Ieee an Keeton Review Project Cara Fuhlbrigge, Megan Perry, Janvie Naik, and Madison SpencerBiological Learning Outcome 10 10. Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies (for example, CAT, PET, fMRI) in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior. e CAT © Uses x-ray equipment to help detect a variety of disease and conditions m= The x-rays produce multiple images or pictures of the brain, and can be reformatted in multiple plans © The actual scanning process is fast, painless, noninvasive, and accurate © Benefits of CAT scans m= Painless, and noninvasive = Canbe a cost effective solution and produces results fast = No radiation remains in a pationt’s body after a CT examination © Disadvantages of CAT scans = Can have oxtrome adverse effects if the patient is pregnant m= Patient is exposed to some radiationBiological Learning Outcome 10 (cont.) 10. Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies (for example, CAT, PET, fMRI) in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior. e PET © Stands for positron emission tomography © Scans the glucose metabolism © To begin, the pationt is injected with a harmless dose of radioactive glucose and the particles omitted by the glucose are detected by the PET scanner, which produce colored maps of brain activity. © Itcan be used to diagnose anything from tumours to Alzheimer’s. = Also compares brain differences in normal activities and those with psychological disorders. © Guretal. (1995) found more active metabolism in primitive brain centers controlling violence in mon then in women. © The greatest advantage is that is can record ongoing activity in the brain, like thinkingBiological Learning Outcome 10 (cont.) 10. Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies (for example, CAT, PET, fMRI) in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior. ¢ fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) Provides 3D pictures of brain structures using magnotic fields and radio waves It indicates which areas of the brain are active when engaged in certain behaviors They have higher resolution images Study: Kringelbach and Berridge (2009) m= Used {MRI scans to study which areas of the brain were active when participant experienced pleasure 0000 = The researchers found that the orbitofrontal cortex and endorphins were linked to subjective experience of pleasure, whereas dopamine and the nucleus accumbens were involved in pleasure seeking, not in the experience of pleasure itself.Biological Learning Outcome 11 With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behavior? Genetic Inheritance: Genetic research in humans is to a large extent based on correlational studies. One of the most common ways to study the possible correlation of genetic inheritance and behaviour is through twin research. The correlation is called the concordance rate © There are monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins. © The higher the genetic relationship, the more similar individuals will be ifthe particular characteristic being investigated is inherited. Family Studies: A child inherits half their genes from the mom and half from the dad. Siblings will share 50% of their genes, grandparents will share 25%, and first cousins share 12.5%. These different percents of relatedness are compared with behaviour. Genetic relatedness will inerease if heritability is high. Adoption Studies: Allow the most direct comparison of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour. The heritability of behaviour is high and environmental would play alittle role.Biological Learning Outcome 1 1 (cont.) Minnesota Twin Study (Bouchard et al. 1990): In this study monozygotic twins raised apart (MZAs) were compared to monozygotic twins raised together (MZTs). This study is the most cross-cultural study to date with participants from all over the world. Each twin completed about 50 hours of testing and interviews. Bouchard determined that 70% of intelligence can be attributed to genetic inheritance and 30% is attributed to other factors.Cognitive Learning Outcome 22 22. With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable. e Elizabeth Loftus © She believed that memory is not reliable through her eye witness testimony study. Loftus and Palmer (1974) tested that the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. In the study, students wore asked how fast 2 cars were going when they hit and how fast the cars were going when they smashed. When the word smashed was used, people said the cars were going much faster than they actually were. e Flashbulb Memory © Flashbulb Memory is when you can vividly remember something that happened on one occasion that you remember for your lifetime. For example, a common flashbulb for Americans is theCognitive Learning Outcome 23 Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes. © MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) © Provides high-resolution 3D picture of the brain © Cognitive Process: Preferences and Decision-Making a Kilts (2003) study © Aim: to see the role of the brain in deciding whether to buy a product © Method: Participants were put into an MRI scanner and shown pictures of consumer goods. They were asked to rate each product in terms of preference. © Results: Each time the participants rated a product highly, an area in the medial prefrontal cortex, which is related to our personality and sense of self, was active. This indicates that when we are attracted to a product, we somehow identify with it.Cognitive Learning Outcome 23 (cont.) Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes. © PET (positron emission tomography) © Measures brain functioning by detecting glucose consumption and blood flow © Cognitive Process: Memory = Can measure metabolic activity in the hippocampus = Aresearch team at NYU School of Medicine conducted a longitudinal study and found that carly signs of reduced metabolism in the hippocampus detected by PET scan were associated with later development of Alzheimer’s disease.Sociocultural Learning Outcome 35 Discuss the use of compliance techniques (for example, lowballung, front-n-the- door, reciprocity). Compliance techniques are ways in which individuals are influenced to comply with the demands or desires of others. Six factors thet influence the likelihood that people will comply with a request are: Anthority-people comply more often with those in positions of same authority Commitment-once people have agreed to do something, they are likely to comply with similar requests Liking-people comply with requests from people they like Reciprocity-people feel the need to “return the favor” Scarcity-opportunities seem more valuable to people when they are less readily available Social Proof-people view a behaviour as correct if they see others performing itSociocultural Learning Outcome 35 Discuss the use of compliance techniques (for example, lowballung, front-n-the- door, reciprocity). Relevant study: Bandura et al. (1961) Bandura’s aims were to see if children would imitate aggression shown by models, and if they would imitate same sex models To show this, Bandura gathered children aged between 3 to 6 years old and divided them into groups based on their aggressive tendencies one group was exposed to adult models who showed aggression by bashing a “Bobo doll” and a second group observed a nonaggressive adult sit with a toy for 10 minutes after watching the models, the children would be placed in a group with a bunch of toys so the psychologists could observe what behavior they mimicked Bandura found that the children who observed the aggressive model were significantly more aggressive Bandura also found that girls imitated verbal aggression more than physical aggression and vice versa for boys Bandura reported that this showed strong evidence of the social learning theory, because the children showed observational learningSociocultural learning outcome 35 (cont.) Discuss the use of compliance techniques (for example, lowballing, foot-m-the-door, reciprocity). Foot-in-the-door: Assumes agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a second, larger request. © Dickerson et al. (1992) found that if you first ask people to sign a poster saying “Take shorter showers. If] can do it, so can you!” and then later survey their water usage, they'll have, on average, shorter showers than most people Low balling: Cialdini (1978) asked students whether they would participate in a psychology experiment that started at 7 am and most people refused (control group). In an experimental condition Cialdini asked people whether they would participate in a psychology experiment, and even though they weren’t told a tine most people agreed. Later they were told that it started at 7 am and given the chance to drop out if they wanted. On the day of the experiment 95% turned up. Works on the principle of commitment. Reciprocity: people often feel they need to “return a favor” © Lynn and McCall (1998) found that when restaurant customers are given a mint or sweet with their bill, the size of the tip increasesSociocultural Learning Outcome 36 36.) Evaluate research on conformity to group norms. © Conformity is the tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, feelings, or behavior in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group, or with accepted standards ahout how a person should behave in specific situations (social norms). © Relevant study: Solomon Asch (1951) ° ° ° oo Aimed to find out to what extent. a person would conform to an incorrect. answer on a testif the response from other members of the group was unanimous. ‘The study involved seven people and the researcher. Six men were confederates (which helped the researcher to deceive the participant). ‘The participants were shown two pictures: one with one line, and the other picture had several lines. ‘The confederates and participants were then asked to state which line matched the picture with the singular line. Confederates were instructed to say the same incorrect answer some of the 18 trials, and anewer correctly some of the trials. The goal was to see if the participant would conform to the wrong answers given by the confederates, even if it. was very clear that this response was incorrect. About 75% of the participants agreed with the confederate’s incorrect responses at least, once in the trial. During the debriefing, Asch interviewed the participants. All reported some self-doubt about their answers. ‘Those who conformed, said they knew their answers were incorrect, but conformed because they didn’t want to ‘mess up the experiment, This can be explained as “the need to belong.” ‘This study is referred to as “Asch’s paradigm” and those who've replicated the study found that. group size, ‘unanimity, confidence, and self-esteem all influenced the likelihood to conform.Sociocultural Learning Outcome 37 37.) Discuss the factors influencing conformity. e Culture: © different cultures react to the word “conformity” differently = Asian cultures value conformity more than American culture = Americans see conformity as negative, but still conform O Smith & Bond (1993) found that conformity is lower in individualist cultures (North America, north-west Europe) and higher in collectivist cultures (Africa, Asia) © Berry (1967) found that the Temne people of Sierra Leone conformed more than the Inuit people of Canada. © Asch paradigm © Group size: increases conformity up to 3 confederates, groups larger than 3 did not increase conformity © Unanimity: conformity more likely when all confederates agree O Confidence: individuals who are confident in a field of expertise are less likely to conform O Self-Esteem: those with higher self-esteem are less likely to conformSociocultural Learning Outcome 37 (cont.) 37.) Discuss the factors influencing conformity. Groupthink: group members have a unanimous opinion on an issue and do not seek out alternative opinions Risky shift: phenomenon that people in a group may take more risks than they would individually Minority influence: Moscovici and Lage found that when there is a consistent minority opinion, it has the power to influence other participants. Possible reasons: © produce uncertainty and and doubt © show that alternatives exist © consistency shows a commitment People evaluate themselves through social comparison © When people realize that others are not behaving in the same way as them, it causes cognitive dissonance. Normative Social Influence © People may conform to avoid rejection and gain social approvalAbnormal Learning Outcome 48 Discuss cultural and gender variations in prevalence of disorders. Bulimia: There is a 10:1 ratio from females to males on depression. It is also much more common in western areas such as United States, Europe, and Japan. This is because these countries promote skinnier body types through the media. Depression: Williams and Hargreaves (1994), women are 2-3 times more likely to develop depression in their lifetime as opposed to men. People who live in individualistic cultures are more likely to develop depression because they feel more isolated and alone.Abnormal Learning Outcome 49 49.) Examine biomedical, individual, and group approaches to treatment. e Biomedical Treatments © Based on the assumption thet biological factors are associated with changes in brain chemistry (neurotransmitters and hormones). It is not fully understood how neurotransmitters and symptoms are linked. © Examples of drugs used to treat certain disorders, m= Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): used to treat depression © Balance out serotonin levels © Most widely used antidepressant drug © Relevant study: Neale ot al. (2011) = Conducted a meta-anelysis of published studies on the outcome of anti-depressants versus placebos = The study focussed on patients who started with anti-depressants and changed to placebo, patients who only received the placebo, and patients who only took anti-depressants, m= Study found that patients who don't take anti-depressants have 25% risk of relapse, compared to 42% or higher for those who have been on medication and then stopp.Abnormal Learning Outcome 49 49.) Examine biomedical, individual, and group approaches to treatment. Individual Therapy © Therapists work one-on-one with the client, so it’s seen as more personal than drug therapy © Usually involved cognitive therapy to change negative thought patterns = Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) © Aims to change negative thinking that contributes with causes of disorder (0.g. depression) © Cognitive Restructuring- enables the client to realize and correct these beliefs © Rewarding activities that cause pleasure are encouraged © Is the most used approach © Relevant study: Hay et al. (2004) m= studied effectiveness of CBT on treatment of bulimia and binge eating (and a specific form of CBT targeted at bulimics, called CBT-BN) = found that CBT was highly effective in the treatment of eating disorders = CBT-BN was particularly effective in treating bulimia and other EDs involving bingeing ————Abnormal Learning Outcome 49 49.) Examine biomedical, individual, and group approaches to treatment. © Group Therapy © One therapist counsels several clients at a time © Its proven useful for specific groups to come together and share their experiences © Advantages: less expensive, provides a support group for for the client which diminishes the role of the therapist, allowing the clients to be less dependent on the therapist, clients realize they're not alone, and clients develop social skills © Disadvantages: some individuals may not feel comfortable with sharing experiences, confidentiality becomes an issue, and group dynamics (one patient may feel left out, and that others are receiving priority). © Relevant study: Segal, Williams and Teasdale (2001) © Conducted the study on mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (NBCT) = Based on Buddhist meditation and relaxation techniques. These help people to direct their focus and concentrate so they are able to observe intrusive/ negative thoughts and gradually become more able to prevent these negative thoughts from escalating further = The goal is to teach people to recognize the signs of depression and adopt a “decentered’ (different) perspective, where people see their thoughts as "mental events” rather than something central to their self-concept or as accurate reflections of reality eeAbnormal Learning Outcome 50 Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual, and group approaches to the treatment of one disorder. © Depression © Biomedical = Attempts to correct biological malfunctioning, especially abnormal neurotransmitter levels = Not known why all patients do not respond the same way = Most common are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) © Effective and safe, but have side effects © Some believe that they are overpresoribed Bernstein ot al. (1994): antidepressants are significantly helpful in 60-80% of patients Kirsch and Sapirstein (1998): antidepressants are only 25% more effective than placebos = Most psychiatrists agree that drugs provide effective long-term control and have reduced number of hospitalizations. = Pationt may not consent to drug because of adverse side-effectsAbnormal! Learning Outcome 50 (cont.) Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual, and group approaches to the treatment of one disorder. © Depression O Biomedical (cont.) = Main criticism: antidepressants are NOT a cure, only a way to manage symptoms = Blumenthal ot al. (1999) found that exercise was as effective as SSRIs in treating elderly patti m= Leuchter and Witte (2002): © Patients receiving a placebo improved as much as patients receiving drug treatment, HOWEVER, O Placebo caused increased activity in the prefrontal cortex (after 1-2 weeks), while antidepressants decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex (after 48 hours). a Elkin et al. (1989) found that drug treatment produces fastest results, but CBT and IPT re ustaseffectiveimtheione= run, 2 2 2 2 2 ©Abnormal! Learning Outcome 50 (cont.) Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual, and group approaches to the treatment of one disorder. © Depression © Individual = Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) © Uses cognitive restructuring and behavior modification © Negative thinking patterns and biased schema are common in depressive patients © Many patients with depression stop doing enjoyable activities © Focuses on current issues rather than past ones © Riggs ot al. (2007) studied adolescents with depression and substance abuse disorder. © CBT & placebo: 67% of participants significantly improved © CBT & SSRIs: 76% of participants significantly improved © Cognitive and behavioral techniques were also effective in reducing substance ———Abnormal! Learning Outcome 50 (cont.) Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual, and group approaches to the treatment of one disorder. © Depression © Individual (cont.) = Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) © Cost-effective © No negative effects © Nemeroff et al. (2007) found that CBT & drugs or CBT alone were both more effective than drugs alone, © Criticisms: © focuses on symptoms rather than causes © therapist uses his/her discretion in judging which thoughts are acceptable © Group = Most group therapy for depression is actually “couples’ therapy” due to the strong link between depression and marital problems ————Abnormal! Learning Outcome 50 (cont.) Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual, and group approaches to the treatment of one disorder. © Depression © Group (cont) = Couples’ therapy has beon most successful for women suffering from depression related to marital problems = Group therapy has shown to be as effective as individual in 75% of cases, and more effective in 25% of cases. May be more cost-effective than individual therapy Provide support group, help raise self-esteem = Factors to consider: © Group cohesion: no one person should be very different from the rest © Exclusion: Should any characteristic be excluded from the group? © Confidentiality: People must trust they can speak freely. © Relationship with therapist: Therapist must show empathy and attempt to ———E ssay Outline- 14) To what extent is one cognitive process reliable? I. Introduction A. Cognitive Level of Analysis 1. It concerns itself with the structure and functions of the mind 2. Cognitive neuroscience: combines knowledge about the brain with knowledge about. cognitive a 3. Principles: a) Mental process guide human behavior b) The mind can be studied scientifically ©) Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors B. Terms to define 1. False memories: people do not have exact memories of events that happened, but rather an. outline which is filled out with information when it is recalled, and when individuals cannot distinguish between what they experienced, and what they heard after the event, false memories are created C. Thesis— introduce Loftus and flashbulb memories Il. How memory is unreliable: Elizabeth Loftus’ studies A. Reconstructive memories 1. The mind fills in gaps about what happened using new and existing information 2. Memories change over time B. Legal Eyewitness Testimony 1. False presuppositions (wording). “How fast was Car A going?” ~ having trouble distinguishing between fantasy and reality 2S 25 SOT TEC Yo EO LR oe Se Yn “How fast was Car A going when ef passed the stop sign” v8.Essay Outline- 14) To what extent is one cognitive process reliable? C. — Repressed memories 1. Three types of memory distortions: a. Early sexual abuse is forgotten because child doosn’t understand it, b. Later in life, they may say they've forgotten about it, but they're avoiding it, c. People may think something happened, when it didn’t IIL. Memory is unreliable- Frederic Bartlett, A. Main focus: memory is reconstructive and schemas influence memory recall B. Serial reproduction 1. One person hears the original version of the story, and reproduces it for another person. Small details get distorted for each reproduction. 2. War of Ghoste Study a. Participants read through the story twice, then reproduce it from memory 15 minutes later b. For each reproduction, several changes occurred, i. Story became shorter in length ii, It became more conventional iii, It did stay a coherent story c. Indicates that schema can change memory IV. Address Counterargument: Memory is reliable- Flashbulb memories ‘A. Defined as a strong or vivid long term memory of a meaningful or emotional event. B. Americans remembering September 11, 2001Essay Outline 22. Evaluate ONE individual approach to treatment for ONE disorder. © Introduction O Level of Analysis: Cognitive = Principles: © — Mental process guide human behavior © The mind can be studied scientifically © Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors, O Depression u Affective disorder mainly characterized by depressed mood or loss of interest, O Define: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy = Individual psychotherapy focusing on cognitive restructuring and behavioral modification © Thesis--acknowledge both positives and negatives while stating positionEssay Outline 22. Evaluate ONE individual approach to treatment for ONE disorder. ‘* Evidence Supporting Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Depression O Alloy et al. (1999): Longitudinal Study = Healthy participants were sorted into either the “positive thinking group” or “negative thinking am = After 6 years ‘© 1% of “positive thinking group” developed depression © 17% of “negative thinking group” developed depression © Shows link between cognition and depression, indicating that CBT may be useful approach © Riggs et al. (2007) studied adolescents with depression and substance abuse disorder over 4 months. = CBT & placebo: 67% of participants significantly improved = CBT & SSRIs: 76% of participants significantly improved = Patients were better able to manage negative thoughts and feelings that could trigger substance use. © Nemeroff ot al. (2007): Studied chronic depression in people suffering from traumatic childhood experiences, © found that CBT & drugs or CBT alone were both more effective than drugs alone LeEssay Outline 22. Evaluate ONE individual approach to treatment for ONE disorder. © Evidence Against Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Depression © Elkin ot al. (1989): Study Comparing Depression Treatments = 280 patients, each randomly assigned to antidepressant drug, placebo, interpersonal therapy, or CBT = CBT was no more effective than drug treatment in long-run = CBT produced slower results than drug treatment © Focuses on symptoms rather than causes Conclusion © Summarize both support and counterarguments © Come to conclusion that CBT is overall beneficial