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Chapter 6
International Business: The New Realities, 3rd Edition

by
Cavusgil, Knight, and Riesenberger
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Learning Objectives
1. Theories of international trade and investment
2. Why do nations trade?
3. How can nations enhance their competitive
advantage?
4. Why and how do firms internationalize?
5. How can internationalizing firms gain and sustain
competitive advantage?
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Theories of International Trade and Investment

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Mercantilism and Neomercantilism

Mercantilism: A belief popular in the 16th century
that national prosperity results from maximizing
exports and minimizing imports.
Today, some argue for neomercantilism --- the idea
that the nation should run a trade surplus.
Supporters of neomercantilism include:
Labor unions (who want to protect domestic jobs),
Farmers (who want to keep crop prices high), and
Some manufacturers (that rely on exports).
But is neomercantilism best for all?

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Free Trade
The absence of restrictions to the
flow of goods and services among nations.
Free trade is usually best because it leads to:

More and better choices for consumers and firms
Lower prices of goods for consumers and firms
Higher profits and better worker wages (because
imported input goods are usually cheaper)
Higher living standards for consumers (because their
costs are lower).
Greater prosperity in poor countries.
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Comparative Advantage
The foundation concept of international trade that
answers the question of how nations can achieve
and sustain economic success and prosperity.
It refers to the superior features of a country that
provide it with unique benefits in global competition.
Comparative advantages are derived either from
natural endowments or from deliberate national
policies.
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Examples of National Comparative Advantage

France has a climate and soil superior for producing
wine.
Saudi Arabia has a natural abundance of oil for the
production of petroleum products.
Over time, Japan has acquired a superior base of
knowledge and experience for producing cars.
Over time, India has acquired a superior base of IT
workers for producing computer software.
What are the comparative advantages in your
country?
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Competitive Advantage
A foundation concept that explains how individual
firms gain and maintain distinctive competencies,
relative to competitors, that lead to superior
performance.
It refers to the distinctive assets, competencies, and
capabilities that are developed or acquired by the
firm.
The collective competitive advantages held by the
firms in a nation are the basis for the competitive
advantages of the nation at large.
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Examples of Firm Competitive Advantage

Dells prowess in the management of its global
supply chain
Samsungs technological leadership in flat-panel
televisions
Cadburys capabilities in international
marketing and distribution
Herman Millers design strengths in
office furniture (e.g., Aeron chairs)
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Absolute Advantage
Principle
A country should produce only those products in which
it has absolute advantage or can produce using fewer
resources than another country
(Labor Cost in Days of Production for One Ton)

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Example of Absolute Advantage

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Adam Smith (1723-1790)

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Comparative Advantage
Principle
It is beneficial for two countries to trade even if one has
absolute advantage in the production of all products; what
matters is not the absolute cost of production but the
relative efficiency with which it can produce the product
(Labor Cost in Days of Production for One Ton)

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Example of Comparative
Advantage

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Comparative Advantage Principle (contd)

Two men can make both shoes and hats, and one is superior
to the other in both employments, but in making hats he can
only exceed his competitor by one fifth or 20 percent, and in
making shoes he can excel him by one third or 33 percent;
Will it not be for the interest of both that the superior man
should employ himself exclusively in making shoes and the
inferior man in making hats?
David Ricardo, 1817
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While Germany can make both items cheaper than France,
it is still beneficial for Germany to trade with France.
The key is the ratio of production costs. In the exhibit,
Germany is comparatively more efficient at producing cloth
than wheat: it can produce three times as much cloth as
France (30/10), but only two times as much wheat (40/20).
Germany should specialize in producing cloth and import all
the wheat it needs from France. France should specialize in
producing wheat and import all its cloth from Germany.
Each country benefits Copyright
by specializing
in the product in
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which it has a comparative
advantage and importing the

The principle applies to all goods. It
reveals how countries use scarce resources
more
efficiently.
Example
Arguably, no country is better than Japan at making
cars and cell phones. But because Japan is especially
good at making cars, it concentrates its resources on
making them.
Other countries, such as China and Finland, focus on
making cell phones.
In this way, Japan makes maximal use of its
resources, and the world gets great cars.
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Limitations of Early Trade Theories

Fail to account for international transportation costs.
Governments distort normal trade by selectively
imposing protectionism (e.g., tariffs) or investing in
certain industries (e.g., via subsidies).
Services: Some cannot be traded; others can be traded
freely via the Internet or global telephony.
For many firms, scale economies and superior
business strategies provide efficiencies and other
advantages. Early trade theories failed to account for
this. (E.g., Japan lacks
comparative advantages, but its
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firms succeeded anyway,
via superior strategies.)
Factor Proportions Theory

Also known as the factor endowments theory, it
argues that each country should produce and export
products that intensively use relatively abundant
factors of production and import goods that
intensively use relatively scarce factors of production.

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Factor Proportions Theory

Also known as the factor endowments theory, it
argues that each country should produce and export
products that intensively use relatively abundant
factors of production and import goods that
intensively use relatively scarce factors of production.
However, the Leontief Paradox revealed that
countries can successfully export products that use
less abundant resources (e.g., the U.S. often exports
labor-intensive goods). Implies that international
trade is complex and cannot be fully explained by a
single theory.
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International Product Life Cycle Theory

Each product and its associated manufacturing
technologies go through three stages of evolution:
introduction, maturity, and standardization.
In the introduction stage, the inventor country enjoys
a monopoly both in manufacturing and exports.
Example: The television set.

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International Product life Cycle Theory (contd)

In the maturity stage, the products manufacturing
becomes relatively standardized; other countries
start producing and exporting the product.

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International Product life Cycle Theory (contd)

In the standardization stage, manufacturing ceases
in the original innovator country, which then becomes
a net importer of the product. Today under globalization, for many products, the cycle occurs quickly.

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New Trade Theory

Argues that economies of scale are an important
factor in some industries for superior international
performance, even in the absence of superior
comparative advantages. Some industries succeed
best as their volume of production increases.
Example
The commercial aircraft industry has very high fixed
costs that necessitate high-volume sales to achieve
profitability.

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Comparative vs. Competitive Advantage

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Critical Role of Innovation

in National Economic Success
Innovation is a key source of competitive advantage.
The firm innovates in four major ways. It can
develop:
(1) A new product or improve an existing product
(2) New ways of manufacturing
(3) New ways of marketing
(4) New ways of organizing company operations.
Many innovative firms in a nation leads to national

competitive advantage
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Critical Role of Productivity

in National Economic Success
Productivity is the value of the output produced by a
unit of labor or capital.
It is a key source of competitive advantage for firms.
The greater the productivity of the firm, the more
efficiently it uses its resources.
The greater the aggregate productivity of the firms in
a nation, the more efficiently the nation uses its
resources.
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Aggregate productivity is a key determinant of the
Productivity Levels in Selected Countries

(Output per hour in manufacturing, 19902010; Indices, where 2002=100)

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Michael Porters Diamond Model:

Sources of National Competitive Advantage

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Diamond Model
(contd)
Factor conditions Quality and quantity of labor,
natural resources, capital, technology, know-how,
entrepreneurship, and other factors of production.
Example
An abundance of cost-effective and well-educated
workers give China a competitive advantage in the
production of laptop computers.

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Diamond Model
(contd)
Related and supporting industries the presence
of suppliers, competitors, and complementary firms
that excel within a given industry.
Example
The Silicon Valley in California is a great place to
launch a computer software firm because it is home
to thousands of knowledgeable firms and workers in
the software industry.

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Diamond Model
(contd)
Demand conditions at home the strengths and
sophistication of customer demand.
Example
Japan is a densely populated, hot, and humid country
with very demanding consumers. These conditions
led Japan to become one of the leading producers of
superior, compact air conditioners.

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Diamond Model
(contd)
Firm strategy, structure, and rivalry The nature of
domestic rivalry, and conditions that determine how a
nations firms are created, organized, and managed.
Example
Italy has many top firms in
design industries such as
textiles, furniture, lighting, and
fashion. Vigorous competitive
rivalry puts these firms under
constant pressure to innovate,
which has propelled Italy to a
leading position in design,
worldwide.
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Industrial Cluster
A concentration of suppliers and supporting firms
from the same industry located within the same
geographic area. Similar to Porters Related and
Supporting Industries.
A strong cluster can serve as an export platform for
the nation.
Examples
Silicon Valley; pharmaceutical cluster in Switzerland;
footwear industry in Pusan, South Korea; IT industry in
Bangalore, India; fashion cluster in northern Italy; and
Silicon Valley North near Ottawa, Canada.
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National Industrial Policy

A proactive economic development plan
employed by the government to nurture or
support promising industry sectors with potential
for regional or global dominance. Initiatives can
include:
Tax incentives
Monetary and fiscal policies
Rigorous educational systems
Investments in national infrastructure
Strong legal and regulatory systems
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Examples of National Industrial Policy

Vietnams government in the 1990s privatized state
enterprises and modernized the economy,
emphasizing competitive, export-driven industries.
Vietnam became one of the fastest-growing
economies, averaging around 8 percent annual GDP
growth.
Singapore adopted probusiness, proinvestment,
export-oriented policies, combined with statedirected investments in strategic corporations. The
approach stimulated economic growth that averaged
8 percent annually from 1960 to 1999.
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Examples of National Industrial Policy (contd)

The Czech government in the 1990s created a
business-friendly legal and regulatory environment.
The country privatized state-owned companies.
Government FDI incentives attracted numerous
MNEs, such as Daewoo, ING, Siemens, and Toyota.
New Zealands government, starting in 1984,
transformed the country from an agrarian,
protectionist, regulated economy to an industrialized,
free-market economy that today competes globally.
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Transformation of New
Zealands Economy, 1992 to 2012
New Zealands success resulted from:

Implemented various pro-business policies fiscal,
monetary, tax; investment in education
Emphasized high-value industries, such as IT and
pharmaceuticals, that greatly grew GDP and reduced
unemployment.
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New Zealand (contd)

Government-controlled wages, prices, and interest rates
were freed and allowed to fluctuate with market forces.
The banking sector was liberalized, foreign exchange
controls were eliminated, and the New Zealand dollar
was allowed to float according to market forces.
Most trade barriers were removed, and New Zealand
joined several free trade agreements.
Agricultural and other subsidies were eliminated.
The government worked earnestly with labor unions to
reduce wage inflation, helping maintain jobs in New
Zealand and minimizing outsourcing.
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New Zealand (contd)

The government initiated programs to encourage
development of a knowledge economy. New Zealanders
continuously upgraded skills and knowledge, providing a
supply of scientists, engineers, and trained managers.
Personal and corporate income tax rates were cut. The
tax base was diversified to stabilize government
revenues. This helped foster entrepreneurship, boost
consumer spending, and attract FDI into New Zealand.
The government cut spending and borrowing, leading to
lower interest rates and stimulating the economy.
State-owned enterprises such as the national airline,
telecom, and other utilities were privatized.
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Stages in Company Internationalization

Domestic Focus

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Domestic Focus
Pre-export Stage

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Domestic Focus
Pre-export Stage
Experimental Involvement

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Domestic Focus
Pre-export Stage
Active Involvement

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Domestic Focus
Pre-export Stage
Active Involvement
Committed Involvement
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Stock of Inward
FDI: Leading FDI
Destinations
(Billions of U.S.
dollars) and
Percentage
Growth,
2000 to 2010

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Stock of
Outward FDI:
Top Sources of
Outward FDI
(Billions of U.S.
dollars) and
Percentage
Growth,
2000 to 2010

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How Firms Gain and Sustain

International Competitive Advantage
Since the MNE was traditionally the major player in
international business, scholars have offered
numerous explanations of what makes these firms
pursue, and succeed in, internationalization
Because FDI has been MNEs main strategy in
international expansion, theoretical explanations
have tended to emphasize it.

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FDI Based Explanations:
Monopolistic Advantage Theory

Argues that MNEs prefer FDI because it provides
the firm with control over resources and capabilities
in the foreign market and a degree of monopolistic
power relative to foreign competitors.
Key sources of monopolistic advantage include
proprietary knowledge, patents, unique know-how,
and sole ownership of other assets
Example
Novartis earns substantial profits by marketing various
patent medications through its subsidiaries worldwide.
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Internalization Theory
Explains how the MNE chooses to acquire and retain
one or more value-chain activities inside itself.
Such internalization provides the MNE with greater
control over its foreign operations.
Internalization avoids the drawbacks of dealing with
external partners, such as reduced quality control
and the risk of losing proprietary assets to outsiders.
Example
In China, Intel owns much of its value chain, to ensure
that Intel knowledge, patents, and other assets are not
misused or illicitly obtained by potential rivals.
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Dunnings Eclectic Paradigm

Three conditions determine whether or not a
company will enter a given foreign country via FDI:
1.Ownership-specific advantages knowledge, skills,
capabilities, relationships, or physical assets that the firm
owns and which are the basis of its competitive advantages
2.Location-specific advantages similar to comparative
advantages, they are specific advantages that exist in the
country that the MNE has entered, or is seeking to enter,
such as natural resources, low-cost labor, or skilled labor
3.Internalization advantages control derived from
internalizing foreign-based manufacturing, distribution, or
other value chain activities
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Example of the Eclectic Paradigm: Sony in China

Ownership Specific Advantages. Sony possesses
a huge stock of knowledge and patents in the
consumer electronics industry, as represented by
products like the Playstation and Vaio laptop.
Location Specific Advantages. Sony desires to
manufacture in China to take advantage of Chinas
low-cost, highly knowledgeable labor.
Internalization Advantages. Sony wants to
maintain control over its knowledge, patents,
manufacturing processes, and quality of its products.
Thus, Sony entered China via FDI
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Non-FDI Based Explanations:
International Collaborative Ventures

A form of cooperation between two or more firms.
Partners pool resources and capabilities to create
synergies and share the risk of joint efforts.
Starting in the 1980s, firms increasingly began using
collaborative ventures to expand abroad.
Collaboration provides access to foreign partners
know-how, capital, distribution channels, or
marketing assets and helps overcome government
imposed obstacles.
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Two Types of
International Collaborative Ventures
Equity-based joint ventures result in the formation
of a new legal entity. In contrast to the wholly-owned
FDI, the firm collaborates with local partner(s) to
reduce risk and commitment of capital.
Project-based alliances do not require equity
commitment from the partners but simply a
willingness to cooperate in R&D, manufacturing,
design, or any other value-adding activity. Since
project-based alliances have a narrowly defined
scope of activities and timeline, they provide greater
flexibility to the firm than equity-based ventures.
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Copyright 2014 Pearson

International Business: The New Realities, 3rd Edition

Theories of International Trade and Investment

Copyright 2014 Pearson

Theories of International Trade and Investment

Copyright 2014 Pearson

Theories of International Trade and Investment

Copyright 2014 Pearson

Mercantilism and Neomercantilism

But is neomercantilism best for all?

Free trade is usually best because it leads to:

Examples of National Comparative Advantage

Examples of Firm Competitive Advantage

(Labor Cost in Days of Production for One Ton)

Example of Absolute Advantage

Copyright 2014 Pearson

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

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(Labor Cost in Days of Production for One Ton)

Copyright 2014 Pearson

Comparative Advantage Principle (contd)

Copyright 2014 Pearson Education Inc.

Comparative Advantage Principle (contd)

Comparative Advantage Principle (contd)

Comparative Advantage Principle (contd)

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Limitations of Early Trade Theories

Factor Proportions Theory

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Factor Proportions Theory

International Product Life Cycle Theory

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International Product life Cycle Theory (contd)

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International Product life Cycle Theory (contd)

Copyright 2014 Pearson

New Trade Theory

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Comparative vs. Competitive Advantage

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Critical Role of Innovation

Many innovative firms in a nation leads to national

Critical Role of Productivity

Aggregate productivity is a key determinant of the

Productivity Levels in Selected Countries

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Michael Porters Diamond Model:

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Copyright 2014 Pearson

Copyright 2014 Pearson

Copyright 2014 Pearson

National Industrial Policy

Examples of National Industrial Policy

Examples of National Industrial Policy (contd)

New Zealands success resulted from:

New Zealand (contd)

New Zealand (contd)

Stages in Company Internationalization

Copyright 2014 Pearson

Stages in Company Internationalization

Copyright 2014 Pearson

Stages in Company Internationalization

Copyright 2014 Pearson