Running head: THEORY PAPER #2

Theory Paper #2: Kohlberg, Parks, and Bem

Yasi Raouf
Seattle University
Dr. Erica Yamamura
2/15/2015 : SDAD 5400

THEORY PAPER #2

Analysis
Kohlberghs theory of moral development explores how an individual navigates moral
reasoning in light of social norms and values. At the earlier stages of Kohlbergs theory,
individuals follow rules and expectations in order to avoid punishment. In the later stages, the
individual is able to uphold agreements and moral obligations as mutually agreed upon systems
that protect the interest of all. Kohlbergs theory is important to student development because it
helps us see how students may manage conflict or a moral dilemma. For example, student affairs
educators in conduct can guide students to adjust their actions.
Parkss theory of faith development is concerned with how young adults discover
meaning from their experiences. Parks explains that young adulthood is a time when individuals
are most seeking purpose and begin to make connections between themselves, others and the
higher powers (Evans et al., 2010). Parks stresses that institutions of higher education have a
responsibility to foster an individuals spiritual development through mentorship and providing
a safe space for provocative questioning and discovery. Given this mentorship community,
young adults in college can begin to imagine and understand the world around them and commit
themselves to bettering it.
Gender schema theory proposes that individuals form gender perceptions from early
childhood through cognitive processing and social constructions of sex-differentiated practices.
The key components of Bems research findings illustrate that after a child learns about their
societys construction of maleness and femaleness, they process information through gender
categories. Similarly, individuals frame their experiences and self-concept within a female or
male domain. Bems theory can provide a framework to help student affairs practitioners

THEORY PAPER #2

objectively understand their students through authentic interaction to avoid gender bias and
assumption.
Synthesis: Intersectionality
Bem, Parks, and Kohlbergs theories assert that cognitive processes inform an
individuals behavior and actions. Kohlbergs theory outlines that moral development is
intimately tied with cognitive development and explains that, a more advanced intellect is likely
to reveal more developed moral reasoning (Evans et al., 2010). A more developed reasoning is
manifested when individuals are able to act in ways that integrate social rules and obligations.
Similarly, Parkss theory outlines cognitive development as a progressive capacity to explore
truth for oneself and understand that ones own truth might not be the same as the truth of
others. By young adulthood, individuals recognize that they dont need to conform to particular
authorities and that knowledge and reality has multiple dimensions. Individual behavior and
actions during this time are shaped by a rejection of authority and a serious exploration of
varying alternatives.
For Bem, cognitive development occurs when a child comes to learn and know about
gender identities through what he or she observes in society (Evans et al., 2010). Before a child
is even aware of these external influences, society assigns them a particular personality trait as fit
with conceptions of femaleness and maleness. An individuals actions and behaviors must
conform to what aligns with their category. For example, Evans et. al explain that personality
traits for women should be soft and aggressive for men (2010) : The cognitive process
predetermines what will be perceived and then categorizes perceptions into existing categories of
girl/woman/female/feminine and boy/man/male/masculine (Evans et al., 2010). These

THEORY PAPER #2

internalized perceptions determine whether an individual behaves within their feminine or

masculine categories.
Cognitive processes continue to shape moral, spiritual, and social development in college.
A second point of intersection for Bem, Kohlberg, and Parks is cognitive development during a
young adults time in college. Parks argues that institutions of higher education need to provide
mentoring communities so that young adults can interact and learn from diverse perspectives
(Evans et al.,2010). She further reasons that higher education communities can inspire faith
development by encouraging critical thinking and reflection (Evans et al., 2010). Thus,
mentoring communities facilitate cognitive growth by providing opportunities for students to
know and learn from peers and mentors. For both Parks and Kohlberg, exposure to dilemma or
conflict is a key element that facilitates cognitive growth. In college, students face a variety of
challenges and dilemmas. Drawing on these theories, educators would do well to ask how
internalized processes of gender, faith, and morality positively or negatively impact their
students ability to make choices during a time of conflict. One way this can be done is through
one-on-one conversations with students. Student affairs educators can ask questions to better
understand their students background and assign them small tasks to help students build their
capacity to solve problems or navigate issues.
Critique
Unfortunately, none of the above theories factor in a students race. A point to consider is
whether Bems social/cultural context or Kohlbergs morally just society plays out differently for
minority students. Most notably, Kohlberg and Parkss theories operate on the assumption that
all individuals, regardless of race, experience development and growth in the same way. In this
connection, a critique of Parks theory is its usefulness to students of color. Evans et al. note that,

THEORY PAPER #2

As such, her theory may not be useful in working with African American women, whose faith
development process is often affective in nature (2010). Similarly, minority students from
ethnically diverse groups may not relate well with Kohlbergs theory. For example, a KoreanAmerican student may not develop through the stages set out by Kohlberg as upholding social
norms and values are taught to Koreans from an early age. Hence, a Korean-American student
may act in conformity of group interest and thus does not develop progressively from one stage
to another.
Reflection
As a low-income, first generation Iranian-American student at a large public research
university, I was exposed to many instances of disequilibrium and conflict. This was mainly
manifested through my search for an academic major. Because I was a first-generation college
student in the U.S. in my family, I had very little guidance and support in navigating my college
years. Questions of purpose and vocation weighed heavily on my mind during freshmen and
sophomore years, as I wanted to ensure that my career path was meaningful and of some service
to others. By junior year in college, my in-classroom experiences allowed me to better gauge my
talents and interests and choose an appropriate major. As a student affairs professional, my
undergraduate experiences can help me to appreciate dissonance when working with first
generation and low income college students. I can help my students appreciate the process of
dissonance positively by helping them identify opportunities where they can engage in
meaningful exploration.
Bem, Parks, and Kohlbergs theories can be well applied to student affairs work through
both workshops and one-on-one student interactions. Resident Advisors and peer mentors can
test their conflict management skills by applying Parks and Kohlbergs theories. Parks explains

THEORY PAPER #2
that a conflict must be felt, allowed, made conscious (Evans et al., 2010). In this way, a
Resident Advisor would do well to allow students to experience a conflict and provide a
supportive community to resolving that conflict. Teaching and understanding the application of
these theories in workshops can help academic advisors, resident advisors, and student affairs
educators increase their awareness. Gender schema theory alongside Kohlberg and Parks can be
taught in workshops where practitioners are able to bring real-life work issues and resolve them
through dialogue and application of theoretical frameworks.

THEORY PAPER #2

References
Evans, N.J., Forney, D.S., Guido, F.M., Patton, L.D., Renn, K.A. (2010). Student Development
in College: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.