Project Report

TYPES OF CRANES

Summary
The project report on the topic of cranes and its types contains the following headings:1
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3
4
5
6
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Introduction of cranes
Historical background of cranes
Basic structure of cranes
Diagramatic explanation of cranes
Mechanics and working of cranes
Types of cranes
Improvements in cranes with time
Industrial applications of cranes
Local or domestic use of cranes
Advantages of cranes
Disadvantages and accidents related to cranes
Care about cranes
Future horizons

Preface
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Workshop being an advanced and all time progessive area has so much applications that
one can hardly imagine.This report regarding the cranes and its types has sufficient
material to get an over view of the topic with respect to old present and future ages.
During the making of this book the main objectives in my mind were:1
2
3
4
5
6

To cover the basic information that how cranes came into being, got modified
and lead to the present form.
To present the basic structure of cranes.
To show the working mechanism and mechanics of cranes.
To over view the applications of cranes.
To discuss about various types of cranes.
To develop a better understanding of the topic with respect to our subject.

The special features of this publications are:1

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3
4
5
6
7

Up to date information.
Many basic structural study with comprehensive details.
Starting from ancient root moved to modern cranes.
Emphasis on understanding of cranes and its types in modern world.
Examples from daily life.
All terms used are purely technical.
Resource CD and PPT files for better understanding of the topic.

Objectives
While writing this book the objectives in my mind were:-

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

To cover the basic information that how cranes came into being, got modified
and lead to the present form.
To present the basic structure of cranes.
To show the working mechanism and mechanics of cranes.
To over view the industrial usage of cranes.
To over view the local use of cranes in our life.
To discuss about various types of cranes in detail.
To Develop basic movement of Crane with

Introduction

A crane is a lifting machine, generally equipped with a winder (also called a wire rope
drum), wire ropes or chains and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials
and to move them horizontally.
It uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move
loads beyond the normal capability of a human. Cranes are commonly employed in the
transport industry for the loading and unloading of freight, in the construction industry
for the movement of materials and in the manufacturing industry for the assembling of
heavy equipment.
Archimedes said:
Give me a lever long enough and a place to stand and I will lift the world
This statement from the ancient times is self explaining that cranes either in simplest
form were thought and were present in all times. The common thinking that any big
sized machine is a crane is not that much true. According to definition any simple or
complex machine that may be small or big if helps in carrying load and heavy
operations, than it is a crane. Cranes are of various types according to motility, shapes,
working etc.

Historical view of cranes

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The first construction cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by
men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys. These cranes were used for the construction
of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human
treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights.
In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and
assist with their construction some were built into stone towers for extra strength and
stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took
over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.
For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals,
although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural
power. The first 'mechanical' power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam
crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into
the late 20th century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric
motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was
previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilised where the provision of
power would be uneconomic.
Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms each tailored to a specific use. Sizes
range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes,
used for constructing high buildings, and the largest floating cranes, used to build oil
rigs and salvage sunken ships.

In Ancient Greece
The earliest known are:Greco-Roman Trispastos ("Three-pulley-crane"), the simplest crane type (150 kg load)
Greco-Roman Pentaspastos ("Five-pulley-crane"), a medium-sized variant (ca. 450 kg
load)
The crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th
century BC. The archaeological record shows that no later than c.515 BC distinctive
cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek
temples. Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be
found either above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point
over the center of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence
required for the existence of the crane.
The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a widespread replacement of
ramps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next two hundred years, Greek
building sites witnessed a sharp drop in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique
made the use of several smaller stones more practical than of fewer larger ones. In
contrast to the archaic period with its tendency to ever-increasing block sizes, Greek
temples of the classical age like the Parthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing
less than 15-20 tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was
practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums.

Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology
remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions of
Greece were more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction teams
than of large bodies of unskilled labour, making the crane more preferable to the Greek
polis than the more labour-intensive ramp which had been the norm in the autocratic
societies of Egypt or Assyria.
The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley
attributed to Aristotle (384-322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date.
Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic
predecessors again, indicating that the more sophisticated compound pulley must have
found its way to Greek construction sites by then.

In Ancient Rome
Reconstruction of a 10.4m high Roman Polyspastos powered by a treadwheel at Bonn,
Germany
The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire, when
construction activity soared and buildings reached enormous dimensions. The Romans
adopted the Greek crane and developed it further
The simplest Roman crane, the Trispastos, consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch, a
rope, and a block containing three pulleys. Having thus a mechanical advantage of 3:1, it
has been calculated that a single man working the winch could raise 150 kg (3 pulleys x
50 kg = 150), assuming that 50 kg represent the maximum effort a man can exert over a
longer time period. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys (Pentaspastos) or, in case
of the largest one, a set of three by five pulleys (Polyspastos) and came with two, three
or four masts, depending on the maximum load. The Polyspastos, when worked by four
men at both sides of the winch, could already lift 3000 kg (3 ropes x 5 pulleys x 4 men x
50 kg = 3000 kg). In case the winch was replaced by a treadwheel, the maximum load
even doubled to 6000 kg at only half the crew, since the treadwheel possesses a much
bigger mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter. This meant that, in comparison
to the construction of the Egyptian Pyramids, where about 50 men were needed to move
a 2.5 ton stone block up the ramp (50 kg per person), the lifting capability of the Roman
Polyspastos proved to be 60 times higher (3000 kg per person).
However, numerous extant Roman buildings which feature much heavier stone blocks
than those handled by the Polyspastos indicate that the overall lifting capability of the
Romans went far beyond that of any single crane. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek,
for instance, the architrave blocks weigh up to 60 tons each, and the corner cornices
blocks even over 100 tons, all of them raised to a height of about 19 m. In Rome, the
capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a height of
about 34 m.
It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures:
First, as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged
in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike a siege tower, but with the
column in the middle of the structure (Mechanica 3.5). Second, a multitude of capstans
were placed on the ground around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio
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than treadwheels, capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and,
moreover, by draught animals).

In the Middle Ages

Small-scale reconstruction of the medieval gantry crane at Brugge harbor
Medieval port crane with building overhanging in the former Hanse town of Danzig
(Gdask).
During the High Middle Ages, the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a large scale
after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with the demise of the
Western Roman Empire. The earliest reference to a treadwheel (magna rota) reappears in
archival literature in France about 1225, followed by an illuminated depiction in a
manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240.In navigation, the earliest uses
of harbor cranes are documented for Utrecht in 1244, Antwerp in 1263, Brugge in 1288
and Hamburg in 1291, while in England the treadwheel is not recorded before 1331.
Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by cranes than
by customary methods. Typical areas of application were harbors, mines, and, in
particular, building sites where the treadwheel crane played a pivotal role in the
construction of the lofty Gothic cathedrals. Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial
sources of the time suggest that newly introduced machines like treadwheels or
wheelbarrows did not completely replace more labor-intensive methods like ladders,
hods and handbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on medieval
construction site and harbors.
Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually
by windlasses with radiating spokes, cranks and by the 15th century also by windlasses
shaped like a ship's wheel. To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over 'deadspots' in the lifting process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123.
The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not recorded,
although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close
connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of the
treadwheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of the windlass
from which the treadwheel structurally and mechanically evolved. Its reintroduction
may have been inspired, as well, by the observation of the labor-saving qualities of the
waterwheel with which early treadwheels shared many structural similarities.
Firstly when big sized cranes were there the movement was locked to two dimentional
but with time need and progress cranes with three dimentional free movements were

formed

and

modified.

The development of slewing level luffing cranes from 18561956

Another type of crane or similar to it is a derric and it may be explained as:A derrick is a lifting device composed of one mast or pole which is hinged freely at the
bottom. It is controlled by lines (usually four of them) powered by some means such as
man-hauling or motors, so that the pole can move in all four directions.
In old times there was no discrimination between the two but now they are studied as
two different tools but their progress is inter relivant so in the history section they will
be treated as same.

The development of floating cranes 19051936

Enormous advances now mean that huge loads can be lifted by

offshore- and derricking- and slewing cranes where hoisting capacities
of 2000 tons or more are routine. Figure illustrate the
development of cranes over relatively short periods of time and show
the vast differences in size and lifting capacity. figure
show typical cranes that are in use today.

Mechanics and working of cranes

Before entering the study of the working of a crane we will firstly over view its
structure:

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Figure showing the structure of a crane

The medieval treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central shaft with
a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side. While the earlier
'compass-arm' wheel had spokes directly driven into the central shaft, the more advanced
'clasp-arm' type featured arms arranged as chords to the wheel rim, giving the possibility
of using a thinner shaft and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage.
Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were neither
placed on the extremely lightweight scaffolding used at the time nor on the thin walls of
the Gothic churches which were incapable of supporting the weight of both hoisting
machine and load. Rather, cranes were placed in the initial stages of construction on the
ground, often within the building. When a new floor was completed, and massive tie
beams of the roof connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the
roof beams from where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the vaults.
Thus, the crane grew and wandered with the building with the result that today all
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extant construction cranes in England are found in church towers above the vaulting and
below the roof, where they remained after building construction for bringing material for
repairs aloft.
Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the outside of
walls with the stand of the machine secured to putlogs.

Mechanics and operation

In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists - much like their counterparts
in Greece and Rome - were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move
loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was
organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for
example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom
directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could
deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane
master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was
able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing
cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for
dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by
sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German Teufelskralle), other objects were placed before in
containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.
It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the
load from running backward .This curious absence is explained by the high friction force
exercised by medieval treadwheels which normally prevented the wheel from
accelerating beyond control.

Harbor usage
According to the present state of knowledge unknown in antiquity, stationary harbor
cranes are considered a new development of the Middle Ages. The typical harbor crane
was a pivoting structure equipped with double treadwheels. These cranes were placed
docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented
older lifting methods like see-saws, winches and yards.

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Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a varying geographical
distribution: While gantry cranes which pivoted on a central vertical axle were
commonly found at the Flemish and Dutch coastside, German sea and inland harbors
typically featured tower cranes where the windlass and treadwheels were situated in a
solid tower with only jib arm and roof rotating. Interestingly, dockside cranes were not
adopted in the Mediterranean region and the highly developed Italian ports where
authorities continued to rely on the more labor-intensive method of unloading goods by
ramps beyond the Middle Ages.
Unlike construction cranes where the work speed was determined by the relatively slow
progress of the masons, harbor cranes usually featured double treadwheels to speed up
loading. The two treadwheels whose diameter is estimated to be 4 m or larger were
attached to each side of the axle and rotated together. Today, according to one survey,
fifteen treadwheel harbor cranes from pre-industrial times are still extant throughout
Europe. Beside these stationary cranes, floating cranes which could be flexibly deployed
in the whole port basin came into use by the 14th century.

Mechanical principles
Cranes can mount many different utensils depending on load (left). Cranes can be
remote-controlled from the ground, allowing much more precise control, but without the
view that a position atop the crane provides (right).
The stability of a mobile construction crane can be jeopardized when outriggers sink
into soft soil, which can result in the crane tipping over.
There are two major considerations in the design of cranes. The first is that the crane
must be able to lift a load of a specified weight and the second is that the crane must
remain stable and not topple over when the load is lifted and moved to another location.

Lifting capacity
Cranes illustrate the use of one or more simple machines to create mechanical
advantage.

The lever. A balance crane contains a horizontal beam (the lever) pivoted about a
point called the fulcrum. The principle of the lever allows a heavy load attached
to the shorter end of the beam to be lifted by a smaller force applied in the
opposite direction to the longer end of the beam. The ratio of the load's weight to
the applied force is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the longer arm and the
shorter arm, and is called the mechanical advantage.

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The pulley. A jib crane contains a tilted strut (the jib) that supports a fixed pulley
block. Cables are wrapped multiple times round the fixed block and round
another block attached to the load. When the free end of the cable is pulled by
hand or by a winding machine, the pulley system delivers a force to the load that
is equal to the applied force multiplied by the number of lengths of cable passing
between the two blocks. This number is the mechanical advantage.

The hydraulic cylinder. This can be used directly to lift the load or indirectly to
move the jib or beam that carries another lifting device.

Cranes, like all machines, obey the principle of conservation of energy. This means that
the energy delivered to the load cannot exceed the energy put into the machine. For
example, if a pulley system multiplies the applied force by ten, then the load moves only
one tenth as far as the applied force. Since energy is proportional to force multiplied by
distance, the output energy is kept roughly equal to the input energy (in practice slightly
less, because some energy is lost to friction and other inefficiencies).

Stability
For stability, the sum of all moments about any point such as the base of the crane must
equate to zero. In practice, the magnitude of load that is permitted to be lifted (called the
"rated load" in the US) is some value less than the load that will cause the crane to tip
(providing a safety margin).
Under US standards for mobile cranes, the stability-limited rated load for a crawler
crane is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a mobile crane
supported on outriggers is 85% of the tipping load. These requirements, along with
additional safety-related aspects of crane design, are established by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Standards for cranes mounted on ships or offshore platforms are somewhat stricter
because of the dynamic load on the crane due to vessel motion. Additionally, the
stability of the vessel or platform must be considered.
For stationary pedestal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment created by the boom,
jib, and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. Stress within the base must be
less than the yield stress of the material or the crane will fail. As the purpose of this
publication is solely to study the types of cranes thats why the mechanics section has
got only a birds eye view.

Types of cranes
They are commonly used in the construction industry and in the manufacturing of heavy
equipment.
Cranes
for
construction
are
normally
temporary
structures, either fixed to the ground or mounted on a purpose built vehicle.
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They can either be controlled from an operator in a cab that travels along with the crane,
by a push button pendant control station, or by radio type controls. The crane operator is
ultimately responsible for the safety of the crews and the crane

.
The most basic types of cranes

The few main types of cranes

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The cranes visible in the figure are showing the history as well as the advancement in
cranes with time. Although the concept about cranes in ones mind would be as abig
machine but the basic type of crane can break the the concept.On the basis of modern
crane study and advancement there are two basic types of cranes:1. Fixed Cranes
2. Mobile or Movable Cranes
Now we will discuss the two types of cranes in detail:-

Fixed cranes
As the name indicates, these cranes would not show any appreciable movement.
Exchanging mobility i.e. the ability to move; for the ability to carry greater loads and
reach greater heights as compare to any other type of cranes,and it is due to increased
stability, these types of cranes are characterised that they (or at least their main structure)
does not move during the period of use. However, many can still be assembled and
disassembled and sometimes show a little movement too but again it is not appreciable
to a limit that we may say them mobile. Mobile cranes are so much easy to use and
move but the importance and use of fixed cranes hasnt lost its importance and we see
them everywhere.The most important by use and stability are:1. Tower crane
2. Self-erecting crane
3. Telescopic crane
4. Hammerhead crane
5. Level luffing crane
6. Gantry crane
7. Overhead crane
8. Deck crane
9. Jib crane
10. Bulk-handling crane
11. Loader crane
12. Stacker crane

Tower cranes
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The tower crane is a modern form of balance crane. Fixed to the ground (and sometimes
attached to the sides of structures as well), tower cranes often give the best combination
of height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings.
The jib (colloquially, the 'boom') and counter-jib are mounted to the turntable, where the
slewing bearing and slewing machinery are located. The counter-jib carries a
counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load from the
trolley. The Hoist motor and transmissions are located on the mechanical deck on the
counter-jib, while the trolley motor is located on the jib. The crane operator either sits in
a cabin at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio remote control from the
ground. In the first case the operator's cabin is most usually located at the top of the
tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the
tower. The lifting hook is operated by using electric motors to manipulate wire rope
cables through a system of sheaves.

In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually works in conjunction with a
signaller (known as a 'rigger' or 'swamper'). They are most often in radio contact, and
always use hand signals. The rigger directs the schedule of lifts for the crane, and is
responsible for the safety of the rigging and loads.
A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach
(also see "self-erecting crane" below) and in the case of tower cranes that have risen
while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will often be lifted
to the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards.
It is often claimed that a large fraction of the tower cranes in the world are in use in
Dubai. And definitely it represents their progressing rate.

Self-erecting crane
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Generally a type of tower crane, these cranes, also called self-assembling or "Kangaroo"
cranes, lift themselves off the ground using jacks, allowing the next section of the tower
to be inserted at ground level or lifted into place by the partially erected crane itself.
They can thus be assembled without outside help, or can grow together with the building
or structure they are erecting.

With a combination of superior reach, safer operating techniques and quiet operation,
selferecting cranes outperform telehandlers. The cranes are used in areas not accessible
to a telehandler and reach across an entire jobsite instead of one area, thus enhancing
safety. Radio remote control allows operation close to the load to accurately pick and
place materials. Users benefit from the cranes ability to work in environmentally
sensitive areas due to electric power operation from a genset that is quieter than mobile
alternatives.

Telescopic cranes
A telescopic crane has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside the
other. A hydraulic or other powered mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase
or decrease the total length of the boom. These types of booms are often used for short
term construction projects, rescue jobs, lifting boats in and out of the water, etc. The
relative compactness of telescopic booms make them adaptable for many mobile
applications.

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Note that while telescopic cranes are not automatically mobile cranes, many of them are.
These are often truck-mounted.

Hammer head cranes

The "hammerhead", or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-jib crane consisting of a steelbraced tower on which revolves a large, horizontal, double cantilever; the forward part
of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order
to form a support for the machinery and counter-balancing weight. In addition to the
motions of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by
which the lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib
without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked
feature of later crane design. These cranes are generally constructed in large sizes, up to
350 tons.
The design of hammerkran evolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th century
and was adopted and developed for use in British shipyards to support the battleship
construction program from 1904-1914. The ability of the hammerhead crane to lift
heavy weights was useful for installing large pieces of battleships such as armour plate
and gun barrels. Giant cantilever cranes were also installed in naval shipyards in Japan
and in the USA. The British Government also installed a giant cantilever crane at the
Singapore Naval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed at Garden
Island Naval Dockyard in Sydney (1951). These cranes provided repair support for the
battle fleet operating far from Great Britain.

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The principal engineering firm for giant cantilever cranes in the British Empire was Sir
William Arrol & Co Ltd building 14. Of around 60 built across the world few remain; 7
in England and Scotland of about 15 worldwide.
The Titan Clydebank is one of the 4 Scottish cranes on the Clydebank and preserved as a
tourist attraction.

Level luffing crane

Normally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to have its hook also move up and down as
the jib moves (or luffs). A level luffing crane is a crane of this common design, but with
an extra mechanism to keep the hook level when luffing.

A level luffing crane is a crane mechanism where the hook remains at the same level
whilst luffing; moving the jib up and down, so as to move the hook inwards and
outwards relative to the base.[1]
Some types of crane are inherently level luffing: those with a fixed horizontal jib, such
as gantry, hammerhead or the fixed-jib tower cranes commonly used in construction.
Usually though, the description is only applied to those with a luffing jib that have some
additional mechanism applied to keep the hook level when luffing.

Level luffing is most important when careful movement of a load near ground level is
required, such as in construction or shipbuilding. This partially explains the popularity
of fixed horizontal jibs in these fields.
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Toplis cable luffing

Stothert & Pitt crane with Toplis gear
An early form of level luffing gear was the "Toplis" design, invented by a Stothert & Pitt
engineer in 1914.[2][3] This is also a purely mechanical linkage, arranged by the reeving
of the hoist cables to the jib over pulleys at the crane's apex above the cab, so that
luffing the jib upwards allows more free cable and lowers the hook to compensate.
Horse-head jibs
Horse-head jib, showing the level position of the hook
Horse-head design
The usual mechanism for level luffing in modern cranes is to add an additional "horse
head" section to the top of the jib. By careful design of the geometry, this keeps level
merely by the linked action of the pivots.[4]
Powered level luffing
As cranes and their control systems became more sophisticated, it became possible to
control the level of luffing directly, by winching the hoist cable in and out as needed.
The first of these systems used mechanical clutches between luffing and hoist drums,
giving simplicity and a "near level" result.[5]
Later systems have used modern electronic controls and quickly reversible motors with
good slow-speed control to the hoist winch motors, so as to give a positioning accuracy
of inches. Some early systems used controllable hydraulic gearboxes to achieve the
same result, but these added complexity and cost and so were only popular where high
accuracy was needed, such as for shipbuilding.
Luffing cabs
Luffing mechanisms have also been applied to the driver's cab being mounted on its own
jib, following the movement of the crane's main jib [6] These are used for tasks such as
ship unloading, where the view from the driver's cab is greatly improved by
cantilevering it forwards and over the ship.

Gantry crane
A gantry crane has a hoist in a fixed machinery house or on a trolley that runs
horizontally along rails, usually fitted on a single beam (mono-girder) or two beams
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(twin-girder). The crane frame is supported on a gantry system with equalized beams
and wheels that run on the gantry rail, usually perpendicular to the trolley travel
direction. These cranes come in all sizes, and some can move very heavy loads,
particularly the extremely large examples used in shipyards or industrial installations. A
special version is the container crane (or "Portainer" crane, named by the first
manufacturer), designed for loading and unloading ship-borne containers at a port.
Both overhead travelling cranes and gantry cranes are types of crane which lift
objects by a hoist which is fitted in a trolley and can move horizontally on a rail or pair
of rails fitted under a beam. An overhead travelling crane, also known as an overhead
crane or as a suspended crane, has the ends of the supporting beam resting on wheels
running on rails at high level, usually on the parallel side walls of a factory or similar
large industrial building, so that the whole crane can move the length of the building
while the hoist can be moved to and fro across the width of the building. A gantry crane
or portal crane has a similar mechanism supported by uprights, usually with wheels at
the foot of the uprights allowing the whole crane to traverse. Some portal cranes may
have only a fixed gantry, particularly when they are lifting loads such as railway cargoes
that are already easily moved beneath them.
Overhead travelling cranes and gantry cranes are particularly suited to lifting very heavy
objects and huge gantry cranes have been used for shipbuilding where the crane
straddles the ship allowing massive objects like ships' engines to be lifted and moved
over the ship. Two famous gantry cranes built in 1974 and 1969 respectively, are
Samson and Goliath, which reside in the largest dry dock in the world in Belfast,
Northern Ireland. Each crane has a span of 140 metres and can lift loads of up to 840
tonnes to a height of 70 metres, making a combined lifting capacity of over 1,600
tonnes, one of the largest in the world.
However, gantry cranes are also available running on rubber tyres so that tracks are not
needed, and small gantry cranes can be used in workshops, for example for lifting
automobile engines out of vehicles.

22

Container crane
A ship-to-shore rail mounted gantry crane is a specialised version of the gantry crane in
which the horizontal gantry rails and their supporting beam are cantilevered out from
between frame uprights spaced to suit the length of a standard freight container, so that
the beam supporting the rails projects over a quayside and over the width of an adjacent
ship allowing the hoist to lift containers from the quay and move out along the rails to
place the containers on the ship. The uprights have wheels which run in tracks allowing
the crane to move along the quay to position the containers at any point on the length of
the ship. The first versions of these cranes were designed and manufactured by Paceco
Corporation. They were called Portainers and became so popular that the term Portainer
is commonly used as a generic term to refer to all ship-to-shore rail mounted gantry
cranes.

Workstation Gantry Cranes

Workstation gantry cranes are used to lift and transport smaller items around a working
area in a factory or machine shop. Some workstation gantry cranes are equipped with an
enclosed track, while others use an I-beam, or other extruded shapes, for the running
surface. Most workstation gantry cranes are intended to be stationary when loaded, and
mobile when unloaded.

Rail Mounted or EOT Gantry Cranes

Electrical Overhead Travelling (EOT) cranes or Gantry Cranes are commonly found in
factory applications such as steel yards, paper mills or locomotive repair shops. The
23

EOT gantry crane functions similarly to an overhead bridge crane, but has rails installed
on the ground and gantry-style legs to support the crane. Capacities range from 2 to 200
tons. Most are electrically powered and painted safety yellow.

Overhead crane
Also known as a 'suspended crane', this type of crane work very similar to a gantry crane
but instead of the whole crane moving, only the hoist / trolley assembly moves in one
direction along one or two fixed beams, often mounted along the side walls or on
elevated columns in the assembly area of factory. Some of these cranes can lift very
heavy loads.
An overhead crane is a type of crane where the hook-and-line mechanism runs along a
horizontal beam that runs along two widely separated rails. Often it is in a long factory
building and runs along rails along the building's two long walls. It is similar to a gantry
crane.
An overhead crane typically consists of three important parts:
1. The hoist, providing up/down motion to lift items.
2. The trolley, providing left/right motion for the hoist and load.
3. The bridge, providing back/forward motion for trolley, hoist, and load.
This is permanently installed in a factory, shop, or warehouse to move items not
moveable by humans or forklifts.

24

The most common overhead crane use is in the steel industry. Every step of steel, until it
leaves a factory as a finished product, the steel is handled by an overhead crane. Raw
materials are poured into a furnace by crane, hot steel is stored for cooling by an
overhead crane, the finished coils are lifted and loaded onto trucks and trains by
overhead crane, and the fabricator or stamper uses an overhead crane to handle the steel
in his factory. The automobile industry uses overhead cranes for handling of raw
materials. Smaller workstation cranes handle lighter loads in a work-area, such as CNC
mill or saw.

Deck crane
Located on the ships and boats, these are used for cargo operations or boat unloading
and retrieval where no shore unloading facilities are available. Most are diesel-hydraulic
or electric-hydraulic

The most advanced form of a deck crane is a GLB deck crane. GLB electro-hydraulic
deck cranes are designed for bulk carriers. We focused on giving the GLB a robust
design, and excellent control and operational properties. The range covers lifting
capacities from 25 to 36 tonnes, with 18-30 m outreaches. GLB cranes are built from
modules,
and
are
easy
to
maintain
and
install.
General
design:
GLB cranes are designed to meet the rules of all recognised classification societies and
regulatory bodies. They are designed to work in the tough conditions that go with grab
and log handling. The cranes have a stepless control system, and hoisting, luffing and
slewing motions are independent of each other. This means that at their maximum
25

capacity GLB cranes can operate at full speed using all three movements at the same
time. These cranes can be supplied with the tools needed for handling particular cargoes.

Jib crane
A jib crane is a type of crane where a horizontal member (jib or boom), supporting a
moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib cranes are used in
industrial premises and on military vehicles. The jib may swing through an arc, to give
additional lateral movement, or be fixed. Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists,
were fitted on the top floor of warehouse buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all
floors.

Floor Mounted Jib Crane

o Up to 5 Ton Standard Capacities
o Up to 20 Feet Span
o Unlimited Custom Design

Wall Mounted Jib Crane

o Up to 5 Ton Standard Capacities
o Up to 20 Feet Span
26

o Unlimited Custom Design

Special Application Jib Cranes

o Up to 1 Ton Capacity
o Up to 16 Feet Span
o 3 Different Mounting Styles: Floor, Ceiling and Wall.

Jib

extension

on

scotch

derrick

By linking the extension to the main jib (in the example above there is a rigid tie-bar
between the top of the pillar and the end of the extension) you can arrange for the load to
remain at about the same height as the crane jib is luffed, that is if you lift the main jib
the load moves closer to the crane but remains at the same level.

This was common on dockside cranes, although the example shown below, taken from a
1930s book on engineering, is a very large crane, probably based on one at a ship yard
rather than a quay. These are known as 'horses heads', at least by sailors.

27

Bulk-handling crane
Bulk-handling cranes are designed from the outset to carry a shell grab or bucket, rather
than using a hook and a sling. They are used for bulk cargoes, such as coal, minerals,
scrap metal etc.

A bulk-handling crane is one that, instead of a simple hook that can handle a range of
slung loads, has an integral grab for lifting bulk cargoes such as coal, mineral ore etc.
Where the grab is a two-piece hinged bucket, it is known as a shell grab or shell
bucket. Working the grab requires extra cables from the crane jib, so requires a
specialised design of crane throughout, not merely an attachment. Some grabs use 2
cables for lift and control, others use 4.
In 1927, Stothert & Pitt of Bath, Somerset produced the first specialised bulk-handling
crane. This was to unload coal at Barking power station in London.

Orange-peel grabs
Where a cargo is coarser in size than minerals, commonly for scrap metal, then an
orange-peel grab may be used instead of a shell. These have six or eight segments of
"peel" independently hinged around a central core. They are better able to grab at an
uneven load, rather than just scooping at small pieces. If the load is made of long thin
pieces, a grab may also be able to carry far more than a single "grabful" at one time.
28

Although orange-peel grabs may be hung from cables on a jib, they're also commonly
mounted directly onto a jib. This is more suitable for grabbing at awkward loads that
might otherwise tend to tip a hanging grab over. They may also use hydraulics to control
the segments rather than weight and hoist cables.

Kangaroo cranes
Another of Stothert & Pitt's innovations was the kangaroo crane. Rather than slewing
(rotating) the crane to reach the delivery hopper on-shore, a kangaroo crane has its own
in-built hopper beneath the jib, that slews with it as the crane rotates. Dumping the grab
contents into the hopper now only requires the quicker luffing movement, without
needing to slew for each load.

The term "kangaroo crane" has also been applied more recently to jumping cranes, tower
cranes used in the construction of skyscrapers that are capable of raising their towers as
construction grows upwards.

Loader crane
A loader crane (also called a knuckle-boom crane or articulating crane ) is a
hydraulically-powered articulated arm fitted to a truck or trailer, and is used for
loading/unloading the vehicle. The numerous jointed sections can be folded into a small
space when the crane is not in use. One or more of the sections may be telescopic. Often
the crane will have a degree of automation and be able to unload or stow itself without
an operator's instruction. The numerous sections can be folded into a small space when
the crane isnt in use.

Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to view his
load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or radio-linked control
system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic control levers.
In the UK and Canada, this type of crane is almost invariably known colloquially as a
"Hiab", partly because this manufacturer invented the loader crane and was first into the

29

UK market, and partly because the distinctive name was displayed prominently on the
boom arm.
A rolloader' crane is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This chassis can
ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it can be a light crane, so
the trailer is allowed to transport more goods.

Stacker crane
A crane with a forklift type mechanism used in automated (computer controlled)
warehouses (known as an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS)). The crane
moves on a track in an aisle of the warehouse. The fork can be raised or lowered to any
of the levels of a storage rack and can be extended into the rack to store and retrieve
product.

The product can in some cases be as large as an automobile. Stacker cranes are often
used in the large freezer warehouses of frozen food manufacturers. This automation
avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below freezing temperatures every day.
This crane is a machine integrated into an Automated Storage/Retrieval System, also
known as AS/RS. The AS/RS are computer-controlled systems for storing and retrieving
products in manufacturing warehouses and facilities. The stacker cranes role in the
system is to transfer large unit loads from a specific storage slot to a pickup or delivery
30

station. The stacker crane is a large carriage that is built directly between the aisles of
the AS/RS. In a highly sophisticated system, multiple stacker cranes can be assigned to
one aisle. It can be built to move either vertical or parallel in the aisle.
OCS stacker crane is highly reputed for the stable automatic pallet transportation. Wellequipped option for single or double load devices, it allows the maximum throughput
with high-speed and stable bay performance.

Single-mast stacker crane

The single-mast stacker crane MAGITO now offers the familiar top performance of the
Mustang for heights of up to 18 m. A new construction concept for the mast head
provides for additional stability, which allows the device to optimally bear the high
speed and accelerations. The MAGITO can be combined with all standard load handling
devices and is thus suitable for all applications between 14 and 18 m.

Depth stacker-cranes
Single
Mono
Curve

or

double

or
stacker-crane

depth
bi-pallet
(transferring,

stacker-cranes
stacker-cranes
switching)

A complement to traditional storage functions, these technologies are perfectly suited

to
:
Negative
or
controlled
temperature
warehouses,
Bufferstock
with
rapid
turnover,
- Supply of order preparation stations integrated in or exterior to storage,

31

Mobile Cranes
These are the new type of cranes and are movable to a great extent. This movement is of
the crane from one place to another as well as the movement of crane basic work tool.
The most basic type of crane consists of a steel truss or telescopic boom mounted on a
mobile platform, which could be a rail, wheeled, or even on a cat truck. The boom is
hinged at the bottom and can be either raised or lowered by cables or hydraulic
cylinders. The main types of mobile or movable cranes are:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Truck-mounted crane
Sidelift crane
Rough terrain crane
All terrain crane
Crawler crane
Railroad crane
Floating crane
Aerial crane

Now we will discuss each type in detail:

Truck-mounted crane
Cranes mounted on a rubber tire truck will provide great mobility. Outriggers that extend
vertically or horizontally are used to level and stabilize the crane during hoisting. A
crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for this type of crane.
Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special
equipment to transport the crane. When working on the jobsite, outriggers are extended
horizontally from the chassis then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while
stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-travelling capability (a few miles
per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the load
sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping stability then lies in the
stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also have moving
counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers. Loads
suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of the weight of the crane acts as a
counterweight. Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by crane
operators to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well
as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds.

32

Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about 14.5 US tons to about 1300 US tons.
1930s and 1940s small mobile motor cranes
By the early 1930s motor lorries equipped with petrol engined cranes were in regular
use, the railways used them in larger goods yards (often for handling containers), those
seen on non-railway work were usually owned by a contractor and hired out with its
driver as required. There were some apparently purpose built vehicles in which the
driver could turn his seat round to operate the crane but there norm seems to have been a
crane unit with operators seat (in the open, cabs came in in the later 1930s but open seats
were seen into the 1960s) bolted to the rear of a lorry chassis. For people working on
OO scale the Airfix 'RAF Recovery Set' includes a crane that saw widespread use in
railway yards after the second world war (and the associated articulated lorry tractor was
also a type used by BR, although not with the long RAF trailer). As far as I am aware
nothing similar is yet available in N.

33

Modern diesel engined cranes, with hydraulic rams to lift and sometimes to extend the
jib and an electric or hydraulic motor to wind in the hoisting cable, started to appear in
the late 1950s. These use a compressor to provide the hydraulic pressure and because
compressors heat up the fluid they use oil rather than water to avoid the risk of steam
forming. The example shown below is traced from a photo taken in the 1950s showing
such a crane being used to load coke into road lorries. Note there is limited articulation
and little use of the hydraulics, the jib is raised and lowered by the two rams behind the
cab, and the grab is operated by hydraulics, but the rest is all mechanical linkages. Note
the
double
wheels
at
the
front,
single
at
the
rear.
Early mobile hydraulic crane
The application of hydraulics to produce more complex articulated and extending jibs
had to wait for general engineering to catch up and produce sufficiently accurate parts
and effective seals but by the 1980s most rail mounted cranes were of this general type.
Note that by the mid 1930s cranes were by law clearly marked with their safe working
load, usually in the form SWL 1 TON written in white on both sides of the jib (the law
requiring the safe load to be established had been passed in 1844 but it was the 1880s
before the tests produced meaningful results). The size of the lettering varied depending
on the type of crane, small hand cranes where the operator was standing close to the jib
might use lettering as small as two inches high but for large cranes with a cab the
lettering was usually the full height of the jib side. In the 1920s and less commonly in
the 1930s some cranes had something like 3 TONS written on the side but the safe
working load was a legal requirement so the SWL abbreviation soon became standard.
Up until the 1960s for regular heavy loads the best option was the overhead gantry
crane, some were fixed in position, others mounted on a bridge across two parallel raised
rails (technically 'travelling gantry cranes'). Larger railway yards often had a gantry
crane, some were fixed but most I believe were the travelling type (often called a
Goiliath
crane
by
railwaymen).
34

Kibri do a rather nice vintage gantry crane (B-7452), this has a fixed base and a covered
gantry with railed walk ways and can span two tracks. Vollmer offer a modern tubular
metal fixed gantry crane (7901), which would look well on any layout set after the
1960s, and as mentioned elsewhere they also offer the only really convincing ISO
container handling crane (7905). The British firm Knightwing offer a neat cast white
metal small fixed gantry crane well suited to industrial use.
Two types which the modeller might attempt are the very small gantry or overhead
conveyor and the very large travelling gantry crane suitable for a heavy engineering
factory or larger railway goods yard. The sketch below shows the most basic form, a
simple I section rail with a carriage running on the bottom web that might be used in an
engineering works to lift heavy items on and off railway wagons (technically this is an
'overhead conveyor' rather than a crane). At a works the rail could extend into a building
through a doorway (the doors being cut away to allow this) so items could be transferred
to and from inside the building and the railway wagons. Note this requires two doors
(usually sliding rather than hinged), one either side of the top rail.

Sidelift crane
A sidelifter crane is a road-going truck or semi-trailer, able to hoist and transport ISO
standard containers. Container lift is done with parallel crane-like hoists, which can lift a
container
from
the
ground
or
from
a
railway
vehicle.

35

The is the most advanced form and this family includes the state of the art of Ferrari
technology:
Piston
pumps
and
load
sensing
distributor
Proportional
levers
or
multifunctional
joystick
Full
CAN
BUS
integrated
management
Lifting
capacity
under
spreader
up
to
6
high
8'6''
FERRARI
EC
08
Outstanding forklift truck for empty container handling providing stability and
performances
at
top
market
level.
Lifting capacity under spreader up to 9 tons, stacking up to 8 high + 1
Telescopic
side
spreader
20'
40'
single
or
double
lift
EC
08
offers
its
best
performances
in
:
narrow
terminals
end
on
stacking
fork
handling
- double stacking
Being equipped with special spreaders to safely, neatly and quickly handle empty
containers at the terminals, it is developed the new type vehicles focusing on several
crucial features-excellent visibility, high-mounted pillar-less cabin, wider view mast,
easy and tireless maneuverability, increased operation efficiency and operator
friendliness as well.

Rough terrain crane

A crane mounted on an undercarriage with four rubber tires that is designed for pickand-carry operations and for off-road and "rough terrain" applications. Outriggers are
used to level and stabilize the crane for hoisting.
These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the
undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. In a rough terrain crane, the
engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with crawler
crane.

36

No matter where you want to build, the Rough Terrain Crane is ready to help with
realistic functions! Flip down the outriggers to stabilize the load and extend the powerful
telescoping boom! Rotate the base and activate the working controls on the back to
lower the winch and raise the payload. Entire crane rotates 360 degrees.

All terrain crane

A mobile crane with the necessary equipment to travel at speed on public roads, and on
rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and crab steering. ATs combine the
roadability of Truck-mounted Cranes and the manoeuvrability of Rough Terrain Cranes.
ATs have 2-9 axles and are designed for lifting loads up to 1200 metric tons.

37

All Terrain Crane adopts 4-section box type powered telescoping, with all-round
hexagonal boom profile, made of high-tensile structural steel, with longitudinal
reinforcement for improving partial stability of boom lower plate, better lateral rigidity
for boom. 5 sheaves at boom head, the 2nd, 3rd sections and the top one synchronously
telescope, telescoping system contains double-action cylinder and wire ropes, and with
holding valve fitted in the cylinder. 2-axle chassis with environment engine, all axle
drive, all wheel steering and crab walk possible, equipped with advanced hydropneumatic suspension and off-road tires, suitable for variable complicated ground
conditions. The vehicle can travel on various rough road, operate 360full circle, and
also on mid-extended outrigger or on tires, and travel with a suspended load.
For example maximum capacity on outriggers 90 t Base machine is as follows:
Chassis
Manufactured by Marchetti, steel torsion-resistant box type construction, width
2.75 m.
2.76
Outriggers
4 hydraulically telescoping beam outriggers. Independent movement controls on
each side of the carrier and in the upper structure cab. Two different outrigger
positions available 6.9 m & 5 m. The outriggers pads are always clasped to the
vertical cylinders.
Engine
IVECO engine F3A turbo-intercooler EUROMOT 2, 6 cylinder in line, water
cooled. Max power 287 kW (385 HP) at 2000 rpm. Max torque 1700 Nm at 1000
rpm. Fuel tank capacity 450 liters.
Suspension
All axles have hydro-pneumatic suspensions. Longitudinal and transverse level
control and locking to allow motion from the upper structure cab. Automatic
leveling system for road travel. Cylinder stroke 220 mm.
Electrical system
24 V EEC compliant lighting system. N. 1 working light fixed to upper structure
cabin.
Superstructure
Continuous 360 rotation.
38

Hoist gear
Grooved drum, epicyclical reducer and automatic disk brakes. Axial piston engine
and descent control. Rotation indicator. Anti-slewing rope, length 230 m diameter
19 mm. Hoisting capacity at the 4th level, 6000 daN.
Boom elevation
Through 1 hydraulic double-effect cylinder with safety valve. Boom angle from 1
to 82
Slewing
Planetary gear & external sprocket, epicyclical reducer and automatic multiple
disk brakes.
Hydraulic system
One axial pistons load sensing pump for the cranes main circuits; one geared
pump for slewing and for the outriggers; one geared pump for the service circuit.
Possibility of activating three contemporary maneuvers. Thermostatically
controlled oil cooler for heavy duty jobs.

Crawler crane
A crawler is a crane mounted on an undercarriage with a set of tracks (also called
crawlers) that provide stability and mobility. Crawler cranes range in lifting capacity
from about 40 US tons to 3500 US tons.
Crawler cranes have both advantages and disadvantages depending on their use. Their
main advantage is that they can move around on site and perform each lift with little setup, since the crane is stable on its tracks with no outriggers. In addition, a crawler crane
is capable of traveling with a load. The main disadvantage is that they are very heavy,
and cannot easily be moved from one job site to another without significant expense.
Typically a large crawler must be disassembled and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to
its next location.

39

Crawler cranes deliver excellent mobility over soft surfaces. These multiple-purpose
cranes can be used in a broad range of applications, ranging from construction to civil
engineering and port cargo handling.Here are given some specifications of the latest
model of a crawler crane for understanding its details:

18-tons (16.3-tonnes) pick-and-carry capacity 360.

Pull & pin boom - 70ft (20m) length.

Telescopic jib for up to 100ft (30.5m) tip height.

173 hp (129kW) diesel engine standard.

Low ground bearing pressure of 5.6 psi (0.39 kg/cm2) or less with counterweight
removed.

Mantis-engineered auger options with optional hydraulic tool circuit.

Two-speed independent hydrostatic track drive to 3 mph (4.8 km/hr).

8ft (2.44m) minimum travel width (with 18ins (457mm) tracks).

40

Extraordinary 7ft 11ns (2.41m) minimum clearance height.

Choice of track shoe widths, apex swamp pads or bolt-on rubber track pads to
suit any ground surface.

51-54,000lb (23-24.5-tonne) shipping weight fully equipped hauls as a single,

ready-to-work load.

Steep 70% gradeability thanks to low centre of gravity.

Hydraulic on-the-fly track frame retraction and extension.

12,000lb (5.4-tonne) planetary main winch with full load single line speeds to
222 fpm (67.7 mpm).

Optional Mantis WP-750 Heavy Duty Work Platform for 82ft (25m) working
height.

Railroad crane
A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads. The simplest form is a crane
mounted on a railroad car. More capable devices are purpose-built.
Different types of crane are used for maintenance work, recovery operations and freight
loading in goods yards. A railroad crane, (crane car or wrecker (US) or breakdown
crane (UK)) is a type of crane used on a railroad for one of three primary uses: freight
handling in goods yards, permanent way (PW) maintenance, and accident recovery
work. Although the design differs according to the type of work, the basic configuration
is similar in all cases: a rotating crane body is mounted on a sturdy chassis fitted with
flanged wheels. The body supports the jib (UK) (boom (US)) and provides all the lifting
and operating mechanisms; on larger cranes, an operator's cabin is usually provided. The
chassis is fitted with buffing and coupling gear to allow the crane to be moved by a
locomotive, although many are also self-propelled to allow limited movement about a
work site.
For cranes with a jib that extends beyond the length of the chassis, a match wagon (also
known as a 'jib carrier' (UK) or 'boom car' (US)) is provided to protect the jib and to
allow the crane to be coupled within a train. The match wagon is usually a long, flat
wagon that provides a means of securing the jib for transportation; storage areas for
special equipment or supplies are usually fitted too. It was not uncommon for the match
wagon to be built on a withdrawn revenue-earning wagon.

41

Railroad cranes are usually designed specifically for one of three purposes:
Goods yard cranes
Usually the smallest of the railroad cranes, goods yard cranes were used in the larger
goods yards to provide lifting capability in areas away from the ground-mounted goods
cranes normally provided in such yards.
They were often small enough to be operated by hand, and were not normally selfpropelled, instead requiring the use of a shunting engine to move them into position.
Once cheap road-going mobile cranes were available, these superseded the rail-mounted
variety due to their greater flexibility and mobility.
Maintenance cranes
The most varied forms of crane are used for maintenance work. General purpose cranes
may be used for installing signalling equipment or pointwork, for example, while more
specialised types are used for track laying.

Breakdown cranes
The largest cranes are used for accident recovery work, usually forming part of a
breakdown train that includes staff accommodation and recovery equipment. These are
large enough to lift derailed rolling stock back onto the track, although two or more
cranes may be required to safely recover a locomotive. In US terminology, a 'breakdown
crane' is often referred to as a 'wrecker'.
Construction

42

A railroad crane generally resembles a conventional fixed-location crane except that the
platform the crane sits on is a heavy-duty reinforced flat car. Directly underneath the
center of gravity for the crane is a pivot point that allows the crane to swivel around
360; in this way the crane can locate its boom over the worksite no matter what its
location is along the track. The trucks on the car under the crane will often include
traction motors so that the crane is able to move itself along the track, and possibly tow
additional cars.
Larger cranes may be provided with outriggers to provide additional stability when
lifting. Sleepers are often carried on the match car to put under the outriggers to spread
the weight applied to the trackbed.
Breakdown cranes (sometimes called wrecking cranes or 'big hooks) were necessary to
every railroad to recover derailed rolling stock and engines; while also assisting with
bridge building and yard construction.

Floating crane
Floating cranes are used mainly in bridge building and port construction, but they are
also used for occasional loading and unloading of especially heavy or awkward loads on
and off ships. Some floating cranes are mounted on a pontoon, others are specialized
crane barges with a lifting capacity exceeding 10,000 tons and have been used to
transport entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to salvage sunken
ships.
Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving cranes can
be found on SSCV Thialf, which has two cranes with a capacity of 7,100 metric tons
each.The floating cranes can be used in carrying out high-standard harbour projects, as
well as for loading-unloading, transhipping assignments and transportation of heavy
loads. Floating cranes made by Gottwald are the ideal choice for cargo handling on
waterways with few quays or none at all or if capacities have been exhausted:

based on proven Gottwald Mobile Harbour Crane technology

for cargo handling independent of quay availability

designed for ship-to-ship or ship-to-quay handling.

One Single Idea Many Fields of Application

Gottwald floating cranes are mobile and can be used:

in rivers (mid-stream transhipment)

43

in ports

in protected waters

in coastal waters

on the open sea

Proven Mobile Harbour Crane Technology on the Water

Gottwald Floating Cranes combine Mobile Harbour Crane technology with a barge and
can be designed as:

Harbour Pontoon Cranes: the crane is on a pedestal mounted on an individually

designed barge.

Portal Harbour Cranes mounted on a barge: with this special type of crane, the
barges have rails upon which the HSK can be travelled thanks to its rail-mounted
portal. This enables the crane to service several holds without warping the barge.

The numerous variants are developed to meet the requirements of the specific fields of
application.

Above the slew ring, they have the same components as Gottwald Mobile Harbour
Cranes. As a result, this crane type provides all the benefits of the proven Mobile
Harbour Cranes, such as:

diesel-electric or fully electric drives for optimised efficiency

44

designed to handle all forms of cargo (containers, bulk, general and project
cargoes)

rapid change of lifting gear.

Floating cranes are available in all variants including 4-rope grab variants for
professional bulk handling.

Aerial crane
Bell 47 helicopters were the first, lightweight aerial cranes to be used in the early 1950s.
Unfortunately, due to the helicopter's limited power, it was never capable of carrying
more than just a few hundred pounds of cargo. In the 1960s, the Sikorsky S-58 replaced
the Bell 47 because of its larger power margin. Even today, S-58s can be found carrying
medium-size loads. The 1960s also brought the Bell 211 HueyTug, a specially produced
commercial version of the UH-1C for lifting medium loads, and even the popular Bell
206 was used for light loads. But there continued to be a demand for aircraft able to lift
even larger loads. Aerial crane or 'Sky cranes' usually are helicopters designed to lift
large loads. Helicopters are able to travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by
conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most commonly used to lift units/loads onto
shopping centers and highrises. They can lift anything within their lifting capacity, (cars,
boats, swimming pools, etc.). They also perform disaster relief after natural disasters for
clean-up, and during wild-fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish
fires.
Some aerial cranes, mostly concepts, have also used lighter-than air aircraft, such as
airships.

45

So Helicopters used to lift heavy loads are called aerial cranes or skycranes. As aerial
cranes, helicopters carry loads connected to long cables or slings in order to place heavy
equipment when other methods are not available or economically feasible, or when the
job must be accomplished in remote or inaccessible areas, such as the tops of tall
buildings or the top of a hill or mountain, far from the nearest road. Helicopters were
first used as aerial cranes in the 1950s, but it was not until the 1960s that the popularity
of the use of skycranes in the construction and other industries began to catch on. The
most consistent use of helicopters as aerial cranes is in the logging industry to lift large
trees out of rugged terrain where vehicles aren't able to reach, or where environmental
concerns prohibit the buildings of roads.These operations are referred to as longline
because of the long, single sling line used to carry the load.

46

Disadvantages and accidents

Overload preventers
The main principles concerned are:
1. Overload preventers with strain gauges or load cells.
2. Overload preventers with load measuring pins.
Overload preventers with strain gauges
The strain gauges or load cells can be built-in directly behind a deadend
of a hoisting wire rope or in a yoke which is carrying wire rope
sheaves, or underneath a gear-box. Usually the crane driver can check
the approximate weight of the carried load on a display in his cabin.
Overload preventers with load measuring pins
High quality stainless steel load pins contain strain gauges which are
mounted in a particular way which give a load proportional signal. The
load measuring pins can be built-in in a wire rope sheave or in the pin
of a hydraulic cylinder. Load monitoring can also be done in the crane
drivers cabin etc.
Anti-collision systems
Some anti-collision systems work using the principles of:
sonar;
radar;
low frequency near-field induction.
Miscellaneous 287
Sonar
Although the principle is very good, there is the danger with this system
that a strong wind can blow the sonar waves away.

Radar
Radar usually uses advanced microwave or Doppler radar technology
combined with some digital signal processing. Safety circuits are builtin,
and the system can sense objects up to a distance of about 40 m.
The maximum crane travel speed is about 200 m_min.
The radar beam which is sent out will be reflected by solid objects
and will be received by the same radar antenna. It can measure the
distance between two objects and also the speed with which the object
is approaching the sensed object.
47

Low-frequency near-field induction system

These low frequency systems work at a frequency of approximately 90
to 220 kHz and have a working maximum range of about 30 m. A
transmitter and antenna is installed on the first crane and a receiver and
antenna on the adjacent crane. With this system it is possible to install
three distance steps between the cranes, which should be respected. For
example:
at 30 m distance an audible signal is given;
at 20 m distance the crane speed is decreased;
at 5 m distance the final stop signal is given.

Maintenance
General
With a well made piece of equipment, maintenance becomes a major
factor to keep this machinery in good condition. An organization with
reliable maintenance engineers should be formed to do this important
job. Discipline is needed to carry out regular inspections at the right
time and with the necessary care and attention.
For rolling equipment like straddle carriers and AGVs (Automated
Guided Vehicles), a well equipped workshop will be the best place to
concentrate all important maintenance jobs.
Moveable platforms which can surround the taller equipment such
as straddle carriers can be useful, as can moveable grease guns with
long, flexible grease hoses and moveable drain containers. Special cricks
can help to change heavy tyres rapidly and easily.
The extensive maintenance manuals normally give enough information
about the frequency of inspection and the items which are to be
checked and maintained. The same principles apply to mobile cranes
which are able to move around freely. However, as they are normally
too large to be worked on inside a workshop, the maintenance must be
48

carried out in situ or in a predetermined maintenance position at the

terminal or quay. Refuelling of the diesel engines also needs to be
organized with precision.
For cranes running on rails, such as the many types of ship-unloading
and loading equipment, stacking cranes, etc. the maintenance work
must be carried out in situ. The complete systems and the automation
require specialist skills. The training of a suitable team of operatives is
310 Cranes Design, Practice, and Maintenance
expensive and time consuming, but absolutely necessary. Inspection and
maintenance of the hydraulic equipment similarly demands specialist
knowledge and a sound understanding of the systems which are in use.
Mechanical engineers must inspect the wire ropes and wire rope systems,
hoist-, travel-, luff- and slew mechanisms, brakes, gearboxes, and
drums. Steel structures also require checking for fatigue cracking and
other faults. Bolts should be checked regularly for signs of loosening,
corrosion, cracking or other damage. Greasing and lubrication are an
important part of this whole process because while this essential procedure
is being undertaken, the engineers can carry out visual, mechanical
and other testing at the same time. Greasing and lubrication need
to be thorough and not skimped on even though it is both costly and
messy. It is one of the most important ways in which the useful life
of equipment can be extended and the downtime through repair and
breakdown reduced.
Railtracks should be inspected from time to time, especially those
tracks which are laid on sleepers and ballast beds.
Allowable deviation of the span if span15 m, G3mm
if span.15 m, Gto
10mm increasing
Allowable deviation of one rail
from the nominal straight line in
the horizontal plane max 1:1000
Allowable deviation of one rail
from the nominal straight line in local 1:1000; over the full
the vertical plane length of the track 1:5000
CAUTION: During crane operations, do not enter a crane cab without the knowledge
and expressed consent of the operator.
Conduct of Operators
Mobile crane operations can be complex and subject to hazards beyond those
experienced with fixed equipment. Mobile crane operators require applicable experience
and must exercise intelligence, care, and common sense in addition to knowing the
following rules:

Do not engage in any attention-diverting activity while operating the crane.

When physically or mentally unfit, do not engage in the operation of equipment.

49

Respond to signals from the appointed signal person. Obey a stop signal no
matter who gives it. (See Hand Signals.)

Operators are responsible for those operations under their direct control.
Whenever there is any doubt as to safety, consult with the supervisor before
handling the loads.

Before leaving the crane unattended, perform the following tasks:

land any load, bucket, lifting magnet, or other device

disengage the master clutch

set travel, swing, boom brakes, and other locking devices

put controls in the off or neutral position

secure the crane against accidental travel

stop the engine.

An exception to stopping the engine may exist when crane operation is frequently
interrupted during a shift and the operator must leave the crane. Under these
circumstances, the engine may remain running and the following conditions, including
the previous bulleted items above, shall apply:

crane is situated where unauthorized entry of the crane can be observed

crane is located within an area protected from unauthorized entry.

When a local weather storm warning exists, follow the recommendations of the
manufacturer for securing the crane.
If there is a warning sign on the switch or engine starting controls, do not close the
switch or start the engine until the warning sign has been removed by the person who
placed it or an appointed person.
Before starting the crane, see that all controls are in the off or neutral position and that
all personnel are in the clear.
If power fails during operations:

set all brakes and locking devices

move all clutches or power controls to the neutral position

50

if practical, land the suspended load under brake control.

Be familiar with the equipment and its proper care. If adjustments or repairs are
necessary, promptly report this to the appointed person and notify the next operator.
Test all controls at the start of a new shift. If any controls fail to operate properly, they
require adjustment or repair before operations begin.
Follow the manufacturer's boom assembly and disassembly procedures. Any deviation
from the manufacturer's procedure shall require blocking of the boom or boom sections
to prevent inadvertent dropping of the boom.
When removing pins or bolts from a boom, workers should stay out from under the
boom.
Each outrigger shall be visible to the operator or to a signaler during extension or
setting.
Operating Practices
Swing RadiusPinch Point Clearance
When the crane is in operation, maintain a minimum clearance of 30 inches (76
centimeters) between the swing radius of the crane superstructure or counterweights and
any stationary object. When this clearance cannot be maintained, isolate pinch point
hazards with barricades or safeguards. Where possible, flag or barricade the swing
radius.
Handling the Load
Load no crane beyond the specifications of the load rating chart, except for test
purposes.
CAUTION: Total load always includes the lifted item and the rigging. Additionally, the
crane hook, block, and load line may also be considered part of the load. Attachments to
the boom such as a jib or auxiliary whip lines affect crane stability and may be
considered part of the load. Consult the manufacturers operating manual for direction.
When the precise load weight is not known, the person responsible for the lift shall
ascertain that the weight does not exceed the crane rating at the radius at which the load
is to be lifted.
CAUTION: If a load of unknown weight is potentially near the cranes capacity, a loadindicating device should be used. If a load must "break-loose" before lifting, or while
being handled, or if it may meet an obstruction, a load-indicating device should be used.
If a lift is potentially limited by structural competence of the crane, rather than by
stability, the load shall be determined within plus or minus 10% before it is lifted.

51

Use regular lay wire rope for crane load lines with an operating design factor of no less
than 3.5.
Load lines with rotation-resistant ropes require an operating design factor of no less than
5.
Note: Standard ASME B30.5-3.2.1 grants special provisions for the use of rotationresistant ropes with an operating design factor less than 5, but no less than 3.5. These
provisions are not intended for duty cycle of repetitive lifts. The crane manufacturer
shall be consulted and strict compliance with ASME B30.5 is required if such special
provisions are implemented.
Attaching the Load
Perform the following tasks when attaching the load:

Never wrap the hoist rope around the load.

Attach the load to the hook by means of slings or other devices of sufficient
capacity.

If the crane is not equipped with automatic drum and boom braking systems and
the load is to remain suspended for any considerable length of time, set the drum
and boom brakes to hold the load.

Holding the Load

Do not leave the controls while the load is suspended.
As an exception to the direction above, when a load is to be held suspended for a period
exceeding normal lifting operations, the operator may leave the controls provided:

The supervisor and the operator establish requirements for restraining the boom
hoist, telescoping, load, swing, and outrigger functions.

Barricades, or whatever other precautions may be necessary, are taken.

No person should be permitted to stand or pass under a suspended load.

Moving the Load

CAUTION: Ground- and Bearing-Pressure Considerations. It is important to ensure
that no underground installations exist that could be compromised, such as electrical
vaults, conduit banks, tanks, and piping. When crane load foundations and bearing
pressure are a concern to crane stability and underground installation integrity, site
52

utility layout, crane manufacturers ground-loading information, crane configuration,

and load and travel path information shall be evaluated and analyzed by a qualified
person. The qualified person shall determine if ground scans, soil stability tests, and
structural analysis of underground structures is necessary. If analysis is performed, a
documented plan to ensure crane stability and integrity of underground installations shall
be provided to the supervisor of the lift operation and discussed with involved or
affected personnel.
Preconditions. The person directing the lift (supervisor or designated leader) shall
ensure:

crane is level and, where necessary, blocked

load is well secured and balanced in the sling or lifting device before it is lifted
more than a few inches

lift and swing path is clear of obstructions

all persons are clear of the swing radius of the crane counterweight.

Before Starting the Lift. Before starting the lift, the operator shall ensure:

hoist rope is not kinked

multiple-part lines are not twisted around each other

hook is over the load in such a manner as to minimize swinging

if there is a slack rope condition, the rope is seated on the drum and in the
sheaves as the slack is removed

wind speed and other weather conditions shall be considered. Do not attempt lifts
if weather conditions are adverse to safe load-handling operations.

load line is plumb so the cranes will not drag the load sideways.

During Lifting Operations. During lifting operations, care shall be taken to ensure:

no sudden acceleration or deceleration of the moving load.

load, boom, or other parts of the machine do not contact any obstructions or enter
the Danger Zone around electrical transmission lines (see Operating Cranes Near
Energized Transmitters or Electric Power Lines) or a transmitter tower (see
Operating Near a Transmitter Tower).

CAUTION: When landing loads on blocking, the loads must be set on adequate
blocking to prevent damage to the slings and the loads must be safely landed and

53

properly blocked to avoid unexpected roll over or tipping before being unhooked and
unslung.
Side Loading. Side loading of booms shall be limited to freely suspended loads. Do not
drag loads sideways.
Avoid Loads Over People. The operator should avoid carrying loads over people.
Wheel-Mounted Cranes - Lifting Over Front. On wheel-mounted cranes, do not lift
over the front area, except as specified by the manufacturer.
CAUTION: Working on or under a suspended load is prohibited, except when the load
can be supported by blocking or cribbing, can be securely braced, or can be supported
substantially by some other means that would prevent the load from moving. Loads
being lifted and set in place may require special handling control measures that may
require personnel to position their hands or other body parts under the load when
inspecting, landing, setting, or controlling the load. To ensure that appropriate controls
are implemented to control unwanted movement of the load, issues concerning "handson" work under suspended loads, guiding or controlling suspended loads, and fine load
control shall be discussed and resolved during pre-lift planning.
Brake Test - When Load Approaching Rated Load. Whenever a load approaching the
rated load is handled, the operator shall test the brakes by lifting the load a few inches
and applying the brakes.
Outriggers. Anytime the load or radius requires the use of outriggers, fully extend or
deploy them per the load rating chart specifications. Outriggers are set to remove the
machine weight from wheels. When outrigger floats are used, they shall be attached to
the outriggers. Blocking under outrigger floats, shall meet the following conditions:

Have sufficient strength to prevent crushing, bending, or shear failure.

Be of adequate size and thickness to completely support the float, transmit the
load to the supporting surface, and prevent shifting, toppling, or excessive
settlement under load.

Use blocking only under the bearing surface of the outrigger.

Minimum Two Wraps on Drums. Neither the load nor the boom shall be lowered
below the point where less than two full wraps of rope remain on the respective drums.
Lifts with Two or More Cranes. When two or more cranes are used to lift a load, a
designated person shall direct the lifting operation. That person analyzes the operation
and instructs involved personnel in the proper crane positioning, rigging, and the
movements that will be accomplished. Decisions, such as the necessity to reduce crane
ratings, load position, boom location, ground support, and speed of movement shall be
made. A pre-lift meeting shall be held by the designated person with the crane operators
and other involved personnel in attendance. The plan/procedure shall be reviewed and
questions shall be resolved.
54

Moving Cranes From One Job Site to Another (Transit). Prepare the crane for transit
in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. (See Lattice Boom
Dismantling/Assembly concerning lattice boom dismantling/assembly.) The following
additional precautions shall be exercised while the crane is in transit from job to job:

Carry the boom in line with the direction of motion.

Secure the superstructure against rotation (or place the boom in a boom rack
mounted on the carrier), except when negotiating turns when there is an operator
in the cab or the boom is supported on a dolly.

Lash down or otherwise secure empty hook(s) to restrain them from swinging
freely. If questions arise about this provision, the manufacturer's instructions
shall govern.

Notes: 1) When the machine moves under its own power from one location to another
on a job site, the supervisor and/or crane operator shall determine the machine's
condition for travel. 2) See Definitions and Acronyms, Travel, and Transit.
Traveling with a Load. Traveling with suspended loads entails many variables (i.e., the
type of terrain, boom length, momentum in starting and stopping, etc.) Therefore, it is
impossible to formulate a single standard procedure with any assurance of safety. Thus,
while traveling with a load, a designated person, in coordination with the crane operator,
must evaluate prevailing conditions and determine applicable safety precautions.
Before a crane travels with a load, determine that the manufacturer does not prohibit this
practice. If the manufacturer has approved traveling with a load, a designated person
shall be responsible for the operations. Decisions such as the necessity to reduce crane
ratings, load position, boom location, ground support, travel route, speed of movement,
and outrigger position shall be in accordance with that persons determination and the
manufacturers instructions. No person shall ride on the machine during "pick-andcarry" operations. Unless allowed by the manufacturers operating instructions or
written approval from the manufacturer, do not place the load on any part of the crane.
Check the specified tire pressure and travel with the boom in line with the direction of
travel. Avoid sudden starts and stops. Use tag or restraint lines as necessary to control
swinging of the load.
CAUTION: The travel path should be smooth, firm, and level. If soil stability is
questionable, soil tests may be necessary to determine stability. Where potential
underground hazards exist (such as electrical vaults, conduit banks, tanks, and piping),
they must be evaluated and action must be taken to make sure mobile crane operations
can be accomplished safely.
A crane with or without a load must not travel with the boom so high that it may bounce
back over the cab.

55

During "pick-and-carry" operations, exercise extra caution to avoid electrical hazards

from working near energized transmitters or power lines (see Operating Cranes Near
Energized Transmitters or Electric Power Lines).
During "pick-and-carry" operations, always use a minimum of two signal persons to
assist the crane operator; one signal person will serve as the flagger with key
responsibility for watching the load and signaling as necessary to control load
movement. The second signal person will have the key responsibility to watch for and
signal as necessary to avoid hazards involving the crane's movement. Typical
obstructions and hang-ups include power lines and any other obstructions for which the
crane operator may not have a clear line of sight

.
Rotational Speed. When the crane is rotated, avoid sudden starts and stops. Limit the
rotational speed such that the load does not swing out beyond the radius at which it can
be controlled. Use tag or restraint lines as necessary to control the load.
Boom at Fixed Angle. When a crane is to be operated with the boom at a fixed angle,
the boom-hoist pawl or other positive holding device shall be engaged.
Use of Winch Heads. A winch head shall not be used without the knowledge of the
operator. While a winch head is being used, the operator shall be within convenient
reach of the power unit control lever.
Riding Hook or LoadNot Permitted. Personnel are not permitted to ride the bare
hook, hook ball or a suspended load. (For personnel lifting, see Lifting of Personnel.)
56

Footing. A firm footing under both crawler tracks, all tires, or individual outrigger pads
should be provided. Where such a footing does not exist, timbers, cribbing, or other
structural members shall be provided to distribute the load. Do not exceed the bearing
capacity of the underlying material. (See Caution: Ground-and Bearing-Pressure
Considerations above.) The crane must be level within tolerances and in accordance with
the instructions from the manufacturer.
Ballast or Counterweight. Ensure ballast or counterweight is in place as specified by
the crane manufacturer. The addition of ballast or counterweight other than that specified
by the crane manufacturer is dangerous and not allowed.
Personnel Lifting. (See Lifting of Personnel.) Contact the PNWD Hoisting and Rigging
subject matter expert.
Operating Cranes Near Energized Transmitters or Electric Power Lines. It is
recognized that operating mobile cranes where they can become electrified from electric
power lines and transmitter towers is an extremely hazardous practice. It is advisable to
perform the work so there is no possibility of the crane, load line, or load becoming a
conductive path.
Note: A sign warning of electrocution hazards is required on cranes, see Signs.
Operating Near a Transmitter Tower. Before initiating work near a transmitter tower
(e.g., radio, microwave) where an electrical charge can be induced in the equipment or
materials being handled, the transmitter shall be de-energized or tests shall be made to
determine if electrical charge is induced on the crane. If an electrical charge is induced
and the transmitter cannot be de-energized, the following shall be done:

The equipment shall be provided with an electrical ground directly to the upper
rotating structure supporting the boom.

Ground jumper cables shall be attached to the materials that are being handled.

Combustible and flammable materials shall be removed from the immediate area
before operations.

Operating Near Electric Power Lines (See Figure 1). Any overhead wire shall be
considered to be an energized line unless and until the owner of the line or the electrical
utility authorities indicate that it is not an energized line. Do not rely on the coverings of
wires for protection. Crane activities shall be conducted so that no part of the crane, load
line or load becomes a conductive path. Cranes shall not be used to perform any lifting
operations under power lines if any combination of boom, load, load line, or machine
component has the capability of entering the prohibited zone or if the requirements of
Crane Operations Within the Prohibited Zone and the Power Lines are Energized
have not been met. Cranes should not be used to handle loads over power lines. The
following four conditions must be considered when operating a mobile crane near
electric power lines:
57

Power lines de-energized and grounded as in Crane Operation Near Deenergized and Grounded Electric Power Lines.

Power lines energized, crane operating less than the erected/fully extended boom
length away as in Power Lines Energized, Crane Operating Within the
Erected/Fully Extended Boom Length of the Prohibited Zone.

Power lines energized, crane within prohibited zone as in paragraph Crane

Operations Within the Prohibited Zone and the Power Lines are Energized.

Crane in transit, no boom and load lowered as in Crane in Transit With No

Boom and Load Lowered.

Required Notification Before Work. A minimum of 48 hours before commencement of

operations near electric power lines, notify the electrical utility for an onsite meeting to
establish conditions to safely complete the operations. Prior to the beginning the work
activity, notify electrical utilities in person or by phone, the day the work activity will
take place to re-establish the location, equipment and working conditions.
Crane Operation Near De-energized and Grounded Electric Power Lines. This
describes the preferred condition under which the operation can be performed safely.
The hazard of injury or death due to electrocution has been removed. The following
steps shall be taken to ensure that de-energization of the power lines has occurred:

The power company or owner of the power lines shall de-energize the lines.

The lines shall be visibly grounded to avoid electrical feedback and appropriately
marked at the job-site location.

Figure 1. Operating Cranes Near Electrical Power Lines Not Within a Boom Length of
Prohibited Zone. (Crane does not have the capacity to boom down, swing or extend into
the prohibited zone.)

58

A qualified representative of the owner of the lines or a designated representative of the

electrical utility shall be on site to verify that the steps above have been completed and
that the lines are not energized.
If cage-type boom guards, insulating links, or other proximity warning devices are used
on cranes, such devices shall not be used as a substitute for requirements of Operating
Cranes Near Energized Transmitters or Electric Power Lines. If such devices are used,
due to the lethal nature of electrical hazards and to lessen the potential of false security,
the crane operator, crew, and load handling personnel shall receive instructions and have
an understanding of:

the electrical hazard involved

operating conditions for the devices

limitations of such devices

testing requirements prescribed by the device manufacturer.

59

Conclusion

Recommended Daily, when used:

Check the control mechanisms for maladjustment that may interfere with proper
operation.

Check safety devices and operator aids for proper operation (see Operator Aids).

Inspect hydraulic hoses. Hoses that flex in normal operation of crane functions
shall be visually inspected.

Examine crane hooks and latches for deformation, chemical damage, cracks, and
wear.

Examine the hydraulic system for proper oil level.

Visually inspect running ropes. A visual inspection shall consist of observation of

the rope that can reasonably be expected to be in use during the day's operations.
These visual observations should be concerned with discovering gross damage,
such as the following, which may be an immediate hazard:
o rope distortion such as kinking, crushing, unstranding, birdcaging, main
strand. displacement, or core protrusion (loss of rope diameter in a short
rope length or unevenness of outer strands should provide evidence that
the rope or ropes must be replaced).
o general corrosion.
o broken or cut strands.
o number and distribution of visible broken wires (see Wire Rope, for
further guidance).

Ensure inspections (wire rope and crane) are current via inspection sticker, other
documentation or verbal confirmation from equipment custodian.

Perform other inspections as recommended by the manufacturer

Tips on using cranes and hoists

Before moving a load:
60

" _ Ensure all loose materials, parts, blocking and packing have been removed from the
load before lifting.
" _ Remove any slack from the sling and hoisting ropes before lifting the load.
" _ Make sure that the lifting device seats in the saddle of the hook.
To move loads safely:
" _ Move crane controls smoothly. Avoid abrupt, jerky movements of the load.
" _ Follow signals only from one slinger in charge of the lift, except a stop signal.
" _ Make sure everyone is away from the load before hoisting.
" _ Sound a bell, siren or other warning device and start to hoist slowly.
" _ Ensure nothing links or catches on the load while raising it or travelling.
" _ Ensure that nothing obstructs the movement of a load.
" _ Keep the load under control when lowering a load. If the braking system stops
working, the load can
usually be lowered by reversing the hoist controller to the first or second point.

Before leaving the crane:

" _ Remove the load hanging on crane hooks.
" _ Raise all hooks to a mid position.
" _ Spot the crane at a designated location.
" _ Place all controls in the OFF position.
" _ Open the main switch to the OFF position.

Avoid when operating an overhead crane:

" _ Do not operate a crane if limit switches are out of order, or if cables show defects.
" _ Do not attempt lifts beyond the rated load capacity of a crane or slings.
" _ Do not lift a load from the side. Centre the crane directly over the load before
hoisting to avoid swinging
the load.
" _ Do not allow anyone to ride on a load or hooks.
" _ Do not leave slings dangling from the load hook. Have sling hooks placed on the
sling ring when carrying
slings to the load.
" _ Do not raise loads higher than necessary to clear objects.
" _ Do not pass a load over workers.
" _ Do not reverse a motor until it has come to a full stop except to avoid accidents

61

Visualizing Crane Selection and Operation in Virtual

Environment
Abstract
Selecting suitable cranes in a construction project needs careful planning to meet several
requirements from capacity,
safety and spatial aspects. To provide construction managers with visual assistance, we
present a method
to design and implement advanced 3D animation methods to visualize crane selection
and construction processes
in 3D virtual environment. This paper discusses this approach including spatial conflict
detection for
equipment workspace using virtual crane animation based on forward and inverse
kinematics. In addition, the
virtual cranes can dynamically present their kinematics action while respecting the
functional constraints for
safety and effectiveness of operations. A prototype system developed in Java language is
used to demonstrate
the feasibility of the proposed method for realizing the proposed method.

Keywords
Visualization, construction operations, simulation, virtual reality, crane selection,
kinematics animation, workspace.

62

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Xiangyang Tan and Hong Pang from Concordia University for
their contribution in developing the 3D models of cranes and Yunke Zhang for
organizing engineering constraints.

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Bibliography
http.www.wikipedia.com
http.www.bing.com
http.www.google.com
http.www.torrenz.com
http.www.encyclopedia.com
http.www.scribe.com
Cranes,design, practice, and maintainance By Ing. J. Verschoof
http.www.engineeringcivil.com
Cranes By W.C.Mason
http.www.OSH answers.com
http.www.pnl.gov
PNNL Hoisting and Rigging Manual By Mike Fullmer
Lifts, hoists and cranes By DA2C Manual

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