6.

012 - Microelectronic Devices and Circuits

Lecture 7 - Bipolar Junction Transistors - Outline

Announcements
First Hour Exam - Oct. 7, 7:30-9:30 pm; thru 10/2/09, PS #4

Review/Diode model wrap-up

Exponential diode: iD(vAB) = IS (eqvAB/kT -1)

(holes)

(electrons)

with IS A q ni2 [(Dh/NDn wn*) + (De/NAp wp*)]

Observations: Saturation current, IS, goes down as doping levels go up
Injection is predominantly into more lightly doped side
Asymmetrical diodes: the action is on the lightly doped side

Diffusion charge stores; diffusion capacitance:

(Recitation topic)

Excess carriers in quasi-neutral region = Stored charge

Bipolar junction transistor operation and modeling

Bipolar junction transistor structure
Qualitative description of operation: 1. Visualizing the carrier fluxes
2. The control function
3. Design objectives
Operation in forward active region, vBE > 0, vBC < 0: E, B, F, IES
(using npn as the example)

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Lecture 7 - Slide 1

Biased p-n junctions: current flow, cont.

The saturation current of three diode types:

IS's dependence on the relative sizes of w and Lmin

p(x), n(x)
p(xn)

Short-base diode, wn << Lh, wp << Le:

n(-xp)

#
-wp
-xp xn
wn
n 2i
Dh
qv AB / kT
J h (x n ) = q
e
-1
[
] %%
'
*
N Dn ( w n " x n )
Dh
De
2
, [e qv AB / kT -1]
+
$ iD = Aqn i )
2
n
De
)( N Dn ( w n " x n ) N Ap ( w p " x p ) ,+
J e (-x p ) = q i
e qv AB / kT -1] %
[
N Ap ( w p " x p )
%&
p(x), n(x)

p(xn)

Long-base diode, wn >> Lh, wp >> Le:

n(-xp)

"
-wp
-xp xn
wn
n 2i Dh qv AB / kT
J h (x n ) = q
e
-1] $
[
& D
$
N Dn Lh
De ) qv AB / kT
2
h
+
-1]
# iD = Aqn i (
+ [e
n 2i De qv AB / kT
N
L
N
L
' Dn h
Ap e *
J e (-x p ) = q
e
-1] $
[
$%
N Ap Le

General diode:

" D
De % qv AB / kT
h
iD = Aqn $
+
-1]
' [e
# N Dn w n,eff N Ap w p,eff &
2
i

Hole injection into n-side

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Electron injection into p-side

Note : w n,eff " Lh tanh( w n - x n ), w p,eff " Le tanh( w p - x p )

Lecture 7 - Slide 2

Asymmetrically doped junctions: an important special case

Current flow impact/issues
A p+-n junction (NAp >> NDn):
" D
Dh
De % qv AB / kT
2
2
h
e qv AB / kT -1]
iD = Aqn i $
+
-1] " Aqn i
' [e
[
N Dn w n,eff
# N Dn w n,eff N Ap w p,eff &
Hole injection into n-side

An n+-p junction (NDn >> NAp):

" D
De % !qv AB / kT
De
2
h
iD = Aqn i $
+
-1] ( Aqn 2i
e qv AB / kT -1]
' [e
[
N Ap w p,eff
# N Dn w n,eff N Ap w p,eff &
Electron injection into p-side

Note that in both cases the minority carrier injection is predominately into
the lightly doped side.
Note also that it is the doping level of the more lightly doped junction that
determines the magnitude of the current, and as the doping level on the
lightly doped side decreases, the magnitude of the current increases.
Two very important and useful observations!!
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Lecture 7 - Slide 3

Biased p-n junctions: excess minority carrier (diffusion) charge stores

Diffusion charge store, and diffusion capacitance:

Using example of asymmetrically doped p+-n diode
p(x), n(x)
p(xn)

Charge stored
on n-side (holes
and electrons)

Note: Assuming
negligible charge

stored on p-side

n(-xp)

-wp

-xp

xn

wn

Notice that the stored positive charge (the excess holes) and the
stored negative charge (the excess electrons) occupy the same
volume in space (between x = xn and x = wn)!

qA,DF (v AB ) = Aq[ p'(x n ) " p'(w n )]

[w n " x n ]
2

w n,eff
n i2 qv AB / kT
Aq
e
"1]
[
N Dn
2

The charge stored depends non-linearly on vAB. As we did in the

case of the depletion charge store, we define an incremental linear
equivalent diffusion capacitance, Cdf(VAB), as:

#qA,DF
Cdf (VAB ) "
#v AB
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

$
v AB =VAB

q2
n i2 qv AB / kT
A
w n,eff
e
2kT
N Dn
Lecture 7 - Slide 4

p(x), n(x)

Diffusion capacitance, cont.:

p(xn)

Excess holes and

electrons stored
on the n-side
n(-xp)

-wp

-xp

xn

wn

A very useful way to write the diffusion capacitance is in

terms of the bias current, ID:

ID " Aqn i2

Dh
Dh
e qVAB / kT #1] " Aqn i2
e qVAB / kT for VAB >> kT
[
N Dn w n,eff
N Dn w n,eff

To do this, first divide Cdf by ID to get:

q2
n i2 qVAB / kT
A
w n,eff
e
Cdf (VAB )
2kT
N Dn
"
Dh
ID (VAB )
Aqn i2
e qVAB / kT
N Dn w n,eff

Isolating Cdf, we have:

!
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

2
q w n,eff

2 kT Dh

2
w n,eff
q ID (VAB )
Cdf (VAB ) "
! 2 Dh
kT

* Notice that the area of the device, A, does not appear

explicitly in this expression. Only the total current!

Lecture 7 - Slide 5

Comparing charge stores; small-signal linear equivalent capacitors:

"
qA,PP = A v AB
d

Parallel plate capacitor

(x)

qA

d/2

$qA,PP
C pp (VAB ) #
$v AB

-d/2
qB( = -qA)

Depletion region charge store

(x)

qNDn

v AB =VAB

A"
d

qA,DP (v AB ) = "A 2q#Si [$ b " v AB ]

qB

-xp

N Ap N Dn

[N

Ap

+ N Dn ]

( = -QA)

xn

qA

Cdp (VAB ) = A

-qNAp

N Ap N Dn
q#Si
2[$ b " VAB ] [ N Ap + N Dn ]

A #Si
w(VAB )

QNR region diffusion charge store

p(x), n(x)
p(xn)

qA, qB (=-qA)

Note: Approximate because we are

only accounting for the charge
store on the lightly doped side.

n(-xp )

-wp

-xp

xn

qAB,DF (v AB ) " Aqn i2

x
wn

Cdf (VAB ) "

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Dh
e qVAB / kT #1]
[
N Dn w n,eff

2
w n,eff
q ID (VAB )
2 Dh
kT

2
w n,eff
iD (v AB )
2 Dh

Lecture 7 - Slide 6

p-n diode:

large signal model including charge stores

A
qAB

IBS
Non-linear
resistive
element

qAB: Excess carriers on p-side +

excess carriers on n-side +
junction depletion charge.

Non-linear
capacitive
element

small signal linear equivalent circuit

a
Cd

gd
b
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

#iD
gd "
#v AB

v AB =VAB

#qAB
Cd (VAB ) "
#v AB

%
' 0
$ & qID
'
( kT

v AB =VAB

for

VAB < 0

for VAB >> kT /q

%
Cdp (VAB )
for
VAB < 0
$&
( Cdp (VAB ) + Cdf (VAB ) for VAB >> kT /q
Lecture 7 - Slide 7

Moving on to transistors!

Amplifiers/Inverters:

back to 6.002

V CC

V CC

RD

RC
D

RT
vT (t) =
V T + vt (t)

+
-

+
vIN
-

vOUT

An MOS amplifier
or inverter:
the transistor is an
n-channel MOSFET
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

RT

vT (t) =
V T + vt (t)

+
-

+
vIN
-

vOUT

A bipolar amplifier
or inverter:
the transistor is an
npn BJT
Lecture 7 - Slide 8

npn BJT: Connecting with the n-channel MOSFET from 6.002

A very similar behavior*, and very similar uses.

iD

MOSFET

Linear
iD or
Triode

iG

Saturation (FAR)

vDS

G+

iD ! K [vGS - V T(vBS)]2/2!

vGS

iC

BJT

S
Cutoff

vDS

iB

Saturation

vCE

B+

iC

i
B

vBE

FAR

iB ! IBSe qV BE /kT
vCE > 0.2 V

Cutoff

0.6 V

Input curve
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

vBE

Forward Active Region

iC ! !F iB

0.2 V

Cutoff

vCE

Output family
Lecture 7 - Slide 9

* At its output each device looks like a current source controlled by the input signal.

How do we make a BJT?

Basic Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) - cross-section

Base, B

Emitter, E
Al

SiO2

n+
n

Si

An npn BJT
Adapted from Fig. 8.1 in Text

Al

Collector, C

The heart of the device, and what we will model

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

How does it work?

Lecture 7 - Slide 10

Bipolar Junction Transistors: basic operation and modeling

C

iC
C

iC

Reverse biased
vCB, the reverse bias on the collector-base junction, insures
collection of those electrons
injected across the E-B junction that reach the C-B junction as the collector current, iC

n
NDC

iB
B

p
NAB

+
vBE

how the base-emitter voltage, vBE, controls the collector current, iC

vCE

n+

vBE

NDE

iE

Forward biased
vBE, the bias on the emitter-base
junction, controls the injection
of electrons across the E-B
junction into the base and
toward the collector.

A good way to envision this is to think "carrier fluxes":

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Next foil

Lecture 7 - Slide 11

iC

vCE

B
+

vBE

n
NDC

iB

iB

p
NAB

The base
supplies
the small
hole flux

vBE

Hole ux

n+
NDE

Reverse biased
BC junction
collects electrons
coming across
the base from the
emitter

iB

iC

iC

Bipolar Junction Transistors: the carrier fluxes through an npn

Electron
ux

vBE
iE

iE

Forward biased
n+-p EB junction
emits electrons
into the base
towards the BC
junction

Our next task is to determine:

Given a structure, what are iE(vBE,vCE), iC(vBE,vCE), and iB(vBE,vCE)?
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Lecture 7 - Slide 12

Bipolar Junction Transistors: basic operation and modeling

how the base-emitter voltage, vBE, controls the collector current, iC

vCE
n
NDE

vBE

p
NAB

+B

-wE

Excess Carriers:
iiE
E

n
NDC

iC

iB
wB

0
p!, n!

Electron (ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1)

Electron
ux
2
qv
BE
/kT
(ni /NDE)(e
- 1)
ux

E
E

0 (ohmic)
+
+

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

v
vBE
BE

B
B

Hole
Hole
uxux

-wE

0 (vBC = 0)

wB + wC

+
+

- iE

C
C

iiC
0 (ohmic)
C

x
wB

iiB
B

wB + wC

This is rigorous for vCB = 0, but

also very good when vCB > 0.

Lecture 7 - Slide 13

Bipolar Junction Transistors: basic operation and modeling

how the base-emitter voltage, vBE, controls the collector current, iC

vCE
n
NDE

vBE

p
NAB

+B

-wE

Excess Carriers:
iiE
E

n
NDC

iC

iB
wB

0
p!, n!

Electron (ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1)

Electron
ux
2
qv
BE
/kT
(ni /NDE)(e
- 1)
ux

E
E

0 (ohmic)
+
+

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

v
vBE
BE

B
B

Hole
Hole
uxux

-wE

0 (vBC = 0)

wB + wC

+
+

- iE

C
C

iiC
0 (ohmic)
C

x
wB

iiB
B

wB + wC

This is rigorous for vCB = 0, but

also very good when vCB > 0.

Lecture 7 - Slide 14

npn BJT: Forward active region operation, vBE > 0 and vBC 0

Excess Carriers:

p!, n!
(ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1)

(ni2/NDE)(e qvBE/kT - 1)
0 (ohmic)

~ 0 (vBC < 0)

0 (ohmic)
x

-wE

wB

wB + wC

wB

wB + wC

ie, ih

Currents:
-wE
ihE [= !EieE]

x
iC [= ieE (1 !B )]

ieE

}
iE [= ieE + ieE = ieE (1 + !E)]
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

iB [= ihE + !B ieE
= ieE (!E + !B )]
Lecture 7 - Slide 15

npn BJT: Approximate model for iE(vBE,vBC) and iC(vBE,vBC)

in forward active region, vBE>0, vBC<0
p!, n!
(ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1)
(ni2/NDE)(e qvBE/kT - 1)
0 (ohmic)

~ 0 (vBC < 0)

0 (ohmic)
x

-wE

wB + wC

wB

The emitter current, iE

Begin with the good current, the electron current into the base, ieE:

ieE = "Aqn i2

De
e qVBE / kT "1]
[
N AB w B,eff

Next find the bad current, the hole current back into the emitter, ihE:

ihE = "Aqn i2

Dh
e qVBE / kT "1]
[
N DE w E ,eff

and write it as a fraction of ieE:

ihE =
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

N AB w B ,eff
Dh
ieE = "E ieE
De
N DE w E ,eff
We'll define E on the next foil.

Lecture 7 - Slide 16

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

ie, ih
-wE
ihE [= !EieE]
iE [= ieE + ieE = ieE (1 + !E)]

wB

wB + wC
x
iC [= ieE (1 !B )]

ieE

iB [= ihE + !B ieE = ieE (!E + !B )]

The emitter current, iE, cont.

In writing the last equation we introduced the emitter defect, E:

"E #

w
ihE
D N
= h $ AB $ B ,eff
ieE
De N DE w E ,eff

To finish for now with the emitter current, we write it, iE, in terms
of the emitter electron current, ieE:
!
" ihE %
iE = ieE + ihE = $1+ ' ieE = (1+ (E ) ieE
# ieE &
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Lecture 7 - Slide 17

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

ie, ih
-wE

wB

ihE [= !EieE]

wB + wC
x
iC [= ieE (1 !B )]

ieE

iE [= ieE + ieE = ieE (1 + !E)]

iB [= ihE + !B ieE = ieE (!E + !B )]

The collector current, iC

The collector current is the electron current from the emitter, ieE,

minus the fraction that recombines in the base, BieE:

iC = (1" #B ) ieE
To find the fraction that recombine, i.e. the base defect, B, we
note that we can write the total recombination in the base, BieE,
!
as:
wB

"B ieE = #Aq %

0

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

n'(x)
dx
$ eB

Lecture 7 - Slide 18

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

The base defect, B
If the recombination in the base is small (as it is in a good BJT)
then the excess electron concentration will be nearly triangular
and we can say:
wB

"
0

n'(0)w B,eff
n'(x)dx #
2
wB

Thus

"B =

#A q %
0

n'(x)
dx
$ eB

ieE

and

ieE " # Aq DeB

n'(0)
w B,eff

n'(0)w B,eff
#Aq
2
w B2 ,eff
w B,eff
2$ eB
& !
=
=
2
n'(0)
2D
$
2
L
eB eB
eB
#A q DeB
w B,eff

The collector current, iC, cont.

Returning to the collector current, iC, we now want to relate it to
the total emitter current:

iC = "(1" #B ) ieE $
(1" #B ) i = "' i
% iC = "
F E
iE = (1+ #E ) ieE &
(1+ #E ) E
with " F #

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

(1$ %B )
(1+ %E )

Lecture 7 - Slide 19

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

So far...
We have:

# D
De & qVBE / kT
h
iE = " Aqn %%
+
"1]
(([e
$ N DE w E ,eff N AB w B ,eff '
# D
De &
qVBE / kT
2
h
= " IES [e
"1]
with IES = Aqn i %%
+
((
$ N DE w E ,eff N AB w B,eff '
and we have:
1# &B )
iC
(
iC " iE :
iC = # $ F iE with $ F % #
=
iE
(1+ &E )
!
These relationships can be represented by a simple circuit model:

B iB
+

vBE

2
i

C
!FiF
or "FiB
iF
IES

E
Note: iF = -iE.
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

iE = " iF
iC = # F iF

with iF = IES (1" e qv BE / kT )

with # F $ "

iC
(1" %B )
=
iE
(1+ %E )

iB = " iE " iC = (1" # F )iF

Looking at this circuit and these expressions,

it is clear that to make iB small and |iC| |iE|,
we must have F 1. We look at this next.

Lecture 7 - Slide 20

iC
C

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

iC

iB
B
+

vBE

Reverse biased
BC junction
collects electrons
coming across
the base from the
emitter

B
The base
supplies
the small
hole flux

B iB
+

vBE

Hole ux

iB

C
!FiF
or "FiB
iF
IES

n+-p

Forward biased
EB
junction emits electrons
into the base towards the
BC junction

Electron
ux

vBE

iE

iE = " iF = " IES (1" e qv BE / kT )

iC = # F iF
iB = " iE " iC = (1" # F )iF

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Lecture 7 - Slide 21

npn BJT: What our model tells us about device design.

We have:
"F =

(1# $B )
(1+ $E )

and the defects, E and B, are given by:

"E

Dh N AB w B,eff
=
#
#
De N DE w E,eff

and

"B #

w B2 ,eff
2L2eB

We want F to be as close to one as possible, and clearly

the smaller we can make the defects, the closer F will be
!
! to one. Thus making the defects
small is the essence of
good BJT design:

Doping : npn with N DE >> N AB

w B,eff : very small
LeB : very large and >> w B,eff
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Lecture 7 - Slide 22

npn BJT: Well designed structure (Large F, small E and dB)

E and B are small and F is 1 when NDE >> NAB, wE << LhE, wB<<LeB

p!, n!

Excess Carriers:

(ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1)
(ni2/NDE)(e qvBE/kT - 1)
0 (ohmic)

0 (vBC = 0)

0 (ohmic)
x

-wE

wB + wC

wB

wB + wC

ie, ih

Currents:
-wE
ihE [= !EieE]

iE [= ieE(1 + !E)]
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

wB

x
ieE

iC [= ieE(1 !B ) " ieE]

iB [= iE ( iC )
= ieE(!E + !B ) " ieE!E]
Lecture 7 - Slide 23

npn BJT,cont.: more observations about F.A.R. model

It is very common to think of iB, rather than iE, as the controlling
current in a BJT. In this case we write iC as depending on iB:

iE = " iF = "IES [e
iC = # F iF
iB = (1" # F )iF

qVBE / kT

with

"F #

*i = (1" # ) I [e qVBE / kT "1] = I [e qVBE / kT "1]

$
B
F ES
BS
"1]
&
& &
#F
iC =
iB = ) F iB
%(+
(1" # F )
& &
' &
iE = "iC " iB = () F + 1) iB
,

$F
(1% &B )
=
1% $ F (&E + &B )

and

IBS " (1# $ F ) IES =

IES
(% F + 1)

Two circuit models that fit this behavior are the following:

C
!

!FiB

B iB
+

IES

vBE

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

C
!

iB
B+

!FiB
Note:
"F =

IBS

vBE

#F
(# F + 1)

Lecture 7 - Slide 24

npn BJT: Equivalent FAR models

C
!FiF

B iBF

B iB

iF
IES

vBE

C
!FiB

iB
B+

vBE

IES

IES = Aqn i2 ( Dh N DE w E,eff + De N AB w B ,eff )

" F = # F (# F + 1)

IBS

vBE

E
#F
"F =
(1$ # F )

!FiB

IBS

A useful model using a break-point diode:

!

vAB

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

A
iD
IS
B

vAB

A
iD
VBE,ON
B

!FiB

iB
B

E
= IES (" F + 1)

VBE,ON

vBE

This is a very useful model to use when

finding the bias point in a circuit.

E
Lecture 7 - Slide 25

npn BJT: The Ebers-Moll model

The forward model is what we use most, but adding the reverse model
we cover the entire range of possible operating conditions.
Forward:

B iBF
+

vBE

Reverse:

vBC

!FiF

ICS
iR

iF
IES

iBR

" D
De %
h
IES = Aqn $$
+
''
E
N
w
N
w
# DE E,eff
AB B,eff &
(1) *B ) , + = (1) *B )
(F =
F
(*E + *B )
(1+ *E )
2
w B,eff
w B2 ,eff
Dh N AB w B ,eff
=
,
*B .
=
De N DE w E ,eff
2De / e
2L2e

RiR

*E ,

ihE
ieE

vBC
!

Combined they form the

full Ebers-Moll model:

B+

iF

2
w B2 ,eff
w B,eff
*B .
=
2De / e
2L2e

!RiR

vBE
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

C
ICS
iR

!FiF
IES

" D
De %
h
ICS = Aqn $$
+
''
# N DC wC ,eff N AB w B,eff &
(1) *B ) , + = (1) *B )
(R =
R
(*C + *B )
(1+ *C )
w
i
D N
*C , hC = h - AB - B ,eff
ieC
De N DC wC ,eff
2
i

2
i

You are not responsible for this model.

Note: iF = -iE(vBE,0)
and iR = -iC(0,vBC).
Lecture 7 - Slide 26

npn BJT: The Gummel-Poon model

Another common model can be obtained from the Ebers-Moll model
is the Gummel-Poon model:

Forward:

!FiF

B iBF

iF
IES

vBE

iBF

vBE

E
IS "

Combined they form the

Gummel-Poon model:

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

C
!RiBR

iBR

= $ F IES = $ R ICS

Aside from the historical interest, another

value this has for us in 6.012 is that it is an
interesting exercise to show that the two
forward circuits above are equivalent.

IS/!F

#F
#R
IES =
ICS
#
+
1
#
+
1
( F )
( R )

IS/!R

!FiBF

Reverse: vBC

vBC

IS/!R
iBR
iBF
IS/!F

+
B+

vBE

You even less responsible for this model.

C
!FiBF - !RiBR
E
Lecture 7 - Slide 27

6.012 - Microelectronic Devices and Circuits

Lecture 7 - Bipolar Junction Transistors - Summary

Review/Junction diode model wrap-up
Refer to "Lecture 6- Summary" for a good overview
Diffusion capacitance: adds to depletion capacitance (p -n example)
+

In asym., short-base diodes: Cdf(VAB) (qID/kT)[(wn-xn)2/Dh]

(area doesn't enter expression!)

Bipolar junction transistor operation and modeling

iC

Currents (forward active):

wB + wC

(npn example)

iE(vBE,0) = IES (eqvBE/kT 1)

iC(vBE,0) = F iE(vBE,0)
with F [(1 B)/(1 + E)]

iB
B

Electron
Flux

Hole
Flux

vBE

wB
0
-wE

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

iE

(ratio of hole to electron current across E-B junction)

Base defect, B (wB2/2Le2)

n+

Emitter defect, E (DhNABwB*/DeNDEwE*)

(fraction of injected electrons recombining in base)

n!, p!
Also, iB(vBE,0) = [(dE + dB)/(1 + dE)] iE(vBE,0)
and, iC(vBE,0) = bF iB(vBE,0),
with bF aF/(1 aF) = [(1 dB)/(dE + dB)]

Lecture 7 - Slide 28

MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

6.012 Microelectronic Devices and Circuits

Fall 2009

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