1 00 .0
114
r^-
Yes
No
S in g le M o thers W h o P erceive that

Child C a re on C a m p u s M a k e s it
E a s ie r to A tte n d C ollege
Figure 13. Frequen cy of Single M others W h o P erceive that

Child C a re on C am p u s M a k es it E asier to Attend C ollege
Num ber o f Services Available

T h e num ber of parenting support services offered by cam pus child care
centers w as reported by single m others surveyed. N early half of single m others
reported three to five parenting support services m ad e it e a s ie r for them to attend
college. O v e r half of the parents reported that two or fe w er parenting support
services m a d e going to college e a s ie r to attend. T h e a v e ra g e num ber of helpful
services reported by single m others w as 2 .4 services.
T a b le 16 and Figure 14 indicate the frequency distributions for the num ber
of parenting support services that m ade it e as ier for single m others to attend
college.
115
Table 16.
Single Mothers Who Report that Num ber o f Services Available M ake it
Easier to Attend College _______________________________________________
N u m b er of
0
S ervices
F requen cy
^
3
.00
1 .0 0
2 .0 0
3 .0 0
4 .0 0
5 .0 0
Total
.
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
n
*
P ercent
6.1
6.1
6.1
22
2 2 .4
2 2 .4
2 8 .6
21
2 1 .4
2 1 .4
5 0 .0
28
2 8 .6
2 8 .6
7 8 .6
15
1 5.3
1 5.3
9 3 .9
6.1
6.1
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 00 .0
98
30
N u m b e r of S ervices S in g le M o th e rs Reported th a t M a d e
it E a s ie r to A tte n d C o llege
Figure 14. F requen cy of N u m b e r of Child C a re Services Single M others

R eported that M a k e it E asier to Attend C ollege
116
Num ber of Child Care Hours Mothers Used

Single m others reported the num ber of child care hours they used during a
w e e k over the course of five sem esters. About half of the m others used 3 - 8
w eekly child c are hours, and slightly less than half of the m others used 9 to m ore
than 13 hours w eekly hours of care during the fiv e-se m e ster tim e fram e. For
these single m others the availability of accom m odating child care hours
supported them as they w ent to classes, w orked, or needed to study (Carlson,
2 0 0 3 ).
T a b le 17 depicts the num bers of hours used by single m others over a fives em ester period of tim e.
T a b le 17.
Single Mothers Who Report that Num ber of Child Care Hours Used M ade it
Frequen cy
Valid
0
3-5 hours
6-8 hours
9 -1 2 hours
13 or m ore
9
29
22
15
23
P ercent
Valid
Percent
C um ulative
P ercent
9 .2
2 9 .6
2 2 .4
15.3
2 3 .5
9.2
2 9 .6
2 2 .4
15.3
2 3 .5
9 .2
3 8 .8
6 1 .2
7 6 .5
1 0 0 .0
117
D e p e n d en t V ariable Descriptions
T h e dep en d en t variable investigated in this study is a ca d em ic success,
with the following indicators: (a) estim ated a v e ra g e grade (E A G ), (b) grade
im provem ent, (c) p e rs is te n c e -s e m e s te rs of continued enrollm ent, and (d) credits
earned.
Estim ated Average Grade

In this study E A G has been investigated as an operational variable that
describes the a v e ra g e grades of single m others at the tim e they filled out the
survey for this study. In this study E A G w as reported by single m others with
children enrolled in C C C C C centers that w ere m em bers of the N C C C C in fall
s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 . T h e self-reported E A G revealed a large m ajority of the single
m others with grades betw een 3.1 and 4 .0 . O ve r half of the single m other
respondents in this study w ere earning the highest level of grades described,
3 .1 -4 .0 . About a third of the m others surveyed obtained grades of 2 .1 -3 .0 , and
only four m others reported grades b e tw e e n l .1 -2 .0 , for less than 5 % of the single
m others responding to the survey. T h e a v e ra g e grade for this cohort of single
m others is 3.0.
T a b le 18 and Figure 15 depict the descriptive statistics frequency data for
EA G .
118
Table 18.
Single M others Estim ated A verage Grades
Frequency
V alid
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
4.1
4.1
4.1
30
3 0 .6
3 0 .6
3 4 .7
3 .1 -4 .0
64
6 5 .3
6 5 .3
1 0 0 .0
Total
98
100 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 .1 -2 .0
o
CO
I
cvi
70
60
>,
o
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 .1 -2 .0
2 .1 -3 .0
3 .1 -4 .0
Single Mothers' Estim ated

A verag e G rades
Figure 15. Frequen cy of Single M others EAG
119
G rade Improvement
G ra d e im provem ent relates to w h eth er or not a single m others grades
im proved while her child w as enrolled in the cam pus child care center. Alm ost
half of the single m others responding to th e survey indicated that their grades
had im proved or greatly im proved since their child w as enrolled in the cam pus
child care center. T h e rem aining half of the m others indicated that their grades
had stayed about the sam e.
T a b le 19 and Figure 16 depict frequency distribution for the im pact of
cam pus child care centers on the grades of single mothers.
Ta b le 19.
Single M others G rade Im provem ent Due to Campus Child Care
Frequen cy
V alid
T h e sam e
52
Im proved
G reatly
Im proved
Total
P ercent
Valid
P ercent
C um ulative
P ercent
53.1
53.1
53.1
7.1
7.1
6 0 .2
39
3 9 .8
3 9 .8
1 0 0 .0
98
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
120
60
Sam e
Greatly
Improved
Single M other G rad e

Improvement D ue to
C am pus Child C a re
Figure 16. F requen cy of Single M other G ra d e Im provem ent D ue to

C a m p u s Child C a re
Persistence
S em e s te rs of continued enrollm ent--persistence--is the actual num ber of
sem esters beyond one s em e s te r that single m others attended their current
com m unity college as of fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 . T h e m ajority of m others attended for
at least three sem esters beyond their first sem ester. Slightly fe w e r m others
attended for at least two sem esters beyond the first sem ester, and a q u arter of
th e m others attended for at least two sem esters, or one s em e s te r beyond their
initial s em e s te r of enrollm ent. A small num ber of single m others attended for four
or m ore sem esters beyond their initial enrollm ent sem ester. T h e m ean of
s em esters enrolled beyond the first s em ester w as 1.87, for 2 .8 7 m ean of total
121
sem esters. T a b le 2 0 and Figure 17 depict single m other persistence beyond one
sem e s te r of enrollm ent in the com m unity college they w ere attending in fall 2 0 0 6 .
T a b le 20.
Num ber o f Sem esters Single Mothers Attended Beyond O ne Sem ester
Percent
Frequency
Valid
Valid
Percent
C um ulative
Percent
24
2 4 .5
2 4 .5
2 4 .5
36
3 6 .7
3 6 .7
6 1 .2
37
3 7 .8
3 7 .8
9 9 .0
1.0
1.0
1 0 0 .0
98
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
4 or m ore
Total
40
4 +
Number of Semesters Single

Mothers Attended Beyond
Their First Semester
Figure 17. Frequency of N u m b er of S em esters Single M others

A ttended Beyond T h e ir First S e m e s te r
122
Credits Earned
Credits earn ed relate to the num ber of credits a single m other has earn ed
w hile taking classes at her current com m unity college. T h e m ajority of single
m others surveyed had earn ed 1 0 -3 0 credits by fall 2 0 0 6 . Alm ost as m any
m others had earn e d 3 1 - 6 0 credits, with a sm aller group having earn e d m ore
than 6 0 credits. A small group e arn e d less than 10 credits. T h e a v e ra g e num ber
of credits earn e d by single m others w as 3 4. T a b le 21 and Figure 18 portray the
frequency distribution d a ta for credits earned.
T a b le 21.
Credits Earned by Single Mothers a t Current Community College
Frequen cy
Valid
P ercent
Valid
Percent
C um ulative
P ercent
Under 9
15
15.3
15.3
1 5.3
1 0 -3 0
3 1 -6 0
M ore
than 6 0
Total
34
32
3 4 .7
3 2 .7
3 4 .7
3 2 .7
5 0 .0
8 2 .7
17
1 7.3
1 7.3
1 0 0 .0
98
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
123
Under 9
1 0 -3 0
3 1 -6 0
More
than 6 0
Figure 18. Frequen cy of Credits E arned by Single M others at

C urrent C om m unity C ollege
Testing H ypotheses
P earson r statistics w as used to determ ine if relationships existed betw een
two variables. In this study there are two independent v a ria b le s -p a re n tin g
support and availability of C C C C C -w ith a total of 7 indicators (tuition subsidy,
referral services, advising services, parent education, availability of child c are on
cam pus, num ber of services available, and num ber of hours available. All of
these indicators w ere tested with the four indicators for the d e p en d en t variable of
a cadem ic success (E A G , grade im provem ent, persistence, and credits earn ed ).
B ivariate testing allow ed for the relationship of the variables to thoroughly
be tested in pairs and w as a useful statistical technique b e cau se it tested the
extent to which variables occurred tog eth er and how related they w e re (C resw ell,
124
2 0 0 5 ). T h e correlations of all independent and d epen dent variable pairs w ere
tested by using P earson r (B est & Kahn, 2 0 0 3 , Carroll & Carroll, 2 00 2 ; Cresw ell,
200 5 ; Hinkle et al 2 0 0 3 ).
R esearch Q uestions
Parenting Support
R esearch question 1: Is there a correlation betw een child care parenting
support (child care tuition subsidy and referral, advisory, and parent education
services) and acad em ic success (estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade im provem ent,
persistence--the num ber of sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and credits
earn ed ) for single m others?
H o i:T h e r e is no correlation betw een child care parenting support (child
care tuition subsidy and referral, advisory, and parent education services) and
acad em ic success (estim ated a v e ra g e grade, g rade im provem ent, persistence-th e num ber of sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and credits earn ed ) for single
m others.
T h e indicators of the independent variable cam pus child care services and
the breakdow n of the dep en d en t variable aca d e m ic success indicators w ere
tested in pairs separately.
125
Tuition Subsidy
Tuition subsidy - estim ated average grade.
Correlation testing w as applied to the relationship of child care tuition
subsidy and the reported E A G of single m others. T h e findings revealed that no
significant correlation existed b etw een child care tuition subsidies and E A G of
single m others. T h e P earson r com puted value w as placed at -.101 in a tw otailed test, significant at .3 2 6 (> .0 5 ) and it is g re ater at a .0 5 level of significance.
Tuition subsidy - grade improvement.

W h e n the child care subsidy variable w as tested with the grade
im provem ent variable, the findings did not show any significant correlation. T h e
com puted value w as placed at -.1 3 5 , significant at .3 2 6 (> .0 5 ) greater at .05 level
of significance.
Tuition subsidy - persistence.

W ith regard to the issue of persistence m easured by the num ber of
sem esters that the single m others enrolled beyond one sem ester, w hen tuition
subsidy w as tested with persistence no significant correlation existed betw een
child c are tuition subsidy and persistence of single m others. T h e P earson r
com puted value w as placed at .0 1 8 in a tw o-tailed test, at .862. T a b le 2 4 relates
th e statistical information regarding this finding
126
Tuition subsidy - credits earned.
W h e n the child care subsidy variable w as tested with the credits earn ed
variable, the findings did not show any significant correlation. T h e com puted
value w as placed at -.0 1 4 , significant at .896.
T a b le 22 relates information regarding the statistical findings of child care
tuition subsidy correlations with E A G , grade im provem ent, persistence and
credits earn ed . T h e table reflects that there w ere no significant correlations
found.
T a b le 22.
Tuition Subsidy Correlations with EAG, Grade Improvement, Persistence, and

Credits Earned
Tuition Subsidy
Estim ated
A verag e G rad e
Tuition Subsidy
G rad e
Im provem ent
Tuition Subsidy
P ersistence
Tuition Subsidy
Credits E arned
-0.101
-0 .1 3 5
0 .0 1 8
-0 .0 1 4
Sig.
0 .3 2 6
0.191
0 .8 6 2
0 .8 9 6
96
96
96
96
Referral Services
Referral services - estimated average grade.
C orrelation testing w as applied to the relationship of referral service and
th e reported E A G of single m others. No significant correlation existed betw een
127
referral services and E A G of single m others. T h e P earson r com puted value w as
placed at .0 9 9 in a tw o-tailed test at .334. T a b le 2 6 relates the statistical
information regarding this finding.
Referral services - grade improvement.

W h e n the referral service variable w as tested with the grade im provem ent
value w as placed at -.1 6 0 , significant at .115. T a b le 2 7 relates the statistical
inform ation regarding this finding.
Referral services - persistence.

W h e n the referral service variable w as tested with the persistence
value w as placed at -.0 7 2 , significant at .4 8 4 .T a b le 2 8 relates the statistical
Referral services - credits earned

W h e n the referral service variable w as tested with the credits e arn e d (C E )
variable the findings did not show any significant correlation. This d a ta shows
that in 9 8 of 100 c ases there w as concurrence found in this correlation.
T h e com puted value w as placed at -.0 0 2 , significant at .983.
T a b le 2 3 relates the statistical information regarding the findings for correlations
betw een child care referral services and E A G , grade im provem ent, persistence
and credits earned. No significant correlations w ere found betw een th ese
variables.
128
Table 23.
Referral Services Correlations with EAG, G rade Improvement, Persistence, and
Credits Earned
Referral
S ervices and
EAG
R eferral
Services and
G rad e
Im provem ent
Referral
S ervices and
Persistence
Referral
S ervices and
Credits
E arned
0 .0 9 9
-0 .1 6 0
-0 .0 7 2
0 .0 0 2
Sig.
0 .3 3 4
0 .1 1 5
0 .4 8 4
0 .9 8 3
98
98
98
98
Advising Services
Advising services - estim ated average grade.
W ith regard to the issue of advising services and E A G , no significant
correlation w as found. T h e P earson r com puted value w as placed at .0 5 5 in a
tw o-tailed test, at .5 9 0 .T a b le 3 0 relates the statistical information regarding this
finding.
Advising services - grade improvement.

W h e n the advising services variable w as tested with the grade
com puted value w as placed a t.0 0 6 , significant at .956. T a b le 31 relates the
statistical information regarding this finding.
129
Advising services - persistence.

W h e n the advising service variable w as tested with the persistence
value w as placed at .00 7 , significant at .9 4 8 .T a b le 3 2 relates the statistical
Advising services - credits earned.

W ith regard to the issue of advising services and credits earn ed , no
significant correlation w as found. T h e P earson r com puted v alu e w as placed at
.0 2 4 in a tw o-tailed test and .0 2 4 at .812.
T a b le 2 4 relates the statistical information regarding the finding related to
advising services and E A G , grade im provem ent, persistence, and credits earn ed.
No significant correlations w ere found betw een th ese variables.
T a b le 24.
Advising Services Correlations with EAG, G rade Improvement, Persistence, and

Credits Earned
Advising
S ervices and
EAG
Advising
S ervices and
G rad e
Im provem ent
Advising
S ervices and
P ersistence
Advising
S ervices and
Credits
E arned
0 .0 5 5
0 .0 0 6
0 .0 0 7
0 .0 2 4
Sig.
0 .5 9 0
0 .9 5 6
0 .9 4 8
0 .8 1 2
97
98
98
98
130
Parent Education
Parent education - estimated average grade.

W ith regard to the issue of parent education and EA G , no significant correlation
w as found. T h e P earson r com puted value w as -.1 5 5 and placed at a t.131 in a
tw o-tailed test,. T a b le 3 4 relates the statistical information regarding this finding
Parent education - grade improvement.

W ith regard to the issue of parent education and grade im provem ent, no
significant correlation w as found. T h e P earson r com puted value w as placed at .1 1 8 in a tw o-tailed test, at .245. T a b le 3 5 relates the statistical information
regarding this finding.
Parent education - persistence.

W h e n the parent education variable w as tested with the persistence
value w as placed at -.0 6 0 , significant at .555. T a b le 36 relates the statistical
Parent education - credits earned.

W ith regard to the issue of parent education and credits earn ed , no
significant correlation w as found. T h e P earson r com puted value w as placed at .0 3 6 in a tw o-tailed test, at .728.
T a b le 2 5 relates the statistical inform ation regarding the findings related to
parent education services and the variables E A G , grade im provem ent,
persistence, and credits earned.
131
Table 25.
Parent Education Services Correlations with EAG, G rade Improvement,
Persistence, and Credits Earned _______________________________________
P arent
Education and
EAG
r
Sig.
n
P arent
Education and
G rad e
Im provem ent
P arent
Education and
Persistence
P arent
Education and
Credits
E arned
-0 .1 5 5
-0 .1 1 8
-0 .0 6 0
-0 .0 3 6
0.131
0 .2 4 5
0 .5 5 5
0 .7 2 8
97
98
98
98
Availability o f Community College Campus Child Care

R esearch question 2: Is there a correlation betw een availability of
com m unity college cam pus child care (availability of child care on cam pus, the
n um ber of parenting services available, and the num ber of hours single m others
h ave child care available for their use) and a ca d em ic success (estim ated
a v e ra g e grade, grade im provem ent, persistence num ber of sem esters of
continued enrollm ent in college, and credits e arn e d ) for single m others?
H o 2: T h e re is no correlation b etw een the availability of com m unity college
cam pus child care (availability of child care on cam pus, the num ber of parenting
available for their use) and acad em ic success (estim ated a ve ra g e grade, grade
im provem ent, persistence num ber of sem esters of continued enrollm ent in
college, and credits e arn e d ) for single m others?
132

Availability of child care on campus - estimated average grade.
W h e n the availability of child care on cam pus variable w as tested with the
EA G variable, the findings did not show any significant correlation. T h e com puted
value w as placed at -.1 0 4 , significant at .309. T a b le 38 relates the statistical
T a b le 26.
Correlation of Availability of Child Care on Campus an d Estim ated Average

Grade (EAG )
H ow Im portant to Enrollm ent W a s

Availability of C C C
P earson Correlation
Sig.
E AG
-0 .1 0 4
0 .3 0 9
97
133
Availability of child care on campus - grade improvement.
W ith regard to the issue of availability child care on cam pus and grade
im provem ent, there is a significant correlation found. T h e P earson r com puted
value w as placed at .1 6 0 in a tw o-tailed test and exactly equal to .05. This
suggests that the accuracy of the probability p is .95 out of 1 because the error is
only .05. (equal to or lesser than .05). T a b le 39 relates the statistical information
T a b le 27.
Correlation of Availability of Child Care on Campus and

Grade Improvement
H ow Im portant to Enrollm ent

W a s Availability of C C C
Pearson Correlation
H ow H a v e G rad es
C h a n g e d D ue to
CCC
.1 6 0
Sig. (2-tailed)
.05
98
134
Availability of child care on campus - persistence.
W h e n the availability of child care on cam pus w as tested with the
persistence variable, the findings did not show any significant correlation. T h e
Pearson r com puted value w as placed at -.1 1 3 , significant at .26 9 . T a b le 4 0
relates the statistical information regarding this finding.
T a b le 28.
Correlation of Availability of Child Care on Campus and Persistence
H ow Im portant to
Enrollm ent W a s Availability
of C C C
H ow M any
S em e s te rs
A ttended
Pearson Correlation
-0 .1 1 3
Sig. (2-tailed)
0 .2 6 9
n
Note: C C C = child
care center.
98
135
Availability of child care on campus - credits earned.
Correlation testing w as applied to the relationship of availability of child
c are on cam pus and credits earn ed for single m others. T h e findings revealed that
a significant correlation existed betw een availability of child c are on cam pus and
credits earn ed by single m others. T h e P earson r com puted value w as placed at .2 1 8 in a tw o-tailed test with a significance level of .03. T a b le 41 relates the
T a b le 29.
Correlation of Availability of Child Care on Campus and Credits Earned
H ow Im portant to
Enrollm ent W a s
Availability of C C C
Sig. (2-tailed)
H ow M a n y Credits
E arned at C urrent
C om m unity C olleg e
-0 .2 1 8 *
0.031
n
Correlation is significant at the 0 .0 5 level (2-tailed).
98
136
Num ber o f Services
Number of services - estimated average grade.

W h e n the num ber of services variable w as tested with the E A G variable,
the findings did not show any significant correlation. T h e com puted value w as
placed at -.0 9 1 , significant at .389. T a b le 4 2 relates the statistical information
T a b le 30.
Correlation of Num ber o f Services and Estim ated Average G rade (EAG )
N u m b e r of Services
Sig.
EAG
-0.091
0 .3 8 9
91
Num ber of services - grade improvement.

C orrelation testing w as applied to the relationship of n um ber of services
and grade im provem ent for single m others. T h e findings revealed that a
significant correlation existed betw een num ber of services and grade
im provem ent for single m others. T h e P earson r com puted value w as placed at -
137
.2 8 4 in a tw o-tailed test with a significance level at .006. T a b le 4 3 relates the
statistical inform ation regarding this finding.
T a b le 31.
Correlation o f Num ber o f Services an d G rade Improvement
N u m b e r of Services
H ow H a v e G rad e s
CCC
Pearson Correlation
0 .2 8 4
Sig. (2-tailed)
0 .0 0 6
92
Note: C C C = child care center. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2tailed).
Num ber of services - persistence.

W h e n the nu m b er of services variable w as tested with the persistence
value w as placed at -.0 4 3 , significant at .862. T a b le 4 4 relates the statistical
138
Table 32.
Correlation of Num ber of Services and Persistence
N u m b er of Services
Sig. (2-tailed)
H ow M a n y
S em e s te rs A ttended
-0 .0 4 3
0 .6 8 2
92
Num ber o f services - credits earned.

W ith regard to the issue of num ber of services and credits earn ed , no
significant correlation w as found. T h e P earson r com puted value w as placed at .0 5 0 in a tw o-tailed test and -.0 5 0 at .63 6 . T a b le 4 5 relates the statistical
139
Table 33.
Correlation of Num ber of Services and Credits Earned
N u m b e r of
S ervices
P earson
Correlation
N um ber of
Services
E arned at C urrent
C om m unity C ollege
-0 .0 5 0
Sig. (2-tailed)
0 .6 3 6
92
Num ber of Hours Used

Num ber of hours - estim ated average grade.
Correlation testing w as applied to the num ber of hours single m others
used the available hours provided by C C C C C and the EAG of single m others.
T h e findings revealed that no significant correlation existed betw een num bers of
hours and E A G . T h e P earson r com puted value w as placed at -.181 in a tw otailed test, at .077. T h e com puted value of P earson r w as placed at .111,
significant at a .278. T a b le 4 6 relates the statistical information regarding this
finding.
140
Table 34.
Correlation of Num ber of Child C are Hours Used and Estim ated A verage G rade
(EAG )
N u m b e r of Hours
Pearson Correlation
EAG
-0.181
EAG
Sig. (2-tailed)
0 .0 7 7
97
Num ber of hours - grade improvement.

W h e n the num bers of hours variable w as tested with the grade
com puted value of P earson r w as placed at .111, significant at .278. T a b le 4 7
relates the statistical information regarding this finding.
141
Table 35.
Correlation of Num ber of Child C are Hours Used and G rade Improvem ent
H ow H a v e G rad es
N u m b er of Hours
CCC
Pearson
0.111
Correlation
N u m b er of Hours
Sig. (2-tailed)
0 .2 7 8
98
Num ber of hours - persistence.

W h e n the num bers of hours variable w as tested with the persistence
variable, the findings show ed a significant correlation. T h e findings revealed that
a significant correlation existed betw een num bers of hours and persistence at
0 .0 . T h e com puted value of P earson r w as placed at .419, significant at .000.
T a b le 4 8 relates the statistical information regarding this finding.
142
Table 36.
Correlation of Number of Child Care Hours Used and Persistence
H ow M a n y
N u m b er of Hours
S em e s te rs Attended
P earson
0 .4 1 9
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0 .0 0 0
97
N ote. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Num ber o f hours - credits earned.

C orrelation testing w as applied to the n um ber of hours single m others
used the available hours provided by C C C C C and the credits e arn e d variable for
single m others. T h e findings revealed that a significant correlation existed
b etw een num bers of hours and credits earn ed at 0 .0 . T h e P earson r com puted
value w as placed at .4 2 7 in a tw o-tailed test at .0 0 0 . T a b le 4 9 relates the
143
Table 37.
Correlation of Num ber o f Child Care Hours Used and Credits Earned
N u m b e r of Hours
E arned at C urrent
C om m unity C ollege
P earson
0 .4 2 7
Correlation
N um ber of Hours
Sig. (2-tailed)
0 .0 0 0
98
Note. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Hypotheses Testing
For research question 1 and H o i, for all variables tested with P earson r
the researcher failed to reject the null hypotheses. T h e re w ere no significant
correlations for any variables tested for Hoi.
For research question 2 and H o 2, the findings indicate that th e re is a
significant correlation betw een the child care availability independent variable
indicators: (a) availability of child care on cam pus and grade im provem ent and
credits earned; (b) n um ber of services and g rade im provem ent; and (c) num ber
of hours used and persistence and credits earned. T h e Ho2 null hypothesis is
rejected for the above correlations. T h e researcher failed to reject the null for all
144
other H o 2 correlations. It is im portant to note the levels of significance related to
three of the significant findings. N u m b er of services and grade im provem ent w as
found to correlate to .6 of 1 ,0 0 0, rather than .1 of 100. N u m b e r of hours w as
found to correlate with both persistence and credits earned at 0 .0 0 0 . T h e s e
levels of significance indicate very strong relationships betw een th ese variables.
Figure 19 depicts significant correlations found for availability of child care
and academ ic success indicators.
Significant Correlations
Child C a re Availability and A cadem ic S uccess V ariables
G rad e
Im provem ent
Availability
of Child C a re
on C am pus
N u m b e r of
S ervices
O ffered
X*
N u m b e r of
Hours M others
U se Child C a re
P ersistence
Credits
E arned
X*
* indicates ** significance strength
Figure 19. Significant C orrelations
X*
145
S u m m ary of Findings
From a descriptive view point the m ajority of the single m others surveyed
w ere W h ite, with African Am erican m others the second highest ethnic cohort,
and betw een the a g es of 21 and 3 0. T h e y w ere em ployed and earning under
$ 2 0 ,0 0 0 annually with alm ost half of them earning less than $ 9 ,0 0 0 annually.
Most are high-achieving, full-tim e students taking 11 or m ore credits with an EAG
of 3 .1 -4 .0 . T h e y have also persisted beyond one sem ester of enrollm ent and
have attended their current com m unity college for at least four sem esters.
W hile the m ajority of single m others paid a portion of child care tuition
them selves, a third received social services child care tuition subsidy, less than a
third received C C A M P IS child care tuition subsidy, and a sm aller num ber of
single m others received som e form of financial subsidy through fam ily m em b ers,
com m unity college institutional child c are tuition grants, child support, federal
block grants, and com m unity developm ent grants.
No significant correlation w as found betw een the parenting support
independent variable indicators-tuition subsidy and referral, advising, and parent
education s e rv ic e s -a n d the aca d e m ic success in d ic a to rs -E A G , grade
im provem ent, persistence, and credits earn ed . Significant correlations w ere
found for the availability of child care on c a m p u s -g ra d e im provem ent and credits
earned. N u m b er of services significantly correlated with grade im provem ent. In
addition, two significant correlations w ere identified for num ber of h o u r s persistence and credits earned. T h e s e correlations indicate that the independent
146
variable indicator availability of child care services has a strong link to acad em ic
success for single m others.
147
CHAPTER V
S U M M A R Y , IM P L IC A T IO N S , A N D R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
T h e purpose of the study w as to show the relationship of cam pus child

care centers to the acad em ic success of single m other students on com m unity
college cam puses. T h e need to provide data on the relationship of com m unity
college cam pus child care (C C C C C ) to the a ca d em ic success of single m other
students guided the study, b e cau se the single m other student population seem s
to have been overlooked from a research perspective (Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ).
R esearch ers h ave discussed the need to describe issues related to
aca d e m ic success in higher education, including those that are unique to single
m other students. T h e s e writers h ave addressed higher education and w o m e n s
issues, including cam pus childrens centers (Bosw ell, 2 0 0 3 ; Carlson, 2 00 3 ;
O sborn, 1991); general issues related to w om en in higher education (Feiger,
1991; Gilligan, 1982; Gittell, 1986; K eyes, 1980; Keyes & Boulton, 1995;
LaP aglia, 1994; Long & B lanchard, 1991; T hom as, 200 1 ; W im bish, Bum phus, &
Helfgot, 1995); barriers to persistence and aca d e m ic success that single m others
fa c e (C e n te r for W o m e n Policy Studies [C W P S ], 200 2 ; E ubanks, 200 4 ;
G oldberg, 2 00 2 ; Hanson, H eim s, Julian, & S ussm an, 1994; H ooper & M arch,
1980; L eC om pte & Dworkin, 1988; M arx, 2 00 2 ; M athur, R eichle, Straw n, &
W iseley, 2 00 4 ; Ritze, 1996; Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ); and program s that prom ote
educational opportunities for w om en, especially single m others (Boressoff, 2 00 5 ;
148
C W P S , 2 0 0 2 ; E ubanks, 2 00 4 ; G oldberg, 2 00 2 ; Loprest & Zedlew ski, 1999; M arx,
200 2 ; M a th u r et al., 2 00 2 ; Purnell, Blank, Scrivener, & S eu p ersad , 2 0 0 4 ).
S em inal w orks on the im pact of cam pus child care on the a ca d em ic success of
student-parents served as the foundation of this study (F a d a le & W inter, 1988;
K eyes, 1980; Ritze, 1996; Triplett, 2 0 0 0 ).
In order to e xam in e the relationship of C C C C C centers to the academ ic
success of single m others, there w as a need for research-based evidence that
could dem onstrate the level of influence that these centers h ave on the acad em ic
success of single m others. Until this study w as com pleted, no studies had been
found that investigated those C C C C C variables that specifically related to the
acad em ic success of single m others.
This chap ter presents a discussion of the m ajor findings of this study,
relates findings to research questions, com pares findings with previous studies,
shares im plications of findings, m akes recom m endations, and suggests
questions for further research.
M ajor Findings of the Study

S urvey responses w ere solicited from a sam ple of 108 cam pus child care
centers nationw ide that are com m unity college m em bers of the N ational Coalition
for C am p u s C hildrens C enters (N C C C C ). T h e cam pus child care center
directors and the single m others with children enrolled in the child care centers in
fall s em e s te r 2 0 0 6 w ere invited to participate in this study.
149
Single M other Demographics
T h e m ajority of the single m others surveyed w ere W hite, with African
A m erican m others the second highest cohort, and betw een the a g es of 21 and
3 0. T h e m ajority of these w om en might be identified as the working poor. T h e y
are em ployed; earning under $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 annually alm ost half of that m ajority
earning less than $ 9 ,0 0 0 annually. M ost single m others are high-achieving, full
tim e students taking 11 or m ore credits with an estim ated grade a v e ra g e of 3 .1 4 .0 . T h e w om en have persisted beyond one s em e s te r of enrollm ent and have
attended their current com m unity college for at least four sem esters.
W h ile the m ajority of single m others paid a portion of child care tuition
them selves, a third received social services child care tuition subsidy, less than a
third received Child C a re A ccess M e a n s P arents in School (C C A M P IS ) child care
tuition subsidy, and a sm aller num ber received som e form of financial subsidy
through from fam ily m em bers, com m unity college institutional child care tuition
grants, child support, federal block grants, com m unity developm ent grants, or a
com bination of th ese resources.

T h e m ajority of single m others surveyed indicated that the very existence
of child care on cam pus m ad e it possible for them to attend college. M ost single
m others indicated that they perceived C C C C C as a positive cam pus support
150
structure. S o m e m others indicated that they could not have enrolled in the
college or continue enrollm ent without child care cen ter support.
Num ber of Parenting Support Services

Study findings dem onstrated that the num ber of parenting support
services m a d e available to single m others has a m ore significant im pact on the
acad em ic success of single m others than an y individual or specific type of
service offered. Although som e m others indicated that specific parenting support
services m a d e it e as ier to attend college, none of these individual parenting
support services w ere found to have a significant correlation with the aca d e m ic
success of single m others. H ow ever, w hen the num ber of parenting support
services w as correlated with a ca d em ic success indicators, there w as significant
correlation with grade im provem ent w hen w om en received three or m ore support
services. It w as also found that there w as a strong relationship betw een the
n um ber of parenting support services and credits earned.
Num ber of Hours That Mothers Use Child Care Services

Findings related to the num ber of child care hours used by single m others
for five sem esters indicated that two significant acad em ic success correlations
exist. T h e use of accom m odating child care hours significantly correlated with
p ersistence and credits earn ed . Single m others with accom m odating child care
151
hours available w ere able to attend m ore sem esters of classes and earn m ore
credits tow ard their acad em ic goals.
Findings R elated to R esearch Q uestions

T h e study aim ed to an sw er two research questions and investigate
w hether related hypotheses w ere supported.
Research Question 1
Is there a correlation betw een child care parenting s u p p o rt-c h ild care
tuition subsidy and referral, advisory, and parent education s e rv ic e s -a n d
acad em ic success, as indicated by estim ated a verag e grade, grade
im provem ent, p e rs is te n c e -th e num ber of sem esters of continued enrollm ent,
and credits earn ed for single m others?
As indicated previously, som e m others reported that specific parenting
support services m ad e it e a s ie r to attend college. How ever, none of these
individual parenting support services w ere found to have a significant correlation
with the a ca d em ic success of single m others. B ased on the findings of the study,
there w ere no significant correlations found am ong any of the individual parenting
support services researched.
152
Research Question 2
Is th e re a correlation betw een child care availabilityavailability of child
care on cam pus, the num ber of parenting support services, and the num ber of
hours that single m others use child care services and acad em ic success, as
indicated by estim ated a v e ra g e grade, grade im provem ent, persistence--the
num ber of sem esters of continued enrollm ent, and credits e arn e d for single
m others?
As previously noted, the m ajority of single m others reported that child care
on cam pus facilitated their a ca d em ic pursuits. W h e n availability of child c are on
cam pus w as investigated further, two significant correlations w ere found betw een
availability of child care and grade im provem ent and the num ber of credits
e arned for single m others. T h e im provem ent in grades and increase in the
n um ber of credits earn e d are likely attributed to single m others having tim e to
attend classes, participate in study groups, do hom ew ork, and earn credits by
passing classes.
Significant correlations w ere also found for num ber of services and grade
im provem ent. T h e num ber of hours single m others used child care services w as
significantly correlated with persistence and credits earned. A strong relationship
betw een the num ber of child care hours used and estim ated a v e ra g e grade w as
also found. T h e s e findings confirm that there is a strong correlation betw een
availability of C C C C C and acad em ic success as defined by g rade im provem ent,
153
Conclusions
T h e findings of this study dem onstrate that individual parenting support
services h ave less significance than the overall offering of multiple parenting
support services and accom m odating operational hours of child care services.
O verall, the study dem onstrates that the relationship of C C C C C centers to the
acad em ic success of single m other students is significant w here the centers (a)
h ave a visible presence on cam pus, (b) provide single m others the opportunity to
avail th em selves of multiple parenting support services (at least three), and (c)
provide accom m odating child care hours so that m others can pursue acad em ic
success. W h e re C C C C C centers provide this level of support single m others
seem to persist, accum ulate college credits, and im prove grades. This type of
C C C C C support m ay also account for single m others keeping an academ ically
strong grade point ave ra g e. A large num ber of N C C C C m others m aintained a
3 .1 -4 .0 estim ated a v e ra g e grade. Availability of accom m odating child care hours
that parents can count on for support w hen they h ave classes, work, or need to
study has been found in other research to be an im portant support factor of
cam pus child care for student-parents (Carlson, 2 0 0 3 ).
Conclusions R elated to Previous Studies

This section com pares th ese findings with the findings of the sem inal
studies that w ere used as a foundation of this study.
154
Fadale and Winter Findings
T h e F a d ale and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ) study findings are related to the S tate
University of N e w York (S U N Y ) com m unity college system . T h e two surveys
used in the S U N Y study w ere m odified and used in this study.
T h e m ajority of S U N Y student-parents surveyed perceived that cam pu sbased child care had a positive im pact on their acad em ic success. About half of
th e N C C C C single m other students surveyed perceived that c am p u s-b ased child
c are had a direct positive im pact on their acad em ic success. T h e m ajority of
N C C C C single m others perceived that C C C C C m a d e going to college e a s ie r for
them . M any S U N Y student-parents indicated that continued college enrollm ent
would not have been possible without cam pus child care services; just a third of
the N C C C C single m others indicated that they would not be able to continue their
college enrollm ent without cam pus child care services.
About half of S U N Y student-parents identified cam pus child care as a firstpriority factor that facilitated their attending college, and the m ajority of N C C C C
single m other students indicated that C C C C C w as im portant to their enrollm ent
in their current com m unity college. S tudent-parents in both the S U N Y and the
N C C C C studies identified director and staff advising services and assistance in
solving parenting problem s as an im portant feature of the cam pus child care
program s.
From com paring the findings of the two studies it appears that the S U N Y
student-parents and the N C C C C single m others perceived that C C C C C had a
155
positive im pact on their a ca d em ic success, persistence, and initial enrollm ent in
com m unity college. Figure 2 0 depicts a com parison of the findings of both
studies.
CCCCC
Im pact on
A cad em ic
Success
F ad ale
& W in ter
1988
C a rey Fletcher
2007
M ajority studentparents (S P s)
perceived
direct im pact on
academ ic
success
M ajority single
m others (S M s )
perceived
CCCCC
m ad e
college
e a s ie r
CCCCC
Im pact on
P ersistence
CCCCC
First
Enrollm ent
Priority
A ttend ance
not possible
without
CCCCC
50% SPs
indicated
CCCCC
first
enrollm ent
priority
3 0 % indicated
attendance
not possible
75% SMs
indicated
CCCCC
without
CCCCC
important
to enrollm ent
Figure 20. Com parison of F a d ale & W in te r and N C C C C Study Findings. C C C C C

= com m unity college cam pus child care.
Ritze Findings
R itze s hunch that participation in on-site cam pus child c are arrangem en ts
had a strong independent im pact on the long-term persistence am ong poor
w om en with children w as confirm ed by her study. T h e N C C C C study findings
a p p e a r to support this hunch. N C C C C study findings indicate that there is a
156
significant correlation between CCCCC center service hours used and
persistence.
W hile the N C C C C study w as not specifically designed to study poor
w om en as the Ritze study w as, the N C C C C study findings revealed that the
majority of the single m others surveyed w ere earning less than $ 2 0 ,0 0 0
annually with alm ost half earning under $ 9 ,0 0 0 . Both studies reported data on
poor w om en , and the results of the tw o studies lead to sim ilar findings that
confirm that the services of on-site cam pus child care centers h ave a strong
relationship to persistence am ong poor college w om en.
Triplett Findings
T h e Triplett (2 0 0 0 ) study w as conducted at the cam pus child care center
of the Southern Illinois University in C arb o n d ale, Illinois (S IU C I). A cadem ic
success w as dem onstrated using three factors identified by self-report:
cum ulative g rade point ave ra g e, retention, and program com pletion. In the
N C C C C study the acad em ic success indicators of self-reported estim ated
a v e ra g e g rade and p e rs is te n c e -n u m b e r of sem esters of enrollm ent beyond one
s e m e s te r-in d ic a te a connection to the cum ulative grade point a v e ra g e and
retention a ca d em ic success factors studied at S IU C I.
O verall, the N C C C C study does not confirm a strong relationship betw een
C C C C C and estim ated a v e ra g e grade. H ow ever, the study confirm s significant
correlations betw een hours of care used by single m others and persistence. Both
157
studies confirm a strong correlation b etw een child care on cam pus and
persistence of student parents.
In com paring the N C C C C study to the three sem inal studies of F a d ale &
W in te r (1 9 8 8 ), Ritze, (1 9 9 6 ), and Triplett (2 0 0 0 ), the R itze and N C C C C findings
are the m ost similar. This is perhaps due to the fact that both studies reported
findings that involved a relatively large sam ple of poor w om en w ho w ere
persisting in college against all odds and being supported by C C C C C centers.
Im plications
T h e follow discussion reflects on the m eaning of research findings,
considers the single m other dem ographic profile, and suggests som e thoughts
about w hat implications can be draw n from the significant findings of the study
with regard to the relationship of C C C C C and single m other g rade im provem ent,
Num ber o f Parenting Support Services

As m entioned previously, study findings relate that for single m others, in
addition to the existence of child care on cam pus, there is an im portant need for
num erous parenting support services and accom m odating child care hours.
Single m others grades im proved, they persisted, and they earn ed m ore credits
w hen several parenting support services and accom m odating hours w ere m ad e
available to them .
158
T h e s e findings imply that single m others need educational and parenting
support. T h e y need a variety of services to m eet their individualized
d evelopm ental, learning, and parenting needs. T h e y especially need support in
balancing work, school, m otherhood, finances, and other responsibilities of being
a single m other head of household (Coontz, 1 997).
T h e findings also imply that com m unity college adm inistrators, child care
cen ter directors, and teachers need to consider offering multiple parent support
services, including child care tuition subsidy and referral, advisory, and parent
education services. C a m p u s leaders in financial aid, student affairs and other
departm ents m ay w ant to e xa m in e the effectiveness of their operations in
m eeting the developm ental needs of single m others. T h e s e services a p p e a r to
sustain the a ca d em ic success of single mothers. T h e study findings imply that
C C C C C centers need to be as effective in m eeting the developm ental needs of
single m others as they are in m eeting the developm entally appropriate n eed s of
th e children they serve.
Num ber of Hours o f Child Care Use

Significant findings of the N C C C C study w ere related to the num ber of
child care hours that single parents used over five sem esters of college
enrollm ent. T h e findings confirm ed significant correlations betw een hours of child
care services used and a ca d em ic su ccess--grade im provem ent, num ber of
s em esters of continued enrollm ent, and credits earned.
159
For the single m others th e s e findings imply that they can account for the
tim e they need and use. T h e y need accom m odating child care hours to help
them fit in all of the tim e consum ing responsibilities they h ave to balance,
including attending classes, labs, and study groups; doing hom ew ork, doing
research, and writing papers; taking part in paren t-teach er conferences; helping
children with hom ew ork; taking c are of fam ily m edical health needs; and fitting in
a little tim e for th em selves (C oontz, 1 99 7 ).
T h e s e findings further imply that college adm inistrators and C C C C C
cen ter directors and staff m ay w an t to pay close attention to how well their
available operating hours support single m others. T h e y m ay w an t to survey
single m others to investigate specific service needs further. Adm inistrators m ay
need to a n aly ze the fiscal implications for planning and budgeting related to
possible expansions of C C C C C expansion of hours of operation. B ased on the
significant correlations betw een child care hours used and the a ca d e m ic success
of single m others, it is likely that if single m others cannot access and use
necessary child c are hours, their aca d e m ic success will be m arginalized.
Persistence
T h e findings of this study imply that the num ber of parenting support
services and the num ber of child care service hours offered by C C C C C centers
are linked significantly to persistence. T h e s e findings imply that the C C C C C
cen ter functions as a significant cam pus support structure that im proves the
160
persistence of single m others. T h e theory that this study w as based on relates to
issues of retention and persistence of students. Ritze (1 9 9 6 ) suggested that
persistence, retention, and acad em ic success for poor m other students are
im pacted positively by on-site cam pus child care. O ther researchers h ave also
found that students learn m ore effectively in environm ents that are inclusive and
offer multiple supportive services (G illigan, 1 98 2 , 1987; see also Carlson, 200 3 ;
F a d ale & W inter, 1991b; H arvey-S m ith, 2 00 3 ; Kuh et al., 2 00 5 ; Kuk, 1 990).
Tinto (1 9 9 3 ) theorized that persistence to graduation and subsequent
departure from college is at least partially influenced by factors that help integrate
students into the cam pus and support their enrollm ent persistence and acad em ic
success (H arvey-S m ith, 2 0 0 3 , 2 00 5 ; Kuh et al., 2 0 0 5 ). Tinto (1 9 9 3 ) also stated
that effective retention program s focus on the integration of nontraditional
students into a variety of cam pus support com m unities.
Through this lens C C C C C c en ters parenting support services and hours
of operations can im pact greatly the retention, persistence, and acad em ic
success of single m others. T h e C C C C C centers can be seen as a central
contextual com ponent of T in to s student integration and persistence theory
(R itze, 1996; Tinto, 1 99 3 ). T h e findings of this study imply that C C C C C centers
are an im portant and significant part of a com m unity college cam pus
environm ents student support structure (H arvey-S m ith, 2 00 3 ; Kuh et al. 2 00 5 ;
Ritze, 1 996).
161
R ecom m endations
This studys research findings h ave e xpanded the know ledge of how
C C C C C services are related to acad em ic success for single m other students.
T h e s e findings relate to recom m endations for action to be taken by higher
education leaders at all levels of the institution.
W ith alm ost half of the N C C C C com m unity college single m others living in
poverty and alm ost half of those earning below $ 9 ,0 0 0 annually, advocacy
initiatives are needed to ensure that w elfare reform and the H igher Education Act
policym akers address the n eed s of poor single m others and other w om en
(C W P S , 2 00 6 ; G oldberg, 2 0 0 2 ; Houghton, 2 00 2 ; Loprest & Zedlew ski, 1999;
M a th u re t al., 2 00 4 ; N C C C C , Polakow , 1993; 2 00 4 ; Thom as, 2 00 1 ; U .S .
D ep artm en t of Education, 2 0 0 2 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ).
Recom m endation 1: Initiate campus programs an d service systems that support

the full participation of all nontraditional women, including single mothers.
W o m e n s com m unity college undergraduate enrollm ent is exp ected to
continue to increase at a fa s te r rate than m e n s enrollm ent. S ince 1 9 9 7 o ver half
of the fe m a le student population has been adult w om en ag e 2 5 years or older
(R o o n ey et al., 2 00 6 ; T h o m as, 2 0 0 1 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). W o m e n facing college entry
or reentry are part of an ethnically, socio-econom ically, and educationally diverse
first-generation cohort of college students. M a n y are mothers and m ost are single
m others (Thom as, 200 1 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). T h e y are known to balance work, school,
162
and fam ily responsibilities on an individualized idiosyncratic level, not alw ays on
a traditional cam pus structure level (R itze, 1 99 6 ). T h e s e m others have identified
institutional support barriers, including financial costs, lack of financial
assistance, and lack of child c are (or lack of a d eq u a te child care) on cam pus
(Ferguson, 1992; G arcia, 1987; T h o m as, 2 00 1 ; Tinto, 1 993).
This influx of adult fe m a le students will likely continue to im pact
com m unity college cam puses in part because com m unity colleges are view ed by
m any single m others as a good place to further their education, achieve g re ater
econom ic security, and reach a better standard of living for th em selves and their
children (H erid een , 1998; Huff & Thorpe, 1997; K a g e r & S toesz, 1994; Law rence
& Bernstein, 1993; T hom as, 2 0 0 1 ). It is suggested that com m unity colleges and
cam pus service system s, including child care centers, begin to think about and
perhaps even p repare for an increase in this population and plan for their needs.
Child c are and other student service system s m ay support these w om en by
accepting the responsibility for funding single m other support services and by
attem pting to ensure that sufficient student services, parenting support services,
and accom m odating child care hours of operation are available to sustain the
a ca d em ic success of single m others.
Recom m endation 2: Use w om ens developm ental theory to develop services and
gender-specific programs for supporting the persistence, academ ic success, and
personal developm ent of all women.
163
T h e developm ental n eeds of all w om en , including single m others, are
significant issues for cam pus leaders to consider (Feiger, 1991; G illigan, 1982;
s e e also G illigan, 1987; Gittell, 1986; K eyes, 1980; Keyes & Boulton, 1995;
L aP aglia, 1994; Long & Blanchard, 1991; W im bish et al., 199 5 ). Both student
affairs and C C C C C leaders m ay need to address the needs of single m others
and all nontraditional fe m a le students. G iven the large num ber of fe m a le
students w ho are responsible for children, providing a safe place for children
while m others are on cam pus could alleviate som e of the stress of going to
school for single m others. Alleviating child care stress as a concern could provide
additional access, integration, and en co u rag em en t for this population to persist in
enrollm ent and attain academ ic success (Adelstein et al., 1983; F a d a le & W inter,
1991b; Ritze, 1996; Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ; T h o m as, 2 0 0 1 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). Incorporating
and integrating w o m e n s support structures and program s across cam puses
needs to be a priority of com m unity college leaders (Feiger, 1991; Gittell, 1986;
Keyes, 1980; K eyes & Boulton, 1995; LaP aglia, 1994; Long and Blanchard,
1991; W im bish et al., 1995).
As this cohort of nontraditional students continues to grow on cam puses, it
is suggested that the needs of adult fe m a le students might be considered anew .
For exam ple, cam pus service delivery system s could be developed that have the
potential to support a sense of belongingness and break down barriers for single
m others and other fe m a le students. T h e s e system s have been lacking on m any
cam puses, and off-cam pus resources and support have not alw ays been
164
available for w om en. S tudent perceptions of the cam pus environm ent being
positive and engendering a sense of relational belongingness a p p e a r to be an
im portant com ponent of fe m a le student persistence (Feiger, 1991; Gilligan, 1982;
s ee also G illigan, 1987; Gittell, 1986; K eyes, 1980; Keyes & Boulton, 1995;
LaP aglia, 1994; Long & Blanchard, 1991; W im bish e ta l., 199 5 ). S ince this study
has confirm ed that the availability of m ultiple parent support services positively
im pacts the aca d e m ic success of single m other students, it is recom m ended that
C C C C C and student affairs leaders em b rac e their responsibilities to provide
parenting support services and w o m e n s support services that m eet the
developm ental needs of single m others and all fe m a le students.
It is further recom m ended that cam pus leaders seriously consider
reexam ining their goals, philosophies, and program s regarding the influx of
fe m a le students. W h ile the structure of fam ily life has changed substantially, the
structures of educational environm ents have not. C am pus structures and
services need to be recreated to m eet the special needs single m others and all
w om en.
Recom m endation 3: Initiate campus welfare reform advocacy programs that

mobilize community college efforts to advocate for the socioeconomic and
educational rights o f single m other students.
T h e socioeconom ic condition of single m others has perpetuated the
fem inization of poverty, a state w here w om en and children have been
165
disenfranchised and disem pow ered and their civic voice silenced (P olakow ,
1 99 3 ). Prevention or reversal of this state of poverty and socioeconom ic failure
for single m other students m ay begin by rem oving barriers to college access,
persistence, and a ch ie v em e n t of acad em ic success (C W P S , 2 00 2 ; Gittell, 1986;
Gittell & Steffy, 2 00 0 ; H o o p er & M arch, 1980; Laden, 1994; LaP aglia, 1994;
T erenzini, C a b re ra , & B ernal, 2 00 1 ; T hom as, 2 00 1 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ).
P oor w om en and single m others are currently fighting to obtain access to
higher education and to stay th e re once enrolled. T h e 2 0 0 2 Personal
Responsibility, W ork, and Fam ily Prom otion Act, which reauthorized the
T e m p o rary Assistance for N e e d y Fam ilies (T A N F ) w elfare reform program , has
severely restricted the college opportunities of m ore than 5 6 % of w om en
receiving public assistance w ho are high school graduates, had e arn e d G E D s , or
had attended som e college (C W P S , 2 0 0 2 ). B ecause of the restrictive T A N F
regulations, little has chang ed for single m others enrolling in colleges over the
past d e ca d e (C W P S , 2 0 0 2 ). T h e s e w om en struggle to m a ke it financially and
m aintain college enrollm ent. This study verifies this fact; the majority of single
m others surveyed are living on less than $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 a year, with alm ost half of
those m others earning less than $ 9 ,0 0 0 a year, as well as working full or part
tim e w hile attending school and achieving aca d e m ic success.
It is recom m ended that com m unity colleges, C C C C C organizations, the
N C C C C , and all educators concerned with access to higher education issues
attem pt to join advocacy initiatives on behalf of low -incom e single m others.
(E ubanks, 2 00 4 ; Folbre, 200 1 ; Polakow , 1993; Ritze, 1996; Schobert, 2 0 0 0 ).

C om m unity colleges are expected to develop a strong advocacy program s to
support w om en through w elfare-to-w o rk initiatives within individual states and
nationw ide (C W P S , 2 0 0 4 ; W hite, 2 0 0 1 ). C C C C C centers and other cam pus
support structures need to suggest to com m unity colleges that they include such
advocacy in their mission statem ents to ensure that single m other students not
only h ave an open door to higher education but also have access to com m unity
college support services that will en ab le their persistence and aca d e m ic success
(E ubanks, 2 00 4 ; Folbre, 200 1 ; Polakow , 1993).
T h e re are those who believe and strongly ad vocate that poor w om en and
their children, particularly single m others, deserve the s am e higher educational
access and persistence support that scores of m en and som e w om en enjoyed at
th e end of W orld W a r II through the Gl bill (Loprest & Zedlew ski, 1 99 9 ). If lowincom e w om en are to exp erien ce equity in higher education access and
persistence support, then it follows that this is a good tim e for educators to
com m it th em selves to the advocacy and the w ork necessary to ensure that single
m others are able to fulfill their educational potential.
Recom m endation 4: Develop educational and training programs that promote

educational opportunities for women.
It is recom m ended that com m unity college leaders initiate educational
program s that recognize and support the independence and self-sufficiency of
167
single m others trying to m ove off of w elfare. As com m unity colleges s e e k to
influence the w elfare reform local, state, and national agend as, they m ay also
include developing and designing w elfare-to-w o rk program s for single m others.
M a n y states h ave provided successful program s for single m others. T h e s e
program s can be used as m odels for program s on any com m unity college
cam pus. R efe ren c e s to specific successful program s are listed in chap ter II of
this dissertation.
Recom m endation 5: Maintain aw areness of and involvement in advocacy

initiatives related to the Higher Education Act, student support grants, an d fiscal
allocations such as Child C are Access M eans Parents in School.
Federal funds for cam pus child care tuition and child care program
en han cem en ts w ere m a d e available in 1 9 9 8 through the C C A M P IS program .
T h e purpose of this program is to support the participation of low -incom e parents
in postsecondary education through the provision of cam pus child c are services.
Through this $ 6 0 million program , colleges have been eligible for grants of up to
1% of the institutions Pell G rant dollars a w a rd e d to students annually. T h e s e
funds have supported low -incom e students, including single m others, to enroll
and rem ain in school and their children to participate in child care program s
conveniently located on the college cam pus.
It is believed that cam pus child care program s are at the intersection of
two of the most powerful, cost-effective engines to the e c o n o m y -h ig h e r
168
education and quality child c are (R itze, 1 99 6 ). C om m unity colleges are asked to
understand this and to w ork effectively to ad vo cate for C C A M P IS funding.
Recom m endation 6: Maintain awareness of and involvement in advocacy

initiatives related to local and state governm ent fiscal allocations for welfare
reform initiatives, higher education welfare reform legislation, and education
budgeting priorities for low-income families an d single mothers.
C om m unity college adm inistrators and cam pus advocates m ay w an t to
consider the fact that low incom e w om en represent a significant group of
postsecondary students. Slightly m ore than one third of all w om en undergrad uate
students are low incom e. T h e m ajority of these w om en are over 2 3 years of age,
support them selves, and nearly 4 0 % of them are parents. T h e majority of th ese
w om en attend com m unity colleges (C e n te r for W o m e n and Policy, 2 0 0 6 ). As a
m ajor service cohort for com m unity colleges it is recom m ended that student
affairs, financial aid, cam pus child care, and governm ent relations advocacy
leaders consider the plight of th ese w om en and plan for inform ational and
advocacy initiatives which cham pion these w om en.
C om m unity college leaders m ay find it helpful to collaborate with w elfare
reform officials on both the local and state levels to stay ab reast of w elfare reform
and higher education policy, research, and w elfare reform strategies which
im pact cam pus and com m unity initiatives.
169
Recom m endation 7: Develop on-campus educational programs to inform
community college administrators, boards o f trustees, and others about the
socioeconomic plight of single mothers in need o f campus child care services,
including the need for expanded parenting support services and hours of
operation structured to give single mothers the weekly child care hours they need
to persist.
C om m unity college leaders h ave a role in advocacy for single m other
parents. T h e y m ay be required to research information and reflect on the needs
of single m others and other m arginalized student-parents on cam pus. If leaders
are given the findings of research related to postsecondary attrition and
persistence of nontraditional fe m a le students, they can bring this know ledge to
th e table of theoretical, m ethodological, decision-m aking, and policy discussions.
T h e results of this study and sim ilar studies will contribute to a broader
understanding of the linkages betw een C C C C C contributions to the acad em ic
success of single mothers. In addition the study findings m ay link to broader
cam pus issues related to the integration, persistence, educational attainm ent,
and econom ic success of poor single m others.
As higher education institutions fa c e budget constraints and other internal
resource issues, the expansion of or continuation of cam pus child care m ay be
questioned. T h e results of this study are im portant to cam pus child care center
adm inistrators w hen trying to defend the existence of or to im plem ent new
cam pus child care program s that support student-parents. T h e findings support
170
th e existence of C C C C C services overall and specifically enco u rag e C C C C C
centers to offer num erous m eaningful parenting support services and
accom m odating operational hours that m a ke acad em ic success possible for
single m others. It is further recom m ended that the findings of this study be
considered w hen com m unity college leaders try to understand the educational,
econom ic, political, social, and em ancipation issues that are relevant to single
m others and their children in our country and around the world.
Q uestions for Further Study

In order to im prove com m unity college cam puses, student life support
structures, cam pus child care service delivery system s, and ultim ately the life of
single m others and other student-parents, m any research questions need to be
explored. T h e following questions are suggested for further research that has the
potential to extend the research efforts of this study.
1.
W hat is the relationship o f C C C C C to the academ ic success o f one single

m other or a small cohort o f single mothers graduating from a community
college? This type of research would extend the quantitative design of this
study and extend the research into a qualitative investigation. T h e results
might reveal a m ore in-depth profile of the single m other student and a
m ore detailed picture of her needs and how C C C C C m ight m eet those
needs.
171
2.
Do single fathers higher education academ ic success needs differ from

those o f single m other students? This study only addressed the needs of
single m others. Previous research has only addressed the needs of
student-parents in general. A further study could a n alyze d a ta related to
C C C C C centers m eeting the needs of single fathers and m a le parents.
3.
W hat is the relationship of C C C C C to the academ ic success o f African

Am erican mothers? This study did not consider the needs of specific
cultural or ethnic cohorts of single m others. A study that would investigate
com m unity college cam pus child care factors and support of African
A m erican m others would not only extend this studys com m unity college
research but would extend the research of Triplett (2 0 0 0 ), which
considered the university cam pus child care needs of African A m erican
student-parents.
4.
How does financial aid and child care tuition subsidy impact the academ ic
success of single mother community college students? This study did not
look at college tuition financial subsidy implications for single m other
students. A study investigating college tuition and child care tuition
financial aid would extend the child care tuition subsidy findings of this
study and give a m ore in-depth picture of the im portance of all financial aid
on a com m unity college cam pus for single m others and parents. Linkages
b etw een Pell G rant and C C A M P IS subsidy support could be explored and
explained in depth for possible ad vocacy purposes.
172
5.
H ow does C C C C C relate to welfare reform issues o f single parents of

small children? W h ile it might be speculated that som e of the low -incom e
single m others from this survey study w ere T A N F recipients, there is no
evidence b e cau se the study did not look into that dem ographic factor. A
study to investigate the relationship of C C C C C to the w elfare reform
issues of T A N F recipients would extend this study and m a ke available
im portant information concerning the role of C C C C C in assisting T A N F
recipients to m ove from w elfare to work.
A Final W ord
M y interest in this study w as born nearly 3 0 years ago w hen I first had the
p leasure to w ork with single m other college students w hose children w ere
enrolled in a C C C C C center. M ost of the w om en w ere low -incom e and receiving
child care tuition subsidy from the state w elfare and social service system s of the
state of M aryland. As director of a C C C C C c en ter I believed then, as I do now,
that C C C C C m akes a significant contribution to the quality of life for single
m others and their fam ilies. I believed then, as I do now, that this contribution can
lead to acad em ic success, econom ic em ancipation, changed lives, and selfsufficiency for w om en.
I believe that w om en, especially single m others, need com m unity, a sense
of belonging, and the know ledge that their children are safe and being cared for
in their absence. C C C C C can offer w om en this security. This study has helped to
173
identify som e specific w ays that C C C C C centers can offer single m others
significant support and en ab le them to achieve personal a ca d e m ic success.
Like R itze (1 9 9 6 ) I believe that cam pus child care program s are at the
intersection of the tw o most powerful, cost-effective engines of our econom y
higher education and quality child care. This partnership n eed s to be sustained
and e n h an ce d so that com m unity colleges can m ake one of their m ost im portant
contributions to society helping single m others leave w elfare perm anently.
All educators and leaders of the higher education com m unity are called to
action. W e m ust not allow our governm ent or educational cam puses to limit the
aspirations of our resilient and c ap ab le single m other students. W ith the large
and growing num ber of poor single m other heads of households in our nation,
com m unity college leaders a re now called upon to consider that the w ell-being of
these single m others today will eventually be the w ell-being of our w hole society
(Solom on, 198 5 ).
A positive end to this A m erican education story m ust include com m unity
college leaders responding to the educational and social call to action on behalf
of single m others. It is tim e to think not only of com m unity college access for
single m others but also of w ays to help them persist. S ince increasing minority
and nontraditional student access has been a com m unity college priority for
d ecades, m oving that em phasis to persistence m akes sense. C onsider the words
of F a d ale and W inter: access without persistence ap pears to benefit no o n e
(F a d a le & W inter, 1991b, p. 1).
174
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a n s w e r. Y o u m a y n e e d to c o n ta c t o th e r c a m p u s o ffic es to o b ta in th e sp ec ific d a ta
n e c e s s a ry to c o m p le te s o m e q u e s tio n s in th e su rv ey .
T h e m o re info rm ation you ca n p ro vid e , th e m o re u sefu l this s tu d y will be;
h o w e v e r, it is N O T N E C E S S A R Y T O A N S W E R E V E R Y Q U E S T IO N . W h e n
s p ec ific d a ta a re not a v a ila b le , p le a s e u s e yo u r b e s t e s tim a te , in d icate N A fo r not
a v a ila b le , o r le a v e th e a n s w e r b la n k . IF Y O U K N O W S P E C IF IC N U M B E R S
P L E A S E G IV E T H O S E D A T A .
F o r q u e s tio n s 4 -1 5 p le a s e p ro vid e th e fo llo w in g e n ro llm e n t info rm ation using

child c a re c e n te r re co rd s fo r F A L L 2 0 0 5 - S P R IN G 2 0 0 6 .
4
P le a s e in d icate th e sp ec ific n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts s e rv e d fo r this
period:
5
If you do not k n o w th e sp ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e in d icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts s e rv e d fo r this period:
under 10
11
10-29
30-49
50-69
70-89
90-100
21
3 .1
4 !
S i
6 1
over 100
71
6
P le a s e in d icate th e sp ec ific n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts th a t w e re
S IN G L E M O T H E R S fo r this period:
'
194
If you d o not k n o w th e sp ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e in d icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts th a t w e re S IN G L E M O T H E R S durin g this
period:
under 10
II
10-29
30-49
50-69
70-89
90-100
over 100
iJ
JU
JJ
JJ
JJ
JJ
P le a s e in d ic a te th e sp e c ific n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts th a t w e re
re cip ie n ts of child c a re tuition s u p p o rt fro m S o cial S e rv ic e s durin g this
period:
9
If you d o not kn o w th e sp ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e in d icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts th a t w e re re cip ie n ts of child c a re tuition
su p po rt fro m S o cial S e rv ic e s during this period:
Under 10
I I
10-29
30-49
50-69
70-89
21
11
4 1
51
90-100
over 100
.,61
P le a s e in d icate th e sp e c ific n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t w e re
re cip ie n ts of child c a re tuition s u p p o rt fro m S o cial S e rv ic e s durin g this
period:

n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t w e re recip ien ts of child c a re tuition
su p po rt fro m S o cial S e rv ic e s during this period:
under 10
10-29
30-49
50-69
70-89
90-100
over 100
195
U
ZJ
5 .1
.1
5. J
6 i
JJ
12
P le a s e in d icate th e sp e c ific n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts th a t w e re
re cip ie n ts of child c a re tuition s u p p o rt fro m C hild C a r e A c c e s s M e a n s
P a re n ts In S ch o o l (C C A M P IS ) durin g this period:
13
If you d o not k n o w th e sp e c ific n u m b e r, p le a s e in d icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts th a t w e re re cip ie n ts of child c a re tuition
su p po rt fro m C h ild C a r e A c c e s s M e a n s P a re n ts In S c h o o l (C C A M P IS )
during this period:
under 10
ill
10-29
30-49
50-69
21
...U
4 1
70-89
90-100
over 100
P le a s e in d icate th e sp e c ific n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t w e re
re cip ie n ts of child c a re tuition s u p p o rt fro m C hild C a r e A c c e s s M e a n s
P a re n ts In S ch o o l (C C A M P IS ) durin g this period:
15
If you do not k n o w th e s p ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e in d icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t w e re re cip ie n ts of child c a re tuition
su p po rt fro m C h ild C a r e A c c e s s M e a n s P a re n ts In S c h o o l (C C A M P IS )
during th is period:
under 10
j y
10-29
30-49
50-69
j j
j j
j j
70-89
90-100
over 100
j j
196
P L E A S E S E L E C T T H E "S U B M IT " B U T T O N B E L O W T O C O N T IN U E T H E
SURVEY

Single Mothers
P le a s e a n s w e r q u e s tio n s 1 6 -2 5 a b o u t s tu d e n t p a re n ts a n d sin g le m o th e r
stu d en ts w h o u sed o r a re using yo u r c a m p u s child c a re s e rv ic e s during th e
period F A L L 2 0 0 4 T H R O U G H F A L L 2 0 0 6 .
D e p e n d in g on th e s c o p e of yo u r p ro g ra m re co rd s, you m a y h a v e th e d a ta re ad ily
a v a ila b le or you m a y n e e d to a s k yo u r re g istrar, institutional re s e a rc h e r, o r o th e r
a p p ro p ria te o ffic e fo r th e d a ta . If you c a n n o t o b ta in th e d a ta , p le a s e u s e yo u r b est
e s tim a te , in d ic a te N A fo r not a v a ila b le , o r le a v e th e a n s w e r b la n k . IF Y O U K N O W
S P E C IF IC N U M B E R S P L E A S E G IV E T H O S E D A T A .
16
P le a s e in d ic a te th e sp ec ific n u m b e r of s tu d e n t p a re n ts s e rv e d during
this period:
17
If you d o not k n o w th e sp ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e ind icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of s tu d e n t-p a re n ts s e rv e d durin g this period:
1-39
40-69
70-99
100-129
130-159
160 or more
197
JLJ
JJ
-JJ
JU
JU
JJ
18
P le a s e in d ic a te th e sp ec ific n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S s e rv e d
during this period:
19
n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S s e rv e d durin g this period:
1-39
40-69
70-99
100-129
130-159
160 or more
...i-i
ju
ju
jj
jy
ju
P le a s e in d icate th e sp e c ific n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th at
co n tin u ed th e ir c o lle g e e n ro llm e n t b eyo n d o n e s e m e s te r in yo u r
c o m m u n ity c o lle g e durin g th is period:
21
If you d o not k n o w th e sp e c ific n u m b e r, p le a s e ind icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t c o n tin u ed th e ir c o lle g e e n ro llm e n t
b eyo n d o n e s e m e s te r in y o u r c o m m u n ity c o lle g e during this period:
under 10
II
10-29
30-49
50-69
70-89
90-100
over 100
JJ
JJ
JJ
JJ
JJ
JJ
22
198
P le a s e in d icate th e sp e c ific n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t
g ra d u a te d a n d re c e iv e d a d e g re e or c e rtific a te during this p erio d:
23
If you d o not k n o w th e sp ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e ind icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t g ra d u a te d a n d re c e iv e d a d e g re e or
c e rtific ate during this period:
under 10
1i
10-29
30-49
50-69
70-89
j j
j j
j j
jy
90-100
j j
over 100
j j
24
P le a s e in d icate th e sp ec ific n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t will
g ra d u a te an d re c e iv e a d e g re e o r ce rtific a te in 2 0 0 7 :
25
If you d o not k n o w th e s p ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e in d icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t will g ra d u a te a n d re c e iv e a d e g re e
or c e rtific ate in 2 0 0 7 :
10-29
30-49
J U J J JU
50-69
70-89
90-100
over 100
JU
JJ
JJ
JLJ
26
P le a s e ind icate th e sp e c ific n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t
tra n s fe rre d to a n o th e r c o lle g e durin g this period:
199
27
If you do not k n o w th e sp ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e in d icate th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t tra n s fe rre d to a n o th e r c o lle g e
during this period:
under 10
11
10-29
30-49
50-69
70-89
. ;2.J
. 51
~ :*J
8J
90-100
over 100
6 i
7 1
SURVEY

Single Mothers
28
P le a s e in d ic a te th e sp e c ific n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t will
tra n s fe r to a n o th e r c o lle g e in 2 0 0 7 :
29
If you do not kn o w th e s p ec ific n u m b e r, p le a s e in d ic a te th e a p p ro x im a te
n u m b e r of S IN G L E M O T H E R S th a t will tra n s fe r to a n o th e r c o lle g e in
2007:
under 10
1 1
10-29
30-49
50-69
70-89
. 2 .1
J J
.j* . l
S t
90-100
6 I
over 100
71
200
30
P le a s e a d d a n y c o m m e n ts you h a v e a b o u t th e re la tio n sh ip of yo u r
c a m p u s child c a re s e rv ic e s to th e re cru itm e n t, re ten tio n , a n d a c a d e m ic
s u c c e s s - g ra d u a tio n a n d tra n s fe r to a n o th e r c o lle g e , of S IN G L E
M O THER STUDENTS.
A g a in , y o u r c o o p e ra tio n a n d p articip atio n a re g re a tly a p p re c ia te d .
P L E A S E S E L E C T T H E "S U B M IT " B U T T O N B E L O W T O S U B M IT T H E S U R V E Y
A P P E N D IX B
S IN G L E M O T H E R S U R V E Y IN S T R U M E N T
201

Single Mothers
Single Mother Survey
T h a n k you for taking tim e to com plete this im portant survey!
1
W h a t is th e n a m e of yo u r co lle g e ?
D IR E C T IO N S : W e u n d e rs ta n d th a t s o m e of th e q u e s tio n s b e lo w m a y b e difficult
to a n s w e r w ith p re c is e n u m b e rs . T h e m o re info rm ation you can p ro vid e , th e m o re
useful th e s tu d y will be; h o w e v e r, it is N O T n e c e s s a ry to a n s w e r e v e ry q u e s tio n .
W h e n sp ecific d a ta a re not a v a ila b le , p le a s e u se yo u r b e s t e s tim a te , in d ic a te N /A
fo r not a v a ila b le , or le a v e th e a n s w e r b la n k . IF YOU K N O W S P E C IF IC
N U M B E R S P L E A S E G IV E T H O S E D A T A . P le a s e s e le c t th e a p p ro p ria te a n s w e r
to e a c h q u e stio n .
2
Y o u r a g e ran g e:
U nder 20
2 1 -3 0
3 1 -4 0
4 1 -5 0
over 50
202
3
Ethnicity:
A fric an A m e ric a n
A s ia n A m e ric a n
L a tin a
W h ite
O th e r, p le a s e sp e c ify
F a m ily incom e:
0
U n d e r 9 ,9 9 9
$ 1 0 ,0 0 0 -$ 1 9 ,9 9 9
$ 2 0 ,0 0 0 -$ 2 9 ,9 9 9
$ 3 0 ,0 0 0 - $ 3 9 ,9 9 9
$ 4 0 ,0 0 0 -$ 4 9 ,9 9 9
$ 5 0 ,0 0 0 an d o v e r
A re you cu rre n tly e m p lo y e d ?
203
6
W h a t is th e s o u rc e of yo u r fe e p a y m e n t to th e c a m p u s child c a re c e n te r?
(S e le c t all th a t ap p ly)
.J
S elf
S o cial S e rv ic e s
C h ild C a r e A c c e s s M e a n s P a re n ts in S ch o o l (C C A M P IS )
O th e r, p le a s e s p e c ify
7
O f y o u r d e p e n d e n t ch ild re n , p le a s e in d ic a te th e n u m b e r of ch ild re n in
e a c h a g e ra n g e en ro lle d in th e c a m p u s child c a re center:
In fa n t (u n d e r 2 y e a rs )
2 -3 y e a rs
4 -5 y e a rs
6 y e a rs
S ch o o l a g e
8
H o w m a n y h ou rs p e r w e e k did you u se th e c a m p u s child c a re c e n te r
during th e s e m e s te rs listed b elow ?
1
2
Did not use
Less than 3
3
3-9
4
10-15
5
Over 15
F all 2 0 0 4
1 I ...................................2 1
3 1
4J
Si
3 1
4 1
.5 1
S p rin g 2 0 0 5
1 I
2 i
204
Fall 2005
JU
2J
3 1
4 i
S.J
S p ring 2 0 0 6
JJ
51
JJ
JJ
4 J
:SJ
Fall 2 0 0 6
JU
JJ
JJ
____________ i
9
W h a t is yo u r c u rre n t e n ro llm e n t status?
Full tim e
P art tim e
10
H o w m a n y cred its a re you cu rre n tly tak in g ?
6orfewer
7-10
11ormore
...j l !
..:2i
. a .i
11
P le a s e in d icate th e N U M B R E R O F H O U R S you a re in d a y c la s s e s ,
night c la s s e s , w e e k e n d c la s s e s , a n d o n lin e c la s s e s e v e ry w e e k .(S e le c t
all th at ap p ly )
1
day classes
2
night classes
3
weekend classes
4
online classes
3 -5
*JJ
-JJ
JJ
6-8
205
JJ
JJ
JU
JJ
JJ
JJ
JJ
JJ
jy
jj
jj
9-12
1 3 or m o re
jj
NA
JJ
JJ
12
P le a s e in d icate yo u r e s tim a te d a v e r a g e g ra d e fo r th e c u rre n t s e m e s te r.
E s tim a te yo u r a v e ra g e g ra d e fo r th e c u rre n t s e m e s te r by ca lcu la tin g th e
a v e ra g e of th e g ra d e s you h a v e e a rn e d in e a c h c la s s you a re takin g
c u rre n tly .(S e le c t o n e g ra d e ra n g e b elo w )
3.1-4
2.1-3
1.1 - 2
0-1
13
H o w h a v e yo u r g ra d e s c h a n g e d sin c e you en ro lle d yo u r c h ild (re n ) in th e
co m m u n ity c o lle g e c a m p u s child c a re c e n te r?
Im p ro ve d
N o t im p ro ve d
A b o u t th e s a m e
14
If yo u r g ra d e s h a v e im p ro ve d sin c e you e n ro lle d yo u r c h ild (re n ) in th e
co m m u n ity c o lle g e c a m p u s child c a re c e n te r, p le a s e b riefly in d ic a te the
re a s o n (s ) w hy.
Jk.
Z.
15
H a v e you co n tin u ed e n ro llm e n t b e y o n d o n e s e m e s te r a t y o u r cu rren t
c o m m u n ity co lle g e ?
16
If you a n s w e re d ye s to th e p rev io u s q u e s tio n , h o w m a n y s e m e s te rs h a v e
you a tte n d e d yo u r c u rre n t c o m m u n ity co lle g e ?
1
I f
:.ll
.:3 J
4 1
6 or more
.-H I
17
H o w m a n y cred its h a v e you e a rn e d a t y o u r c u rre n t c o m m u n ity co lle g e ?
&
U nder 9
1 0 -3 0
3 1 -6 0
M o re th a n 6 0
If m o re th an 6 0 p le a s e s p e c ify th e n u m b e r
18
W ill you g r a d u a te -r e c e iv e a d e g re e or ce rtific a te , fro m yo u r cu rren t
c o m m u n ity c o lle g e in 2 0 0 7 ?
Yes
N o t S u re
19
W ill you tra n s fe r to a n o th e r c o lle g e a n d p u rs u e a h ig h e r d e g re e in 2 0 0 7 ?
Yes
No
N o t S u re
20
W h y did you en ro ll in y o u r c u rren t c o m m u n ity co lle g e ? (S e le c t all th a t
ap p ly)
N o d efin ite p u rp o s e in m ind
S e lf-im p ro v e m e n t
.^j
J o b -re la te d or jo b -re q u ire d c o u rs e s
F o r tra n s fe r to a n o th e r c o m m u n ity c o lle g e
208
F o r tra n s fe r to a s e n io r university
T o c o m p le te a v o c a tio n a l/te c h n ic a l p ro g ram
T o o b ta in or m a in ta in a certificatio n
T o o b ta in a n a s s o c ia te 's d e g re e
O th e r, p le a s e s p e c ify
21
If you s e le c te d m o re th an o n e optio n a b o v e , w h ich is th e m o st
im p ortan t?
22
H o w im p o rtan t w a s th e a v a ila b ility of child c a re on c a m p u s to yo u r
d ecis io n to enroll in yo u r c u rre n t c o m m u n ity co lle g e ?
G re a t im p o rta n c e
S o m e im p o rta n c e
V e ry little im p o rta n c e
P le a s e ex p la in
23
W h ic h of th e fo llo w in g fa c to rs m a k e it e a s ie r fo r you to a tte n d co lle g e ?
(S e le c t all th a t ap p ly)
E x is te n c e of o n -c a m p u s child c a re c e n te r
209
R e fe rra l s e rv ic e s p ro vid e d b y child c a re c e n te r for o n -a n d -o ffc a m p u s re fe rra ls fo r p e rs o n a l a n d fam ily: co u n s elin g , fin a n c ia l
aid , a c a d e m ic re s o u rc e s , m e n to rin g , s tu d e n t a ffa irs s u p p o rt, etc.
C h ild C a r e tuition su b sid y - C C A M P IS
C h ild C a r e tuition s u b s id y - S o c ia l S e rv ic e s
A d visin g by child c a re staff on e d u c a tio n a l a n d p a re n tin g issu es
,
^
w o rk s h o p s , c la s s e s , a n d s u p p o rt g ro up s
*
T ra in in g fro m child c a re staff fo r p are n tin g skills d e v e lo p m e n t;
A v a ila b ility of child c a re : h ou rs of child c a re o p e ra tio n s fit yo u r

n e e d s daily, w e e k ly , m o n th ly, a n d ye arly .
- -i
--
_,
M-
<-
24
If you s e le c te d m o re th an o n e fa c to r a b o v e , w hich is M O S T im p ortan t?
SURVEY

Single Mothers
210
H a s th e a v a ila b ility of c a m p u s child c a re had a p ositive im p a c t on yo u r

initial e n ro llm e n t a n d co n tin u e d e n ro llm e n t in y o u r c u rre n t c o m m u n ity
co llege?
If you a n s w e re d Y E S to th e q u e stio n a b o v e , h o w w o u ld th e a b s e n c e of
o n -c a m p u s child c a re im p a c t you?
I co u ld not h a v e e n ro lle d in this co m m u n ity c o lle g e
I co u ld not co n tin u e m y e d u c a tio n w ith o ut o n -c a m p u s child c a re
I w o u ld find child c a re e ls e w h e re off c a m p u s
I w o u ld h a v e m y fa m ily p ro vid e child c a re
If you h a v e re c o m m e n d a tio n s fo r im proving c a m p u s child c a re s e rv ic e s ,

p le a s e d e s c rib e th e m briefly. In c lu d e su p po rt s e rv ic e s th a t you th in k a re
m issing fro m th e s e rv ic e s o ffe re d th a t w ould g iv e you b e tte r s u p p o rt in
re a c h in g yo u r c o lle g e e d u c a tio n g o a ls .
T h a n k you v e ry m u ch fo r yo u r c o o p e ra tio n .
APPENDIX C
DIRECTOR SURVEY COVER LETTER
211
National Coalition o f Campus Children's Centers
National
Coalition
fo r Campus
C h ild r e n 's
119 Schindler Education Center

University o f Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, IA 50614
Kathleen Carey-Fletcher
Box 526
Washington Grove, Md. 20880
C e n te rs
Dear NCCCC Members, Director:
As a member and representative o f the National Coalition o f Campus Children s Centers NCCCC,
a college administrator who has worked with campus children s centers for over 20 years, and a doctoral
student seeking to understand the impact o f campus children s centers on the academic achievement o f
single mothers, I am asking for your help in obtaining longitudinal information regarding student-parents
who have used campus child care services.
The NCCCC and I are seeking to obtain a clearer understanding o f the campus child care program
factors that influence the academic achievement o f this group o f parents. To date, very little information
has been formally gathered specifically to examine the needs o f single mothers who are college students.
We hope that this study w ill provide additional information for developing a better understanding o f the
needs o f these students. This information w ill be shared with you, college administrators, and student
affairs personnel. Your input is extremely important to this effort.
For more information please read the statement o f confidentiality found on the Informed Consent
Form and the Questionnaire Instructions. I am asking you to take time to fill out a survey. We understand
that some o f the longitudinal questions my be d iffic u lt to answer. However, the more information you can
provide, the more useful this study w ill be; however, it is not necessary to answer every question. When
specific data are not available, please use your best estimate for the purposes o f this survey.
After completing the questionnaire and the informed consent form, please submit them to me via e-mail or
in the enclosed self-addressed and stamped envelopes provided to the center director. Thank you so much
for your help!
Sincerely,
Paula Berry, President
NCCCC
University o f Iowa, Cedar Falls. IA 50614
Doctoral Candidate
Morgan State University
Baltimore. Md. 21251
A P P E N D IX D
S IN G L E M O T H E R S U R V E Y C O V E R L E T T E R
212
National
Coalition
for Campus
C h ild re n 's
Centers
National Coalition of Campus ChildrensCenters

University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, IA 50614
Box 526
Dear Single Mother Student Parent:

As a member and representative of the National Coalition of Campus ChildrensCenters
(NCCCC), a college administrator who has worked with campus childrenscenters for over 20
years, and a doctoral student seeking to understand the impact of campus childrenscenters on the
academic achievement of single mothers, I amasking for your help in obtaining information
regarding single- mothers who have used campus child care services.
The NCCCC and I are seeking to obtain a clearer understanding of the campus child care
program factors that influence your ability to achieve your academic goals. To date, very little
information has been formally gathered specifically to examine the needs of single mothers who
are college students and your unique situation. We hope that this study will provide additional
information for developing a better understanding of your needs. This information will be shared
with college administrators, student affairs, and campus childrenscenter personnel. Your input is
extremely important to this effort.
For more information please read the statement of confidentiality found on the Informed
Consent Form and the Questionnaire Instructions. I am asking you to take 20 minutes or so to fill
out a survey on line. After completing the survey questionnaire and the consent form, please
submit them to me via, e-mail or in the enclosed self-addressed and stamped envelope which you
can obtain from your child care center director. Thank you so much for your help!
Sincerely,
NCCCC
University of Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA 50614
Doctoral Candidate
Baltimore, Md. 20880
APPENDIX E
DIRECTOR CONSENT FORM
213
THE RELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE CAMPUS CHILD CARE

TO THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF SINGLE MOTHERS
INFORMED CONSENT FORM DIRECTORS

You are invited to participate in a study of the relationship of community college campus
child care centers on the academic success of single mothers.
Through this study we hope to confirm the positive impact of campus child care
programs on the academic success of single mothers. We also hope to identify discrete
categories of campus child care services that impact the academic success of single
mothers. Academic success for the purpose of this study is defined as: (a) estimated
average grade, (b) grade improvement, (c) semesters of continued enrollment, and (d)
earned credits.
You were selected as a possible participant in this study because your campus childrens
center is a member of the community college membership cohort of the National
Coalition of Campus Childrens Centers (NCCCC) nationwide.
If you decide to participate, we will ask you, and single mothers with children enrolled in
your campus child care center to complete a survey questionnaire. The purpose of the
questionnaire is to gather information that will shed some light on the factors that impact
the academic success of community college single mothers. This study will examine the
specific program and support features of child care services offered on community
college campuses.
The survey completion time varies depending on the longitudinal data that is readily
available to each child care center. It will be completed on line using Zoomerang survey
tool.
The risks of participation in this research are minimized with the autonomy of the
student-parent survey and the optional identification for childrens center directors and
staff. All information will be held confidential. If for some reason information obtained
in connection with this study can be identified with you, your identity will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your written permission.
The benefits of this study are that it promises to expand knowledge of how community
college campus child care services are relate to of academic success for single mothers.
The study may also reveal information related to advocacy initiatives for nontraditional
female students. The results may contribute to further knowledge about the linkages
between student integration and attrition, educational attainment, family life, and
economic success, particularly with reference to poor, single mothers. In addition the
214
research results may be relevant in continued national, state, and local debates of welfare
and educational reform.
Information from this study will be published as part of the Morgan State dissertation
library and will be released to NCCCC as sponsor of this research. The purpose of
releasing the information to NCCCC is for the organization to use the information for
campus childrens centers advocacy, professional training, and expansion of family,
work-life, and early childhood education knowledge, and development of the
organization.
Your decision whether or not to participate will not prejudice your future relation with
NCCCC. If you decide to participate, you are free to discontinue participation at any time
without prejudice.
If you have any questions now or later, please do not hesitate to contact any of the
following people: Kathleen Carey-Fletcher, Morgan State University Doctoral Student,
kc.carev-fletcher@montgomerycollege.edu. 301-938-6458; Paula Berry, President
NCCCC, ncccc@uni.edu, 800-813-8207; or Dr. Isuk, Office of Sponsored Programs and
Research, Morgan State University, Montebello Complex 302-D, 1700 Cold Spring Lane,
Baltimore, MD. 21251, 443-885-3447.
You will be offered a copy of this form to keep.
You are making a decision whether or not to participate. Your signature indicates that
you have read the information provided above and have decided to participate. You may
withdraw at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you may be entitled
after signing this form should you choose to discontinue participation in this study.
Signature Date
Signature of Parent/Legal Guardian (If necessary) Date
Signature of Witness (If appropriate) Signature of Investigator
APPENDIX F
SINGLE M OTHER CO NSENT FORM
215
THE RELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE CAMPUS CHILD CARE

TO THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF SINGLE MOTHERS
INFORMED CONSENT FORM SINGLE MOTHERS

You are invited to participate in a study of the relationship of community college campus
child care centers on the academic success of single mothers.
Through this study we hope to confirm the positive impact of campus child care
programs on the academic success of single mothers. We also hope to identify discrete
categories of campus child care services that impact the academic success of single
mothers. Academic success for the purpose of this study is defined as: (a) estimated
average grade, (b) grade improvement, (c) semesters of continued enrollment, and (d)
earned credits.
You were selected as a possible participant in this study because your campus childrens
center is a member of the community college membership cohort of the National
Coalition of Campus Childrens Centers (NCCCC) nationwide.
If you decide to participate, we will ask you, to complete a survey questionnaire. The
purpose of the questionnaire is to gather information that will shed some light on the
factors that impact the academic success of community college single mothers. This
study will examine the specific program and support features of child care services
offered on community college campuses.
The survey completion time should be around 10 minutes. It can completed on line using
Zoomerang survey tool, or you may pick up a hard copy of the survey, complete it and
return it to your campus child care center director.
The risks of participation in this research are minimized with the autonomy of the
student-parent survey. All information will be held confidential. If for some reason
information obtained in connection with this study can be identified with you, your
identity will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your written permission.
The benefits of this study are that it promises to expand knowledge of how community
college campus child care services are relate to of academic success for single mothers.
The study may also reveal information related to advocacy initiatives for nontraditional
female students. The results may contribute to further knowledge about the linkages
between student integration and attrition, educational attainment, family life, and
economic success, particularly with reference to poor, single mothers. In addition the
research results may be relevant in continued national, state, and local debates of welfare
and educational reform.
216
Information from this study will be published as part of the Morgan State dissertation
library and will be released to NCCCC as sponsor of this research. The purpose of
releasing the information to NCCCC is for the organization to use the information for
campus children's centers advocacy, professional training, and expansion of family,
work-life, and early childhood education knowledge, and development of the
organization.
Your decision whether or not to participate will not prejudice your future relation with
NCCCC. If you decide to participate, you are free to discontinue participation at any time
without prejudice.
If you have any questions now or later, please do not hesitate to contact any of the
following people: Kathleen Carey-Fletcher, Morgan State University Doctoral Student,
kc.carev-fletcher@montgomerycollege.edu, 301-938-6458; Paula Berry, President
NCCCC, ncccc@uni.edu, 800-813-8207; or Dr. Isuk, Office of Sponsored Programs and
Research, Morgan State University, Montebello Complex 302-D, 1700 Cold Spring Lane,
Baltimore, MD. 21251, 443-885-3447.
You will be offered a copy of this form to keep.
You are making a decision whether or not to participate. Your signature indicates that
you have read the information provided above and have decided to participate. You may
withdraw at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you may be entitled
after signing this form should you choose to discontinue participation in this study.
Signature Date
Signature of Parent/Legal Guardian (If necessary) Date
Signature of Witness (If appropriate) Signature of Investigator
APPENDIX G
DEBRIEFING FORM
217
THE RELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE CAMPUS-BASED CHILD

CARE TO THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF SINGLE MOTHERS
DEBRIEFING FORM
Thank you for participating in this study. Please read all of the following information.
The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship of community college campusbased child care services to the academic success of single mothers. Please remember that
your individual response will remain anonymous and that the data will be examined on a
grouped basis only. Your informed consent form, which contains your name, will be kept
separate from the answers that you gave on the questionnaire. The researcher to whom
you have given your response will lock the consent forms in the research office files
separate from the questionnaires.
If you have any questions about this study, if you should experience any negative feelings
as a result of participating in this study, or if you are interested in knowing the results of
this study, please contact:
Kathleen Carey-Fletcher, 112 Ridge Rd., Box 526, Washington Grove, Md., 20880,
kc.carey-fletcher@montgomervcollege.edu, or wuzza@verizon.net, 301-938-6458 (cell),
301-330-9485 (Office);
Paula Berry, President NCCCC, ncccc@uni.edu. 800-813-8207
Dr. Isuk, Office of Sponsored Programs and Research, Morgan State University,
Montebello Complex 302-D, 1700 Cold Spring Lane, Baltimore, MD. 21251, 443-8853447.
Again, your cooperation and participation are greatly appreciated.
Sincerely,
NCCCC
University of Iowa, Cedar Falls, LA 50614
Doctoral Candidate
Baltimore, Md. 21251
A P P E N D IX H
F A D A L E A N D W IN T E R S U R V E Y U S E P E R M IS S IO N C O M M U N IC A T IO N
218
Permission Letter to Use Fadale and Winter Surveys
Kathi Carey- Fletch er

Director of A u x i l i a r y Services
Mon tg o m e r y College
301-251-7674
k c .c a r e y - f l e t c h e r a m o n t g o m e r y c o l l e g e .edu
From: V i n c e V e r n a 2 @ a o l . c o m [m a i l t o :V i n c e V e r n a 2 @ a o l .c o m ]
Sent: Sun 1/15/2006 2:15 PM
To: Carey-Fletcher, Kathi
C c : P ei sheng Zhao@a ol.com
Subject: Use of Child-Care Impact Survey
You m a y use the survey instrument described in the 1988 SUNY Child
Care Impact
Study
as long as it is a cited resource to your dissertation.

Good L u c k ---Dr. L.Fadale
A P P E N D IX !
N A T IO N A L C O A L IT IO N O F C A M P U S C H IL D R E N S C E N T E R S
S P O N S O R S H IP L E T T E R
219
i
N ational
Coalition
for Campus
Children's
Centers
Paula Berry
October 20, 2006
President
Board of Directors
National Coalition for Campus Childrens Centers
The Voice for Children on Campus
University of Northern Iowa
119 Schindler
Cedar Falls, IA 50614-060
K
athleenC
arey-Fletcher
Doctoral Student Morgan State University
112 Ridge Rd., Box 526
Dear Ms. Carey-Fletcher:

It is with pleasure that we write to confirm our e-mail
of June 13,2006 indicating that the NCCCC Board of
Directors is very happy to sponsor your research and
will help in any way. We have already provided you with
a list of our campus center sites to facilitate the
distribution of your surveys. This research is important
to the public policy issues of our Board of Directors and to
campus children's centers and single mothers nation wide.
We wish you the best.
Sincerely,
NCCCC Board of Directors

NCCCC University of Northern Iowa
APPENDIX J
NCCCC DIRECTOR PILOT SURVEY
220
THE RELATIONSHIP OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE CAMPUS-BASED CHILD

CARE TO THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS OF SINGLE MOTHERS
CHILD CARE CENTER DIRECTOR QUESTIONNAIRE PILOT SURVEY
Name: _
Position
College:
1. a. From center records already maintained in your program files related to

expenditures and resources, please use current information for the 2005-2006
academic years to summarize the following information:
a)
Number of student-parents
served:_______________________________________________
b)
Percent of student -parents that are

female:_______________________________________________
c)
Percent of student-parents that are single

parents:______________________________________________
d)
Percent of student-parents that are recipients of child care tuition support

from Social Services:_____________________________________
e)

from CCAMPIS:_______________________________________
f)

form another third party:__________________________________
g)
Age range of student-parents:_______________________________
h)
Age range of single mothers:________________________________
b. Due to the widespread interest in the relationship of campus child care to

retention of student-parents, we are asking for your assistance in obtaining
longitudinal information regarding student-parents and specifically single mothers
who have used campus child care services.
221
Depending on the scope of your evaluation and follow-up activities, the following
information may be readily available or you may need to ask your registrar,
institutional researcher, or other appropriate office for the data.
Request f o r longitudinal an d /o r retention inform ation should be based on studentparents and single mother students who used campus child care services during
the p e rio d f a l l 2 0 0 3 -Spring 2006.
2.)
1)
Total number of student-parents served 2004-2006

(unduplicated)___________________________________________
2)
Total number of single mothers served 2004-2006

(unduplicated)___________________________________________
3)
What percent (or number) of student-parents received a degree/certificate?
4)
What percent (or number) of these single mothers received a

degree/certificate?______________________________
5)
What percent (or number) of student-parents continued their college

enrollment?
5.)
What percent (or number) of single mothers continued their college

enrollment?________________________________________
6.)
What percent (or number) of student- parents transferred to another

college?__________________________________________
7.)
What percent (ornumber) of single mothers transferred to another

college?__________________________________________
a. Is the campus child care center linked to an academic program of study?

Yes_______________
No________________
If yes, please identify the academic program and briefly summarize how the
Center benefits from these linkages:
222
b. How is the child care center administratively linked to the college, and to what
office does the center report?
Very Much________Moderate
3.) a. To what extent do you
5
believe the campus child care
center contributed to the
initial college enrollment of
student-parents at your college?
Very Little
Please briefly explain:
b. To what extent do you

5
believe the campus child care
center contributed to the
initial college enrollment of
single mothers at your college?
c. To what extent do you believe

the campus child care service
impacts retention of studentparents?
223
d. To what extent do you believe

the campus child care service
impacts retention of single
mothers?
e. In 2004-2006 what percentage of your student -parents earned academic honors,

such as Deans List, Presidents List, or other?_____________________________
How does this compare to the percentage of the total student body who earn similar
honors? Percentage of single mothers is:_____ higher_____about the same_______
lower______ dont know.
f. In 2004-2006 what percentage of your single mother students earned academic
honors, such as Deans List,Presidents
List, or other?____________________
How does this compare to thepercentageof the total student body who earn similar
honors? Percentage of single mothers is:_____ higher_____about the same_____
lower______ dont know.
4.) Are you aware of off-campus child care alternatives used most frequently by studentparents not using campus child care?
Yes________
No_________
If yes, please identify, such as private child care, family child care,
etc.:____________________________________________________________
5.) What features of campus child care services have the most impact on the academic
achievement of student parents?
224
6.) What features of campus child care services have the most impact on the academic
achievement of single mothers?_______________________________________
7.) What features of campus child care services do you not offer that you think might
have an important impact on the academic achievement of student parents?
8.) What features of campus child care services do you not offer that you think might
have an important impact on the academic achievement of single mothers?
9.) Please add any other comments that relate to the impact of campus child care services
on the recruitment, retention, and academic success of single mothers.
Thank you for your cooperation

Please return as soon as possible and no later than October 31, 2006 to: Ms.
Kathleen Carey-Fletcher, Morgan State University Doctoral Student through URL.
A P P E N D IX K
!RB L E T T E R
MORGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
December 15, 2006

Dr. Rosemary Gillett-Karam
Department o f Advanced Leadership & Policy
School o f Education and Urban Studies
RE: IRB #06/09-00118
Dear Dr. Gillett-Karam:
Following a review o f the revised materials submitted to the IRB with respect to the
research being conducted by your student, Kathleen Carey-Fletcher, titled The Impact o f
Community College Campus-Based Child Care on the Academic Achievement o f Single
Mother , I am pleased to inform you that IRB Approval is hereby granted for the project.
Please note that the current approval is for a one-year period from the date o f this letter.
Note also that it is your responsibility to inform the IRB promptly should there be a
material change in the study methodology.
Do not hesitate to contact me at X3537, or Dr. Isuk at X3447 should you have any
questions.
Sincerely,
Anna R. McPhatter, Ph.D., LCSW

IRB Chairperson
IRB
approved
(pnnnfM jklAiu.
SIG N ATU RE______
Cc
DATE
Dr. Edet Isuk, IRB Administrator
v f t! D O f-it YEAR FR O M DA TE A B O V E

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T H E R E L A T IO N S H IP O F C O M M U N IT Y C O L L E G E C A M P U S C H IL D C A R E

A Dissertation S ubm itted in Partial Fulfillment

UMI N um ber: 3258449

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

Dissertation chaired by:

R o sem ary G illett-K aram , PhD

credits earn ed . C C C C C parenting support services and child care availability

has been approved

I d edicate this study to the researchers w ho have p receded m e and on

ACKNO W LEDG M ENTS

Background of the P ro b le m .....................................................................................

P urpose of the S tu d y ..................................................................................................

R esearch Q u e s tio n s ...................................................................................................

C onceptual Fram ew o rk of the S tu d y ...................................................................

S ignificance of the S tu d y ..........................................................................................

S cop e and L im ita tio n s ................................................................................................

Definition of T e rm s Used in the S tu d y .................................................................

History of C am p u s C hildrens C e n te r s ..............................................................................

G en era l Issues R elated to W o m e n in H igher E d u c atio n..............................

P artic ip a tio n ......................................................................................................

D evelopm ental Issues ...................................................................................

C h allen g es Facing Single M o th er Students and Barriers

C am p u s Support S tru ctu res.......................................................................

Socioeconom ic F a cto rs ................................................................................

P rogram s that Prom ote E ducational O pportunities

W o m e n in a C om m unity D evelopm ent P ro g ra m ...............................

Child C a re A ccess M e a n s P arents in S ch o o l......................................

R esearch on the Im pact of C am p u s Child C a re on

F a d ale and W in te r..........................................................................................

S etting and P articip an ts .............................................................................................

Purpose of S u rve y s........................................................................................

Pilot of Director S u rv e y ................................................................................

V a lid ity ...............................................................................................................................

C o rre la tio n s ......................................................................................................

Inferential D a ta C o lle ctio n ..........................................................................

Population and R esponse R a te ..............................................................................

In dependent V ariable D escriptions.......................................................................

D e p e n d en t V ariable D e s c rip tio n s ........................................................................... 117

H ypotheses T e s tin g ...................................................................................................... 143

M ajor Findings of the S tu d y ....................................................................................... 148

A ppendix H: F ad ale and W in te r Perm ission to Use S u rv e y s ...................... 2 1 8

T a b le 13: Single M others W h o Report that P arenting

T a b le 24: Advising S ervices C orrelations with E A G , G rad e

T a b le 34: Correlation of N u m b e r of Child C a re Hours Used and

1. C onceptual Fram ew ork of the S tu d y .......................................................................

M other: Fam ily In c o m e .............................................................................

6. Single M other S ource of Child C a re Tuition

LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

12. Single M others W h o R eport that Parenting Education

Background of the Problem

program s only served children a g es 3 - 5 on a half-day basis and on a fixed

P urpose of the Study

Is there a correlation betw een child care parenting

R esearch question 2: Is there a correlation betw een

R esearch question 1 H 0 1 : T h e re is no correlation betw een child

T h e re is no correlation betw een child care availability (availability of

T h e conclusions of F a d ale and W in te r (1 9 8 8 ), Ritze (1 9 9 6 ), and Triplett

Theoretical Fram ew ork

Child Care Availability

Child Care Availability

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the relationship of community college campus child

Conceptual Framework of the Study (Continued)