TP1 NTERNAL ENERGY OBJECTIVES Aims In this chapter you will learn the concepts and principles needed to understand energy transfer by the mechanisms of work or heat. You will become acquainted with the now discarded caloric theory, in which heat was believed to be a material fluid rather than an energy transfer. Minimum Learning Goals When you have finished studying this chapter you should be able to do all of the following. 1 Explain, interpret and use the terms internal energy, work, heat, temperature, system. 2 State and give specific examples of how the internal energy of a system can be changed in two ways : heat and work. PRE-LECTURE 1 Look up ina dictionary the words: heat, thermal, thermodynamics, temperature. 2. What kinds of physical behaviour of a piece of ice might be adequately described by the theory of mechanics alone? For what kinds of behaviour would a theory explaining heat be needed? LECTURE 1-1 CALORIC THEORY This theory was formulated by Black about 1750; it is no longer.believed to be tre Why do we discuss this discarded theory? @) ~The theory is an excellent example of how a theory is built up to explain experimental facts and is later discarded because its explanation is incomplete; Gi) the everyday use of the words "heat" and "cold" is associated with caloric theory. What is arded theory? (i) Heat is a fluid which flows from one body to another. Gi) Different bodies, because of the different spacings between atoms and molecules, can hold different amounts of this fluid, e.g. it is supposed that there are larger spacings between water molecules than between lead atoms, so water can hold more fluid than lead without getting as hot. (ii) The fluid is weightless (there was some disagreement as to this originally, but Rumford's careful measuring of the mass of ice before and after melting settled the argument). (iv) Caloric fluid could be squeezed out of material ( thus explaining heating by friction). The Death of the Caloric Theory The deduction to be drawn from Rumford’s cannon-boring experiment (an equivalent experiment using a drill with a wooden bit boring into timbrok sheeting is shown on the screen) was that an infinite amount of caloric fluid would have to be supplied by the material being bored. The argument ran that the heat being continuously generated by the boring process surely could not all come from squeezing out the caloric fluid. Rumford's own comment on this observation is as follows: "It is hardly necessary to add, that anything which any insulated body, or system of bodies, can continue to furnish without imitation, cannot possibly be a material substance; and it appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything, capable of being excited and communicated in these experiments, except it be motion."2 PI: Internal Energy 1-2 REPLACEMENT OF CALORIC THEORY : KINETIC THEORY OF HEAT The atoms or molecules in a body bounce around; the hotter the body the more they bounce. The explanation of this phenomenon of a hot body uses the term internal energy rather than the term heat. There are two ways of increasing the internal energy of a body: () doing work on it, (i) transfering heat to it (a flow of energy from a hotter body). Examples of doing work on a body Solid - moving and then suddenly stopping (e.g. hitting two rocks together). Liquid - —_ agitating (e.g. pouring or stirring). Gas - compressing (e.g. pushing down piston in pump). When people are playing squash both the ball and the players get hot. How can this be explained in terms of work? 1-3. HEAT TRANSFER Conduction, convection and radiation are the three modes of heat transfer (these are described in some detail in lecture TP8). 1-4 CHANGE IN INTERNAL ENERGY Usually when the internal energy of a system is changed the important thing is the change in internal energy and not the path taken. We do not talk about the "heat" or the "work" in a body, although these are the two ways in which the internal energy of a body can be changed. Once the energy is in the body, it is impossible to distinguish how it got there. Illustrations of this idea @ Bike pump (the intemal energy may be increased by using it to pump some air into a tyre or by leaving it close to a fire). i Road-map analogy (the distance as the crow flies between two places does not depend on what roads are travelled) ii) Lake analogy (input to the lake by a stream or by rain; output from the lake by a second stream or by evaporation: the volume of lake water is analogous to intemal energy, the streams either to heat transfer or ‘work and the rain and evaporation to work or heat transfer). 1-5 TEMPERATURE The previous illustration leads on to the idea of temperature as some sort of measure of internal energy, but if two bodies have the same temperature it does not mean they have the same total internal energy. In the analogy used, two lakes which have the same water level need not have the same total volume of water. 1-6 UNITS The SI unit of energy is the joule. This is the unit for internal energy, work done and heat flow. The work done is calculated by multiplying force by distance. When a gas is compressed, the force can be calculated by multiplying pressure by the cross-sectional area of the piston. (See post- lecture for examples.) The unit called the calorie is a relic of the caloric theory. If you come across values in calories they can be converted to joules by multiplying by 4.2 joule/calori¢. The kilocalorie or Calorie is equal to 1000 calories. leal = 4.23. 1Calorkeal = 42x10). << The numerical value of the ratio between the joule and the calorie, 4.2, was once thought to be an important constant of physics; experiments to find its value were regarded as landmarks in the history of physics and reproduced ad nauseam in laboratory courses. What was really being done was to show the equivalence of changing the internal energy of a body by doing work on it or by heat flow into it. See the next Interlude, >>1-7 Qt Q1.2 Q1.3 1-8 PI: Internal Energy 3 QUESTIONS The caloric theory of heat was discarded because ‘A. ithad no experimental basis. B. _itdistorted the experimental facts. C. _ iitneeded a weightless fluid. D. _ itrequired an infinite amount of fluid. Explain what happens when you strike a match, in terms of (@ _ thecaloric theory, (©) internal energy. ‘A. 6 kg baby boy is dropped from a window 10m above the ground. You catch the baby before he hits the ground, What is the increase in the internal energy of you and the infant? CALCULATIONS Example 1.1: Work done on a gas system A gas in a container is compressed by pushing in a piston, of cross-sectional area 2.0 x 10°? m” a distance of 8.0 10? m, ‘The constant pressure exerted by the piston is 150kPa, What is the work done on the gas? Write F for the force exerted, P for the applied pressure, A for the cross-sectional area, Ax for the distance travelled by the piston and AW for the work done on the gas. Then Fo= PA AW = Fax, = PAAx, = (150 x 103 Pa) x (2.0 x 10° m2) x (8.0 x 10°? m), 024 ‘The work done can be expressed in terms of the force exerted and the distance travelled (in mathematical terms, F Ax) or it can be written in terms of the pressure and the change in volume. aw F Ax, = PAdx, = -PAv. (Why does a minus sign suddenly appear ? To answer this question think about how the distance travelled, ‘Ax, and the volume change, AV, are related.) ‘You will renew acquaintance with Boyle's law in lecture TP7. It states that for an ideal gas, provided the temperature is constant, the product of pressure and volume remains a constant. ‘Suppose you have a volume of gas in a cylinder and you slowly push a piston in, exerting just enough force to overcome the pressure exerted by the gas. Since you are doing this slowly, you may assume that the temperature of the gas remains constant. Suppose, further, that the gas was originally at atmospheric pressure (101 kPa) and had a volume of 5 x 10°2 m3, What work is done in compressing the gas to 2.510? m2 AW = -Pav ‘Note that in this example P is not constant. If we draw out the curve of P against V, the work done will be the area under the curve.4 PI: Internal Energy Pressure/ kPa 100 0 25 5.0 Votume/ 10 *m3 Figure 1.1 Pressure-Volume plot for ideal gas Unless your calculus background is good this calculation is not straightforward since we need the area under the hyperbola and, in general, must use integration. Estimation of limits on this area If the hyperbola is plotted as in the diagram estimates of limits between which the area must lie can be made. The area will be less than that lying under a straight line from A to B (3.75 kJ) and greater than that lying under a straight line from A to C ( 2.50 kJ). Integration Q1.4, Does the internal energy of the gas increase by this same amount ? (Careful now.) If not, why not ? Let us use calculus to get the exact answer. Pv k where k 5.0 KI Q1.5 [and where did the 5.0 come from?] aw = -p Av or, in differential notation, aw --tw YB Work done = IC kad Ya = [env] a =k “(ea) (What's happened to the minus sign?) B 5.0 KI x In = 35K.‘TPL: Internal Energy 5 1-9 TYPICAL ENERGY VALUES You should have some sort of feel for the number of joules involved in these energy situations. You have already seen that the work done in halving the volume of a cylinder of gas that is about the size of a football is a bit over 3 KJ. A one kilowatt electric radiatior will be responsible for a heat transfer to its surrounding of 3kJ in 3s. Suppose there were 1 x 10 m? of water in an electric kettle at 15°C. To calculate the energy needed to bring this temperature to 100°C we need to recollect that 4.2 kJ are needed to raise the temperature of 1.0 kg of water by 1.0°C. We have 1.0 kg of water, so will need an energy input of 0.36 MJ. Q1.6 Suppose someone in a bathtub is unhappy about the temperature of the water, and, remembering the experiments that Joule performed with paddle wheels, decides to heat the water by stirring it by hand. There are 100 kg of water in the bath (is this a fair estimate?) and it is stirred with a hand force of 40 N moving through 120 m. (Incidentally, about how long would it take to do this?) ‘What temperature rise in the bath would be produced? 1-10 METABOLIC PROCESSES Next, we turn to look at the amount of energy produced by metabolic processes. This can be calculated by putting numbers on the energy involved in the oxidation of protein, carbohydrates and fat. Nitrogen liberated by protein oxidation appears in the urine and can be measured; in a normal resting adult, about 56 kJ.h"! are produced from protein oxidation. Respiration measurements show that about 135 kJ.h"! are produced by oxidation of carbohydrates and about 130 kJ.h”! are produced from oxidation of fat. [The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the energy liberated per time per area of skin. So, for an average skin area of 1.7 m?, the BMR would be about 0.2 MJ.m2.h"l, The value of the BMR depends on sex and age.] One way of discarding this energy from the body is by evaporating water, both in the lungs and from the skin. Normal heat losses from the body this way are about 30 kJ.h"! through the saturated vapour leaving the lungs, and about 40 kJ.h” by insensible perspiration from the skin. Other ways of losing energy are by radiation to the surroundings and convective cooling to the surrounding air. This latter is increased when wind (forced convection) is present. A typical radiation figure for a 2°C difference between the surface temperature of a person and her/his surroundings is about 90 kJ.h"!. For a wind speed of about 0.1 m.s“ the convective cooling rate increases to about 150 kJ." (Note: 3.6 kJ.h”! equals 1.0 W.)Interlude: Calorie/Joule << INTERLUDE 1 Comparison (expressed as a ratio) of the (measured) work done to produce a given change in internal energy of a body and the (estimated) heat flow to produce the same change. (Experiment often referred to as Joule's experiment). Since we claim no difference in the energy once it is in the body, the ratio should be unity. DATE EXPERIMENTER METHOD 1798 1842 1843, 1843 1844 1845 1845 1847 -1850 1850 1857 1861 1861 1861 1861 1861 1867 1867 1870 1875 1879 1899 1927 >> Rumford Mayer Joule Joule Joule Joule Joule Joule Joule Favre Joule Weber Violle Puluj Rowland Callender & Laby & Hercus (Melboume) ‘Cannon boring. Estimate from specific heats of gases. ‘Used falling weights to drive an electric motor Values from a current through coil in water. Piston with very fine holes was pushed by a ‘measured force through water. ‘Air was compressed by many successive strokes of a piston pump. ‘Compressed air expanded, pushing away atmosphere and thus cooled Paddle-wheel, driven by falling weights, stirred and heated water. Improved versions of paddle wheel experiment, using water, whale oil, mercury and water again. Friction between iron plates rubbed together. Battery producing (a) mechanical energy and (b) heat for same current and time. Water-cooled metal brake, Liquid driven through hole by high pressure. Hammer smashing lead against anvil. ‘Compressed air expanding against atmosphere. Steam engine. ‘Heat produced by current through resistance ‘Heat produced by current through resistance . Disc rotated in magnetic field and thus heated by electrical eddy currents. Friction of metals Water chumed by paddle whee! driven by steam engine. ‘Continuous flow of water heated electrically. ‘Water churned by paddle. RATIO 13 08 1.13 01.34 1.01 1.06, 1.02 0.98, 1.05, 117 Las 1,007, 1.009, 1.014, 0.993 1.007 0.998 to 1.09 1.012 0.995 0.998 1.03 0.98 to 1.01 1.009 1.007 1.019 0.997 to 1.000 0.9997 1.0007 1.0000