8th Semester Project Report(M499)

2015-2016

Dirichlets Theorem of Primes in

Arithmetic Progression
Submitted by
Anish Anand
1211007
anish.anand@niser.ac.in
Supervised by
Dr. Sanjay Parui

School of Mathematical Sciences

National Institute of Science Education and Research
Bhubaneswar

Abstract
In this project we are going to study finite Fourier analysis, in which we will be studying properties of characters on finite abelian groups and then we are going to prove
Dirichlets theorem, namely primes of form lk+q are infinite where l and q are relatively
prime. On the way we will develop the concept of Dirichlet characters, L-functions and
their properties.

Contents
1 Finite Fourier Analysis
1.1 The Group Z(N ) . . . .
1.2 Fourier inversion formula
1.3 Fast Fourier transform .
1.4 The Group Z (q) . . . .
1.5 Characters . . . . . . . .
1.6 Orthogonality Relation .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
and Plancherel identity on
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Dirichlets Theorem
2.1 The zeta function and Euler product . . . .
2.2 Dirichlet L-function . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 L- functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Non vanishing of L-function . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Case 1: Complex Dirichlet characters
2.4.2 Case 2: Real Dirichlet Characters . .
2.4.3 Hyperbolic sums . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 1
Finite Fourier Analysis
1.1

The Group Z(N )

Let N be a positive number. A complex number z is said to be N th root of unity if

z N = 1 and the set of N th root of unity forms a group under multiplication of complex
number denoted by Z(N ) and is precisely
2i

Z(N ) = {1, e N , e

2i2
N

, ...., e

2i(N 1)
N

}.

The group of integers modulo N under addition represented by Z/nZ is isomorphic to

Z(N ) and the mapping R is given by
R(k) = e

2ik
N

Let V and W be two vector space of complex valued functions on the group Z/nZ and
Z(N ). Then the identification given above carries over to V and W as follows:
F (k) f (e

2ik
N

).

So we can think Z(N ) as Z/nZ.

1.2

Fourier inversion formula and Plancherel identity on Z(N )

On Z(N ) define N functions e0 , e1 , ...., eN 1 for 0 l, k N 1 as

el (k) = lk .
2i

where = e N . Now consider the vector space of complex values function on Z(N )
with inner product
N
1
X
(F, G) =
F (k)G(k).
k=0

Lemma 1. The family e0 , e1 , ...., eN 1 is orthogonal.

(
N if m = l
(em , el ) =
0 if m 6= l
Proof. By definition of inner product we have
(em , el ) =

N
1
X

mk lk =

k0

N
1
X

(ml)k .

k=0

Suppose if m = l then each term in the sum is equal to 1 so the sum will become N .
If m6= l then a = ml is not equal to 1 therefore by geometric sum we have
1 + a + a2 + + aN 1 =

aN 1
.
a1

Since aN = 1 so (em , el ) = 0 for l 6= m and (em , el ) = N for m = l.

Now the functions e0 , e1 , ...., eN 1 are orthogonal and since the vector space V is N
dimensional so e0 , e1 , ...., eN 1 is an orthogonal basis for V . el (k + m) = el (k)el (m) for
all k, m Z(N ) can be directly observed. Consider the functions
el
el =
N

0 l N 1.

then the set {e0 , e1 , ..., eN 1 }is an orthonormal basis for V , and hence for any F V
we have,
N
1
X
(F, ek )ek .
F =
k=0

This motivates us to define n

th

Fourier coefficient by an of F by

N 1
1 X
F (k)e2ikn/N .
an =
N k=0

Theorem 2. (Plancherel Theorem) If F is a function on Z(N ), then

N 1
1 X
F (k) =
an e2ikn/N .
N n=0

and

N
1
X

N 1
1 X
|an | =
|F (k)|2 .
N
n=0
k=0
2

Proof. As we observe that

N 1
1
1 X
1
(F, en ) = (F, en ).
an =
F (k)e2ikn/N =
N k=0
N
N

and substituting the value of (F, en ) in following equation

F =

N
1
X

(F, ek )ek

k=0

we get the above result.

1.3

Fast Fourier transform

The fast Fourier transform is a method that was developed as a means of calculating efficiently the Fourier coefficients of a function F on Z(N ). The problem is to determine
a algorithm that minimizes amount of time taken by computer to calculate Fourier
coefficient of a given function on Z(N ). Since amount of time is roughly proportion
to number of operation ( addition or multiplication of complex number) so problem
become minimizing number of operation to calculate all the Fourier coefficient of function F on Z(N ).
Let N be fixed and suppose we are given F (0), F (1), ...., F (N 1) and N = e2i/N .
th
Fourier coefficient of F on Z(N ), then by definition
If we denote aN
k as k
aN
k

N 1
1 X
kr
F (r)N
.
=
N r=0

From the above equation we can see that maximum number of operation required
to calculate each Fourier coefficient is 2N +1 and hence maximum number of operation
required to calculate all Fourier coefficient is 2N 2 + N .
Definition 3. Let f and g be two functions defined on some subset of the real numbers.
One writes f (x) = O(g(x)) if and only if there exists a positive real number M and a
real number x0 such that
|f (x)| M |g(x)|

x x0 .

The notation can also be used to describe the behavior of f near some real number a.
we write f (x) = O(g(x)) as x a if and only if there exists a positive number and
M such that
|f (x)| M |g(x)| f or |x a| < .
Theorem 4. Given N =e2i/N with N = 2n , it is possible to calculate Fourier coefficient of function on Z(N) with at most 4 2n n = 4N log2 (N ) = O(N logN ) operations.
5

Before proving this theorem first lets prove the following lemma,
Lemma 5. If we are given 2M = e2i/2M , then
#(2M ) = 2#(M ) + 8M
where #(M ) denotes the minimum number of operations needed to calculate all Fourier
coefficients of any function on Z(M ).
2M
Proof. Calculation of 2M , ....., 2M
requires at most 2M steps. Now consider any
function on Z(2M ), we consider two functions F0 and F1 on Z(M ) defined by

F0 (r) = F (2r) and F1 (r) = F (2r + 1).

since F0 and F1 are functions on Z(M ) therefore each requires at most #(M ) operations. Now we claim that
1 M
M
k
a2M
k (F ) = (ak (F0 ) + ak (F1 )2M ).
2
a2M
k

2M 1
1 X
kr
F (r)2M
.
=
2M r=0

!
M 1
M 1
1 X
1 X
k(2l)
k(2m+1)
F (2l)2M +
F (2m + 1)2M
.
M l=0
M m=0
!
M 1
M
1
X
1 1 X
1
kl
km k
=
F0 (l)2M
+
F1 (m)M
2M .
2 M l=0
M m=0


1 M
k
=
ak (F0 ) + aM
(F
)
1
k
2M .
2
From the above expression no of operation required to compute coefficient of F on
Z(2M ).
#(2M ) 2M + 2#(M ) + 3 2M = 2(#M ) + 8M.
1
=
2

Proof of Theorem 4.
Now we will prove the theorem by induction, for n = 1 Fourier coefficients are
1
1
N
aN
0 (F ) = (F (1) + F (1)) and a1 (F ) = (F (1) + (1)F (1))
2
2
N
It is clear that no. of operation required to calculate Fourier coefficients aN
0 and a1
is 5 which is less than 4 2 = 8, hence n = 1 is verified. Let us consider it is true
N = 2n1 that is #(N ) 4 4 2n1 (n 1). By above lemma 5 we have

#(2M ) 2 4 2n1 + 8 2n1 (n 1) = 4 2n n

which completes the induction.
6

1.4

The Group Z(q)

Let q be a positive integer, now consider the group Z/qZ. The group Z (q) is defined
as
Z (q) = {n Z/qZ | (n, q) = 1)}
Equivalently the set of all units in Z/qZ is the group Z (q) where a unit is a element
n Z/nZ such that there exists m Z/nZ such that nm = 1.

1.5

Characters

Let G be a finite abelian group and S 1 be a unit circle in a complex plane that is
S 1 = {ei | [0, 2]}
A character on G is a complex valued function e : G S 1 which satisfies the following
condition,
e(a b) = e(a)e(b).
The trivial character on G is defined by e(a) = 1 for all a G.

If G is a finite abelian group we denote the set of all characters on G by G.

is an abelian group under multiplication defined by
Lemma 6. The set G
e1 e2 (a) = e1 (a)e2 (a) a G.
then by definition of e1 e2 , it is also in G

Proof. As we can see if e1 and e2 is in G

since multiplication of two complex number of unit modulus is a complex number of
unit modulus. Since complex number are associative and commutative therefore associativity and commutativity is followed. Here identity element 1 is a trivial character,
then consider a element e0 such that e0 (a) = e(a) from this it is clear
now let e is in G
is a abelian group.
that e e0 = 1, therefore G
Lemma 7. Let G be a finite abelian group and e : G C \ {0} a multiplicative
function, that is e(a b) = e(a)e(b) for all a, b G. Then e is a character.
Proof. Let e(b) 6= 1, Since group is finite therefore |e(a)| is bounded above and below,where a G. Now since e is multiplicative this implies |e(bn )| = |e(b)|n from this
we can see that since bn G for all n N so LHS is bounded for all n N but for
all n, but RHS is not always bounded for all n N . therefore we must have |e(b)| = 1
for all a G so e is character.

1.6

Orthogonality Relation

Let V be a vector space of complex valued function defined on a finite abelian group
G. V is a vector space of dimension |G| and we define the inner product,
(f, g) =

1 X
f (a)g(a) f, g V.
|G| aG

Theorem 8. The characters of G forms a orthonormal family with respect to the inner
product defined above.
Since |e(a)| = 1 for all character we have
(e, e) =

1 X
1 X
e(a)e(a) =
|e(a)|2 = 1.
|G| aG
|G| aG

Now if e 6= e0 to prove (e, e0 ) 6= 0 we need the following lemma,

P
Lemma 9. If e is a non trivial character of a group G, then aG e(a) = 0.
Proof. Since e is a non trivial character so there exists a, b G such that e(b) 6= 1.
Now
X
X
X
X
e(b)
e(a) =
e(b)e(a) =
e(ab) =
e(a).
aG

aG

From the above equation we see that

proved.

aG

aG

aG

e(a) = 0 as |e(b)| 6= 1. Hence lemma is

Proof of theorem 8.
Now we had character e 6= e0 so this implies e(e0 )1 is a non trivial character, from
lemma 9 we have
X
e(a)(e0 (a))1 = 0
aG

Now since (e0 (a))1 = e0 (a) so from this (e, e0 ) = 0.Hence theorem is proved.
Distinct characters are orthogonal this implies distinct character are linearly indepen |G|.
dent, since the dimension of V over C is |G|, it is clear that |G|
Theorem 10. The characters of finite abelian group G form a basis for the vector

space of functions on G (|G| = |G|).

Before proving the theorem we will use the following result from linear algebra.
Suppose V is a vector space with dimension d with inner product(, ). A linear transformation T : V V is called unitary iff (u, v) = (T u, T v) for all u, v V . The spectral
theorem asserts that any unitary transformation is diagonalizable, that is there exists
a basis{v1 , v2 , ....., vd } of V such that T vi = i vi where i C is a eigenvalue attached
to vi .
8

Lemma 11. Suppose {T1 , T2 , ....., Tk } is commutating family of unitary transformation

a finite dimensional vector space V, that is
Ti Tj = Tj Ti

f orall 1 i, j k.

Then {T1 , T2 , ....., Tk } are simultaneously diagonalizable, means there exists a basis for
V which consists of eigenvectors for all Ti .
Proof. We will prove this lemma by induction on k. for k = 1 it is a spectral theorem.
Suppose lemma is true for any family of k 1 commutating unitary transformation.
Now by applying spectral theorem on Tk we have
V = V1 V2 Vs .
where Vi is subspace of eigenvectors with eigenvalue i . Now suppose v Vi and for
1 j k 1, from this
Tk Tj (v) = Tj Tk (v) = T (i v) = i Tj (v).
From this we see that Tj (v) Vi . Since restriction of T1 , T2 , ...., Tk1 on Vi maps Vi
to itself and forms a commutating family of unitary transformation so there exists a
basis of Vi such that each basis element is a eigenvector of each Ti where 1 i k 1,
and by combining all basis for each of Vi we will get a basis of V which itself would
be eigenvectors of Ti for 1 i k. Hence proved.
Now we will prove theorem 10, For each a G, define a linear transformation
Ta : V V by
Ta f (x) = f (a x) f or x G.
Ta Tb = Tb Ta follows since G is abelian and Ta is a unitary operator since,
(Ta (f ), Ta (g)) =

X
1 X
f (ax)g(ax) =
f (a)g(a) = (f, g).
|G| xG
aG

Now by lemma 11 {Ta }aG is simultaneously diagonalizable, that is there exists a

basis {vb (x)}bG for V such that vb (x) is a eigenfunction for Ta , for every a. Let v be
one of the basis element and 1 is the identity element in G. Now
v(a) = v(a 1) = (Ta v)(1) = a v(1).
From the above equation it is clear that v(1) 6= 0 for if v(1) = 0 that means v(a) = 0
for all a G but since v is in basis that means v(1) 6= 0. Now our claim is that
w(x) = x = v(x)/v(1) is a character of G. Now
w(x 1) = (Tx w)(1) = x v(1)/v(1) = x .

Now since x 6= 0 so w(x) 6= 0 forall x. Again

w(a b) =

v(a b)
a v(b)
v(1)
=
= a b
= w(a)w(b).
v(1)
v(1)
v(1)

Now from lemma 7 w is character. So |G| = |G|.

Given a function f on G and a character e of G, we define a Fourier coefficient of f
with respect to e, by
1 X
f (a)e(a).
f(e) = (f, e) =
|G| aG
Now since characters form a basis,
f=

ce e.

eG

By orthogonality of e we have (f, e) = ce so from this we have,

X
f(e)e.
f=

eG

Theorem 12. Let G be a finite abelian group. The characters of G form a orthonormal
basis for the vector space V of functions on G with inner product defined as
(f, g) =

1 X
f (a)g(a).
|G| aG

Any function f on G is equal to Fourier series,

X
f=
f(e)e.

eG

Theorem 13. If f is a function on G, then kf k2 =

eG

|f(e)|2 .

Proof. Since the characters of G forms an orthonormal basis for the vector space and
(f, e) = f(e),
X
X
kf k2 = (f, f ) =
(f, e)f(e) =
|f(e)|2 .

eG

eG

10

Chapter 2
Dirichlets Theorem
In this chapter we want to prove Dirichlets theorem namely, there are infinite number
of primes of form lk + q where l and q are relatively prime.
Before coming to Dirichlets theorem let us state some theorems in elementary number
theory
Theorem 14. For any integers a and b with b > 0, there exists a unique integers q
and r with 0 r < b such that,
a = qb + r.
Theorem 15. If gcd(a, b) = d then there exists x and y such that
ax + by = d.
Corollary 15.1. Two positive integers a and b are relatively prime if and only if there
exists integers x and y such that ax + by = 1.
Corollary 15.2. If a and c are relatively prime and c divides ab then c divides b. In
particular if p is a prime that does not divide a and p and divides ab, then p divides b.
Theorem 16. Every positive number greater than 1 can be factored uniquely into
product of primes.
Theorem 17. There are infinitely many primes.

2.1

The zeta function and Euler product

Let {An }
n=1 be a sequence of real number we define

Y
n=1

An = lim

11

N
Y
N =1

An .

Lemma 18. The exponential and logarithm satisfy the following properties.
(a) elogx = x.
(b) log(1 + x) = x + E(x) where |E(x)| x2 if |x| < 1/2.
(c) If log(1 + x) = y and |x| < 1/2 then |y| 2|x|.
Proof. (a) follows from the definition of logarithm. To prove (b) consider power series
expansion of log (1 + x) for |x| < 1
log(1 + x) =

X
(1)n+1
n=1

So E(x) = log(1 + x) x =

x2
2

x3
3

x4
4

xn .

and from triangle inequality it follows that


 2
|x|
|x|3 |x|4
+
+
+ .
|E(x)|
2
3
4


x2

1 + |x| + |x|2 + .
2
Now if |x| < 1/2 then above inequality becomes,


x2
1
1
|E(x)|
1 + + 2 + .
2
2 2


2
x
1

.
2 1 1/2
x2 .
To prove (c) suppose that x 6= 0 and |x| < 1/2, then




 E(x) 
 log(1 + x) 
 1+



 x .

x
1 + |x| 2.
and if x = 0 (c) clearly holds.
P
Q
Proposition 19. If An = 1 + an and
|an | converges then the product n An converges, and
Q this product vanishes iff one of the factor vanishes. Also if an 6= 1 for all
n, then n 1/(1 an ) converges.
P
Proof. If
|an | converges this implies that |an | 0 as n so for all large n we
can take |an | < 1/2, discarding finitely many terms we may assume that this inequality
holds for all n. Now
N
N
Y
Y
An =
elog(1+an ) = eBn .
n=1

n=1

12

P
where Bn = N
n=1 bn with bn = log (1 + an ), from above lemma we know that |bn |
2|an |, so Bn converges to a real number B,Q
since exponential function is continuous so
eBn converges to eB as N goes infinity, so N
n=1 An converges as N goes infinity. Now
B
since product converges to e so if (1 + an ) 6= Q
0 then product converges to non zero
limit. Similarly we can prove that the product N
n=1 1/(1 an ) converges to non zero
limit as N goes to infinity.
Now let s > 1 consider a zeta function defined by
(s) =

X
1
.
s
n
n=1

Now
series we will use cauchy convergence test that is
P to prove convergence of aboveP

n
a
converges
if
and
only
if
if
n=1 n
n=1 2 a2n converges. Now as

X
1
2(1s)n .
2 ns =
2
n=1
n=1
n

(2.1)

Now from above equation we see that |2(1s) | < 1 if s > 1 so the above series converges
for s > 1. So the zeta function converges for s > 1. Now we will prove the continuity
of zeta function for s > 1. Let us consider a function f = 1/xs , now we have
Z

Z n
X
X
1
dx
dx
1+
=1+
.
s
s
s
n
x
x
n1
1
n=1
n=2
We have

1
.
s1
Now let us first prove that (s) is continuous for s > 1,



 1
1
.
|(s) (t)| = 

s 1 t 1
|s t|
.
=
|st + 1 t s|
(s) 1 +

Now we have s > s0 > 1 and t > t0 > 1 so we have s + t > 2,

1 + st > 1 + s0 t0 .
|1 + st t s| > |s0 t0 1| > 0.
1
1
<
.
|1 st s t
s0 t 0 1
Hence we have,
|(s) (t)| <
13

|s t|
.
|s0 t0 1|

(2.2)

Now let  > 0 then choose = |s0 t0 1| from above equation we have if given  > 0
there exist such that whenever |s t| < then |(s) (t)| < . So (s) is uniformly
continuous.
Theorem 20. For every s > 1, we have
(s) =

Y
p

1
.
1 1/ps

Proof. Suppose M and N are two positive integers with M > N , now each positive
integers n N can be written uniquely as a product of primes, and that each prime
is less than or equal to N and repeated less than M times., from this we have,
N
X
1

ns
n=1

Y

1
1
1
1 + s + 2s + + M s
p
p
p
nN


Y
1

.
s
1

p
pN
Y 1 
.

1 ps
p

Letting N we have

X
Y 1 
1

.
ns
1 ps
n=1
p

Now by fundamental theorem of arithmetic we have,

 X

Y
1
1
1
1
.
1 + s + 2s + + M s
s
p
p
p
n
n=1
nN
As M tends to infinity we have,
1
1 ps

1
1 ps

1
1 ps

Y
pN

X
1

.
s
n
n=1

By proposition 19,
Y
p

Hence,
Y
p

14

X
1
.
s
n
n=1

X
1
=
.
ns
n=1

We will use the property of function to prove the following,

Proposition 21. The series
X

1/p.

diverges where sum is taken over all primes p.

Proof. From above theorem we have
Y

1
1 ps


=

X
1
.
s
n
n=1

Since logarithm is a continuous function, taking log both side we get,

X
log(1 1/ps ) = log (s).

Now since log(1 + x) = x + O(|x|2 ) whenever |x| 1/2, so we have

X
[1/ps + O(1/p2s )] = log (s).

Which implies,
X

1/ps + O(1) = log (s).

The term O(1) is because

let s 1+ , (s) since,

1/p2s

lims1+

1/n

We conclude that
all s > 1 so,

1/n2 and the latter series converges.now

M
X

f or every M.

n=1

n=1

n=1

1/ps as s 1+ now since we have

X

1/p

1/ps for

1/p = .

Example 22. There are infinite prime of the form 4k + 3.

Let there are finitely many primes p1 , p2 , p3 , ..., pn of form 4k + 3 and now consider
N = 4p1 p2 pn + 3.
Each prime can be written in form of 4k + 1 or 4k + 3 other than 2. Now since N is
of form 4k + 3 so it cannot be a prime as N > pn , and by prime factorization of N it
15

can be written uniquely in product of prime. Now we now product of two number of
form 4m + 1 is again of form 4m + 1, so one of the prime in factorization must be of
form 4k + 3 now this prime must divide N so it must divide RHS of above equation
but it divides one term but it does not divide second term, contradiction. so there are
infinitely many primes of form 4k + 3.
Now in above example we see that there are infinitely many primes of form 4k+3,
here we observe that gcd(4, 3) = 1, Dirichlets theorem gives us generalization that are
there infinitely many primes of form lk + q with k Z when gcd(l, q) = 1.
Theorem 23. (Dirichlets Theorem) If q and l are relatively prime positive integers, the there are infinitely many primes of form lk + q with k Z.
In order to prove this theorem we will develop some tools required to prove this
theorem. Now to prove the Dirichlets theorem it is equivalent to prove that the series
X 1
p l mod q

diverges. Now in order to prove that the above sum diverges let us define Dirichlets
character and state some of its properties.
Let us consider a finite abelian group G = Z (q), number of integers 0 n n 1
that are relatively prime to q is represented by Euler totient function (q) and we
know that |G| = (q).
Consider the function l on G which we define as, if n Z (q)
(
1 if n l mod q
l (n) =
0 otherwise
From Fourier series formula
l (n) =

l (e)e(n).

eG

where,
1 X
1
l (m)e(m) =
e(l)
l (e) =
|G| mG
|G|
Hence,
l (n) =

1 X
e(l)e(n).
|G|
eG

We can extend the function l to all Z by setting l (m) = 0 whenever m and q are
to all Z by following,
not relatively prime. similarly we can extend all characters e G
(
e(m) if gcd(m, q) = 1
(m) =
0 otherwise
16

These functions are called Dirichlet character modulo q. We will denote the extension
to Z of the trivial character of G by 0 that is (m) = 1 if m and q are relatively
prime, and 0 otherwise.
As we can easily observe that,
(nm) = (n)(m) f or n, m Z.
As since if gcd(m, q) or gcd(n, q) not equal to 1 then, (mn) = 0 = (m)(n) similarly if
both gcd(m, q) or gcd(n, q) is equal to 1, then (mn) = e(mn) = e(m)e(n) = (m)(n).
Lemma 24. The Dirichlet characters are multiplicative, and
l (m) =

1 X
(l)(m).
(q)

where the sum is over all Dirichlet characters.

Now let us observe
X l (p)
X 1
=
.
s
s
p
p
p
pl
=

X (p)
1 X
(l)
.
(q)
ps
p

Now in order to understand the divergence of the sum

P
the behaviour of p (p)ps as s 1+ , now we have,

1
pl p

we need to understand

X 1
X (p)
1 X 0 (p)
1 X
=
+
(l)
ps
(q) p
ps
(q) 6=
ps
p
pl
0

X (p)
1 X 1
1 X
=
+
(l)
(q)
ps (q) 6=
ps
p
p-q

Since there are only finitely many primes dividing q, so we can see that first term on
RHS goes to infinity as s P
1+ , so in order to prove Dirichlet theorem we need to
understand the behaviour of p (p)
as s 1+ . To do this let us develop some more
ps
tool.

2.2

Dirichlet L-function

Dirichlet L-function is defined given a Dirichlet character for s > 1 by

L(s, ) =

X
(n)
n=1

17

ns

Theorem 25. If s > 1 then

X
(n)
n=1

ns

Y
p

1
.
(1 (p)ps )

where product is over all primes.

Before proving the theorem let us define two logarithms, one on the complex number
of form 1/(1 z) with |z| < 1, which will be denoted by log1 and one for the function
L(s, ) denoted by log2 .
For the first logarithm we define,
 X


zk
1
=
f or |z| < 1.
log1
1z
k
k=1
Proposition 26. Logarithm function log1 satisfies the following properties:
(a) If |z| < 1 then,
1
1
elog1 ( 1z ) =
.
1z
(b) If |z| < 1 then,


1
log1
= z + E1 (z).
1z
where |E1 (z)| |z|2 if |z| < 1/2.
(c) If |z| < 1/2 then,





1
log1
 2|z|.

1z 
Proof. For part (a), let z = rei with |r| < 1, now consider the function
P

f (r) = (1 rei )e

i k
k=1 (re ) /k

Now if we differentiate this function with respect to r then we get,

"
!0 #

X
P
i k
f 0 (r) = ei + (1 rei )
(rei )k /k
e k=1 (re ) /k .
k=1

If we expand the terms in bracket then we get,

!0

X
ei + (1 rei )ei
(rei )k1 = ei + (1 rei )ei
k=1

1
= 0.
(1 rei )

This implies that f (r) = constant if we set r=0 then wet f (0) = 1 so value of f (r) = 1,
so we have
(1 rei )e

k=1 (re

i )k /k

1.

1
.
1z
Hence proved, other parts is similar as we did in the real case.
=

18

elog1 ( 1z ) =

P
Proposition 27. Let an be complex number,
|an | converges, and an 6= 1 for all n,
then


X
1
.
1 an
n=1
converges, and this product is non zero.
Proof. From the given condition we have |an | 0 so without loss of generality we see
that |an | < 1/2 for all n 1. Now we observe that
N 
Y
n=1

1
1 an


=

N
Y

PN

elog1 ( 1an ) = e

n=1

1
log1 ( 1a

).

n=1

Again,





1
 2|an |.
log1

1 an 
Now since

|an | converges this implies,


lim log1

1
1 an

converges. Since exponential function is continuous this implies


Y
n=1

1
1 an

converges to some non zero limit as ex is always positive for a real number x.
Now we will prove Theorem 25, let us state the Dirichlet product formula
X (n)
n

ns

Y
p

1
.
(1 (p)ps )

Now let us define

SN =

(n)n

and PN =

nN

Y
pN

1
1 (p)ps


.

Now the
is whether the above series converges so we
P questionP
P know that if we have
P two
series n an and n cn such that |an | cn for all n, and if n cn converges
then n an
P
s
s
converges So for SN we have |(n)n | 1/n and we know that n 1/ns converges
for s > 1 so SN converges as N goes infinity, for PN we have from above proposition
an = (pn )pn s where pn is nth prime. Now again by comparison test we know that
P
|an | converges this implies that PN converges to P as N goes infinity. Define
19

PN,M
Now let L =


Y
(p)
(pM )
=
1 + s + + Ms
.
p
p
pN

(n)/ns and let  > 0 we can choose N so large that

|SN L| <  |PN P | < .

Now by fundamental theorem of arithmetic we can choose M as large such that

|SN PN,M | < .
So we have,
|L P | |L SN | + |SN PN,M | + |PN,M PN | + |PN P | 4.
Since for all  > 0 we have |L S| < 4 hence we have L=P. Now since we have proved
Dirichlet product formula next we will define logarithm of L function , let us suppose
that log is defined then to prove the theorem we can observe following argument
X
logL(s, ) =
log(1 (p)/ps ).
p

X
1
=
[(p)/ps + O( 2s )].
p
p
X
=
(p)/ps + O(1).
p

Now suppose that L(1, ) is finite and non zero then

P log L(s,s ) will be bounded
+
and finite as s 1 , then we can easily conclude that p (p)/p will be bounded as
s approaches 1+ and our theorem will be proved. Now in order to prove this result let
us study some properties of L function and its behaviour near 1.

2.3

L- functions

Proposition 28. Suppose that 0 is the trivial Dirichlet character, then

(
1 if gcd(n, q) = 1
0 (n) =
0 if otherwise
And if q = pa11 pa22 paNN is prime factorization of q, then
s
s
L(s, 0 ) = (1 ps
1 )(1 p2 ) (1 pN )(s).

From this we can see that L(s, 0 ) as s 1+ .

20

Proof. The proof of first statement is by the definition of Dirichlet character, now
by Dirichlet product formula prime number that is not relatively prime with n will
contribute 1 and all other will will contribute (1/(1 ps ), combining this with prime
factorization of q we will get the result.
Now we will proves the continuity of L function for non trivial Dirichlet character for
s > 0.
Proposition 29. If is a non trivial Dirichlet character, then the series

X
(n)
n=1

ns

converges for s > 0, and the sum is denoted by L(s, ), Moreover

(i) The function L(s, ) is continuously differentiable for 0 < s < .
(ii) There exists a constant c, c0 such that
L(s, ) = 1 + O(ecs ) as s .
0
L0 (s, ) = O(ec s ) as s .
Before proving this proposition let us prove this lemma useful in proving it.
Lemma 30. If is a non trivial Dirichlet character then


k

X


(n) q f or any k



n=1

Proof. Let S =

Pq

now let a Z (q), then we have

X
X
X
(a)S =
(a)(n) =
(an) =
(n) = S.
n=1 ,

Since is a non trivial character and this is true for all a Z (q) so we must have
S=0. Now k is any integer so we can write k as k = aq + b where 0 b < q, hence
k
X
n=1

(n) =

aq
X
n=1

(n) +

aq<naq+b

(n) =

(n).

aq<naq+b

Since there cannot be more than q term in last sum and since |(n)| 1 so result is
clear.
Now earlier we have prove that (s) is uniformly continuous for s > 1. Let us state
few theorem which we will be using in proving the proposition.
Theorem 31. Suppose sequence {fn } of functions defined on E, and suppose
|fn (x)| Mn

x E f orall n.
P
P
Then
fn converges uniformly on E if
Mn converges.
21

(2.3)

Theorem 32. If {fn } is a sequence of a function of continuous functions on E, and

if fn f uniformly on E, then f is continuous on E.
Now we know that the function L(s, ) is defined for s > 1 by

X
(n)
n=1

ns

(2.4)

P
We know that |(n)ns | 1/ns for all n, and since
1/ns converges therefore L(s, )
converges absolutely and uniformly for s > > 1, this shows that L(s, ) P
is continuously differentiable for s > 1. Let us extend this result for s > 0. Let sk = kn=1 (k).
N
X
(k)
k=1

ks

N
X
sk sk1
k=1
N
X
k=1
N
X
k=1
N
1
X

ks
N

sk X sk1

k s k=1 k s
N 1

sk X
sk

s
k
(k + 1)s
k=1
N 1

sk X
sk
sN

+
k s k=1 (k + 1)s N s
k=1


N
1
X
 sN
1
1
+
sk s
=
s
k
(k
+
1)
Ns
k=1
=

N
1
X

fk (s) +

k=1

sN
.
Ns

Where fk (s) = sk [k s (k + 1)s ], Now let g(x) = xs , then g 0 (x) = sxs1

by applying mean value theorem between x = k and x = k + 1 we have sxs1 =
[k s (k + 1)s ] where k < x < k + 1, so we must have xs1 < k s1 and from the
fact that |sk | q we have
|fk (s)| qsk s1 .
(2.5)
P
Therefore the sum
fk (s) converges absolutely and uniformly for s > 0, and from
this we have L(s, ) is continuous for s > 0. Now we differentiate the series term by
term we get,
X
(n)

(logn) s
(2.6)
n
As we did above we can rewrite this series as
X
sk [k s + (k + 1)s log(k + 1)].
(2.7)
22

Now by application of mean value theorem to function g(x) = xs logx, we will get that
differentiated series converges uniformly for s > > 0, Hence L(s, ) is continuously
differentiable.
For large s,
|L(s, ) 1| = |
q

X
(n)
n=2

X
n=2

2s q

ns
1
ns

1
.
(n/2)s

n=2

Now by cauchy convergence test

1
n=2 (n/2)s

converges, so we have

|L(s, ) 1| 2s qO(1) eslog2 c1 O(ecs ).

where c = log2, so we can say L(s, ) = 1 + O(ecs ) as s , similarly we can also
0
show that L0 (s, ) = O(ec s ).
Now we are going to define logarithm of the L-function, if is a non trivial character
and s > 1, define
Z 0
L (t, )
log2 L(s, ) =
dt.
(2.8)
L(t, )
s
The integral is well defined since both L0 (t, ) and L(t, ) are continuous and L(t, ) 6=
0 for every t > 1, and the integral is convergent because
L0 (t, )
= O(ect ),
L(t, )

(2.9)

which follows from the behaviour of L0 (t, ) and L(t, ) as t .

Proposition 33.
elog2 L(s,) = L(s, ).
and
X
p


log1

1
1 (p)/ps

(2.10)


.

(2.11)

Proof. By differentiating elog2 L(s,) L(s, ) with respect to s we will get

L0 (t, ) log2 L(s,)

e
L(s, ) + elog2 L(s,) L0 (s, ) = 0.
L(t, )

(2.12)

This implies elog2 L(s,) L(s, ) is constant, now if we approach s to infinity then we will
get constant as 1. so first assertion follows, For second assertion let us fix s and take
23

exponential of both side as a result LHS would be L(s, ) since elog2 L(s,) = L(s, ),
and RHS is
P
Y log
1
1
e 1 ( 1(p)/ps )
e p log1 ( 1(p)/ps ) =
p

Y

1
1 (p)/ps

= L(s, ).
Hence for each s there exists an integer M (s) such that


X
1
= 2iM (s).
log2 L(s,
log1
s
1

(p)/p
p
Since left hand of the equation is continuous so M (s) is also continuous but since
M (s) is integer valued function this implies that M (s) is constant, now if we take s to
infinity then LHS will go to zero this means that constant must be zero, proving our
proposition.

X
p


log1

1
1 (p)/ps


=

X (p)
p

ps

X (p)
p

ps

X 1
+O
p2s
p

+ O(1).

Now if L(1, ) 6= 0 for a non trivial Dirichlet character then by integral representation
P
of log2 L(s, ) remains bounded as s 1+ , and this will show that p (p)
is bounded
ps
+
as s 1 , which will complete the proof.

2.4

Non vanishing of L-function

A Dirichlet character is said to be real if it takes only real values(+1, 1 or 0) and

complex otherwise, or is real if and only if (n) = (n) for all integers n.

2.4.1

Case 1: Complex Dirichlet characters

Let us prove L(1, ) 6= 0 when is complex Dirichlet character.

Lemma 34. If s > 1, then
Y

L(s, ) 1,

(2.13)

where product is taken over all Dirichlet character, in particular product is real valued.
24

Proof. It is proved that

X

L(s, ) = exp


log1

1
1 (p)ps

!
.

!
1
L(s, ) = exp
log1
1 (p)ps

p
!

XXX
1 (pk )
= exp
k pks

p k=1
!
X
XX
1 (pk )
.
= exp
k pks
p k=1
P
Now by lemma (l = 1) we have (pk ) = (q)1 (pk ) and hence
!

Y
XX
1 1 (pk )
L(s, ) = exp (q)
1.
ks
k
p

p k=1
Q
Now since 1 (pk ) 0 so we have L(s, ) 1.
Y

(2.14)

XX

(2.15)

Lemma 35. The following three properties hold for a Dirichlet character,
(i) If L(1, ) = 0, then L(1, ) = 0.
(ii) If is a non trivial Dirichlet character and L(1, ) = 0, then
|L(s, )| C|s 1| 1 s 2.

(2.16)

(iii) For a trivial Dirichlet character 0 we have

|L(s, 0 )|

C
|s 1|

when 1 < s 2.

(2.17)

Proof. To prove the first assertion observe that

L(1, ) =

X (n)
ns

X (n)
ns

(2.18)

This means L(1, ) = L(1, ) and first assertion is immediate. Now for the second
proposition we observe that since L(s, ) is continuously differentiable for s > 0 when
is non trivial applying mean value theorem to the function L(s, ) we will get the
result. For the third assertion observe
s
s
L(s, 0 ) = (1 ps
1 )(1 p2 ) (1 pN )(s).

(2.19)

And previously we deduce that

1
.
s1
Using above equations we can easily deduce (iii).
(s) 1 +

25

(2.20)

Now let us prove L(1, ) 6= 0 for non trivial complex Dirichlet character. If not let
L(1, ) = 0, then we have L(1, ) = 0. Since 6= , then there exists at least two
terms in the product
Y
L(s, ),
(2.21)

1
that goes as |s 1| as s 1 , and since only the trivial character goes as O( |s1|
) as
+
+
s 1 we can find that the product goes to zero as s 1 , contradicting the fact
that it is 1. Hence L(1, ) 6= 0.
+

2.4.2

Case 2: Real Dirichlet Characters

Now in order to prove the result in case of real Dirichlet character we have to prove
some propositions required to prove it.
Proposition 36. If N is a positive integer, then
(i)

1
1nN n

RN
1

dx
x

+ O(1) = logN + O(1).

(ii) Or more precisely there exists a real number , called Eulers constant so that,
X 1
= log N + + O(1/N ).
(2.22)
N
1nN
Proof. Let us prove part (ii), let
1
n =
n

n+1

dx
.
x

(2.23)

As we know 1/x is decreasing so we can write

0 n
The series

n=1

1
1
1
1
1
1

[n + 1 1]

2.
n n+1
n n+1
n(n + 1)
n

(2.24)

n converges, let us denote that limit by . Moreover we have

Z

X
X
1
dx
n

= O(1/N ).
(2.25)
2
2
n
N x
n=N +1
n=N +1

Therefore we have,
N
N Z n+1
X 1
X
X
dx
=
n +
n
x
n=1
n=1 n
1nN
Z N

X
dx
=
n +
x
1
n=N +1

= + logN + O(1/N ).
Hence proved.
26

Proposition 37. If N is a positive integer then

Z N
X 1
dx
=
+ c0 + O(1/N 1/2 ) = 2N 1/2 + c + O(1/N 1/2 ).
1/2
1/2
n
x
1
1nN

(2.26)

Proof. The proof of this proposition is same as above, with some change, that if f (x) =
x1/2 , then applying mean value theorem to f between x = n and x = n + 1 we will
get



 1
1
C


(2.27)
 n1/2 (n + 1)1/2  n3/2 .

2.4.3

Hyperbolic sums

If F is a function defined on pairs of integers that is on {(m, n) |n, m Z + }, there

are three ways to calculate
XX
SN =
F (m, n),
(2.28)
where sum is taken over all pairs of positive integers (m, n) which satisfies mn N .
(i) Along hyperbola
!
X
X
SN =
F (m, n) .
(2.29)
1kN

nm=k

(ii) Vertically

SN =

1mN

F (m, n) .

(2.30)

1nN/m

(iii) Horizontally

SN =

1nN

F (m, n) .

(2.31)

1mN/m

For a positive integer k, let d(k) denotes number of positive divisors of k. It is easy to
observe that
X
d(k) =
1.
(2.32)
nm=k.1n,m

Theorem 38. If k is a positive integer, then

N
1 X
d(k) = log N + O(1).
N k=1

(2.33)

N
1 X
d(k) = log N + (2 1) + O(1/N 1/2 ),
N k=1

(2.34)

More precisely we have

27

where is Eulers constant.

P
Proof. Let SN = N
k=1 d(k), we observe that summing F = 1 along hyperbola we get
SN . Summing vertically we get

X
X

SN =
1 .
(2.35)
1mN

Now we have

1nN/m

1 = [n/m] = n/m + O(1), therefore

!
X
X 1
+ O(N ).
SN =
(N/m + O(1)) = N
m
1mN
1mN
1nN/m

Hence by proposition 36 we have

SN
N

X
1mN

1
m

!
+ O(N )/N

= log N + O(1),
which proved our first assertion. For second claim let
I = {1 m < N 1/2 , N 1/2 < n N/m}.
II = {1 m < N 1/2 , N 1/2 < n N 1/2 }.
III = {N 1/2 < m N/m, 1 n < N 1/2 }.
Now if SI , SII , and SIII denotes the sum taken over I, II, III, then
SN = SI + SII + SIII
= 2(SI + SII ) SII ,
because by symmetry SI = SII , now we sum vertically

X
X

SI + SII =
1
1mN 1/2

1nN/m

[N/m]

1mN 1/2

(N/m + O(1))

1mN 1/2

= N

1/m + O(N 1/2 )

1mN 1/2

= N log N 1/2 + N + O(N 1/2 ),

28

(2.36)

which again follows from proposition 36, and SII is

X
X
SII =
1 = [N 1/2 ]2 = N + O(N 1/2 )
1mN 1/2 1nN 1/2

Substituting all this in 2(SI + SII ) SII we will get

SN = 2N log N 1/2 + 2N + O(N 1/2 ) N O(N 1/2 ).

(2.37)

Dividing by N we get
SN
= log N + (2 1) + O(1/N 1/2 ).
N

(2.38)

Hence proved.
Now application of these sum over hyperbolas are to prove that L(1, ) 6= 0 for a
non trivial real Dirichlet character .
Now let be a character as above, let
F (m, n) =

(n)
.
(mn)1/2

(2.39)

And define
SN =

XX

F (m, n),

(2.40)

as defined before.
Proposition 39. The following statements are true
(i) SN clogN for some constant c > 0.
(ii) SN = 2N 1/2 L(1, ) + O(1).
If we prove this proposition then we can easily prove that L(1, ) 6= 0 for a
non trivial real Dirichlet character . For assume that L(1, ) = 0, then by part
(ii) of proposition we have SN = O(1) which is bounded for all N, but by part (ii)
of proposition we have SN clogN , which is certainly not true for all N. Hence
L(1, ) 6= 0.
Now before proving the proposition let us prove the following lemma. Let us sum SN
along hyperbola
X (n)
1 X
=
(n).
(2.41)
1/2
1/2
(mn)
k
nm=k
n|k

For (i) let us prove following lemma

Lemma 40.
X
n|k

(
0 f or all k
(n) =
1 if k = l2 f or some integer l
29

(2.42)

Proof. If k is pa , then the divisors of k are 1, p, p2 , ..., pa and

X
(n) = (1) + (p) + (p2 ) + + (pa )
n|k

= 1 + (p) + (p)2 + + (p)a .

a + 1

if
if
if
if

(p) = 1
(p) = 1 and a is even
(p) = 1 and a is odd
(p) = 0 that is p|q

(2.43)

Now in general if k = pa11 paNN , then any divisor of k is of form pb11 pbNN where
0 bj aj for all j. Therefore using multiplicative property of we have,
X

(n) =

N
Y
a
((1) + (pj ) + (p2j ) + (pj j )).

(2.44)

j=1

n|k

And the proof follows from above equation.

Now to prove part (i) of the proposition observe,
SN =

N
1 XX

k 1/2

k=1 n|k

(n)

k=l2 ,lN 1/2

k 1/2

clog N.

(2.45)

Before proving part (ii) of the proposition let us prove the following lemma
Lemma 41. For all integers 0 < a < b we have
(i)

b
X
(n)
n=a

(ii)

n1/2

= O(a1/2 ).

b
X
(n)
n=a

= O(a1 ).

Proof. The proof is similar to that of proposition 29, again let sn =

know that |sn | q for all n. Now
b
X
(n)
n=a

n1/2

b1
X

(2.46)

(2.47)
Pn

k=1

(k) and we

sn [n1/2 (n + 1)1/2 ] + O(a1/2 )

n=a

= O

!
n3/2

+ O(a1/2 ).

n=a

Now by comparing the sum n=a n3/2 with the integral of x3/2 we will get former
as O(a1/2 ). Similarly we can prove (ii) also.
30

Now let us prove part (ii) of the proposition so

X
X
1
SI =
(n)/n1/2 .
1/2
m
1/2
1/2
m<N

(2.48)

<nN/m

Now by above lemma the term in bracket will go as O(N 1/2 ) and by proposition 37
first sum will go as O(N 1/2 ) so this implies that SI = O(1). Now

X (n)
X

SII + SIII =
1/m1/2
1/2
n
1/2
mN/m

1nN

(n) 
2(N/n)1/2 + c + O(n/N )1/2 )
1/2
n
1nN 1/2

X (n)
X (n)
1
= 2N 1/2
+c
+ O 1/2
1/2
n
n
N
1/2
1/2

1nN

1nN

1nN 1/2

= A + B + C.
Now by the above lemma and by the definition of L(s, ) we have
A = 2N 1/2 L(1, ) + O(N 1/2 N 1/2 ).

(2.49)

Again above lemma gives us B=O(1) and it is clear that C = O(1). So SN = SI +

SII + SIII = 2N 1/2 L(1, ) + O(1). Thus we have proved part (ii) of the proposition.
Finally we proved that L(1, ) 6= 0 for any Dirichlet character.

31

Bibliography
[1] Stein, Elias M., and Rami Shakarchi. Fourier Analysis, Princeton Lectures in
Analysis I. (2003).
[2] Rudin, Walter. Principles of mathematical analysis. Vol. 3. New York: McGrawHill, 1964
[3] Tao, Terence. Analysis. Vol. 1. Hindustan Book Agency, 2006.

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