1 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS ‘The energy given up by the constituent particles such as atoms, molecules, or free electrons of the hotter regions of a body to those in cooler regions is called heat. Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which energy exchange takes place in solids or in fluids in rest (ie, no convective motion resulting from the displacement of the macroscopic portion of the medium) from the region of hhigh temperature to the region of low temperature due to the presence of temperature gradient in the body. The heat flow cannot be measured directly, but the concept has physical meaning because it is related to the measurable scalar quantity called temperature, Therefore, once the temperature distribution T(¢,0) within a body is determined as a function of position and time, then the heat flow in the body is readily computed from the laws relating heat low to the temperature gradient. The science of heat conduction is principally concerned. ‘with the determination of temperature distribution within solids. In this chapter wwe present the basic laws relating the heat flow to the temperature gradient in the medium, the differential equation of heat conduction governing the tempe- raturedistribution in solids, the boundary conditions appropriate for the analysis of beat conduction problems, the rules of coordinate transformation needed to write the heat conduction equation in different orthogonal coordinate systems, ‘and a general discussion of various methods of solution of the heat conduction equation. 1 THE HEAT FLUX ‘The basic law that gives the relationship between the heat flow and the tempera. ture gtadiont, based on experimental observations, is generally named after the 12 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS French mathematical physicist Joseph Fourier [1], who used it in his analytic thoory of heat. For a homogeneous, isotropic solid (ie, material in which thermal conductivity is independent of direction) the Fourier law is given in the form qe= kV Te. Wim? an ‘where the temperature gradient is a vector normal to the isothermal surface, the heat flux rector af,®) represents heat flow per unit time, per unit area of the isothermal surface in the direction of the decreasing temperature, and ke is lulled the thermal conductivity of the material which isa positive, scalar quantity. ‘Since the heat flux veetor q(t) points in the direction of decreasing temperature, the minus sign is included in equation (1-1) to make the heat flow a positive Gantt. When the heat ux is in W/ay? andthe temperature gradient in °C) the thermal conductivity & has units W)(m-°C). Ia the rectangular coordinate system, for example, equation (1-1) is written as (2) glx ys700) where and & ate the unit direction veto along the»), and z dirstons were a ur the the component ofthe heat ux vestor i the 3 and 2 directions arc given, respectively, by ar an-kG amd a ce (abe) Clearly, the heat flow rate for a given temperature gradient is direetly pro- portional othe thermal conductivity kof the material. Therefore, n the analysis rr heat conduction, the thermal conductivity of the material is an important property, which controls the rate of heat fow in the medium, There isa wide Biference in the thermal conductivities of various engineering materials. The highest valve is given by pore metals and the lowest value by eases and vapors the amorphous insulating materials and inorganic liquids have thermal conduc- tities that Fe in between. To give some idea of the order of magnitude of thermal ‘conductivity for various materials, Fig, 1- illustrates the typical ranges, Thermal conductivity also varies with temperature, For most pure metals it decreases with temperature, whereas for gases it ncreases with increasing temperature, For most insulating materials it increases with increasing temperatures. Figure 1-7 illus: tates the ellect of temperature on thermal conductivity of materials. A very low temperature approaching absolute zero, thermal conductivity first increases tapi and then exhibits a sharp descent as shove in Fig, 1-3. comprehensive Compilation of thermal conductivities of materials may be found in references 2-4,= gai tis alte gal io wc zi jven in iE (4) gna suce, ‘THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION ‘ecmal atu IN 01 Fig. 1-1 Typical range of thermal conductivity of various materials, ‘We present in Appendix I the thermal conductivity of typical engineering ‘materials together with the specific heat C,, density p, and the thermal difusi- vity 1-2. THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION We now derive the differential equation of heat conduction for a stationary, homogeneous, isotropic solid with heat generation within the body. Heat genera- tion may be due to nuclear, electrical, chemical, y-ray, or other sources that may be a function of time and/or position. The heat generation rate in the medium, generally specified as heat generation per unit time, per unit volume, is denoted by the symbol g(t, 0), and if SI units are used, is given in the units W/m®. ‘We consider the energy-balance equation for a small control volume ¥, illustrated in Fig. 1-4, stated as ‘the bounding surfaces of ¥ || generation in V || ofenergyin V [acetone toa |[ cae | [otetioee| ggHEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS x00 $9,905) ove oe TKesontsos tt ‘oo Ea { serious) | | i ark pee e nse) 1 i — : Tracy ha ante TSO : i yen | Bb olee 2 ecb ad steer shay . = tiene bob cay oon Ii 0 1a) BOO 30 SFG) BB) Tow Tempera "© Fig. 1-2. Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity of materials, ‘Various terms in this equation arc evaluated as ~ [vaca where A is the surface area of the volume element ¥, fis the outward-drawn normal unit vector to the Surface element 24, is the heat flux vector at da; here, the minus sign is included to ensure that the heat flow is into the volume element V, and the divergence theorem is used to convert the surface integral to volume integral, The remaining two terms are evaluated as [Raging tons the bounding surfaces of ¥ -f, seer‘THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION 5 Temperatura “6 213 _-250 250 ~249 ~z20 —200' -210 ~200_ 100 —160 6000 3 rer conde in 100 200, 0 1000 500 200 00 400 100 200 480440 “20400389 —300 G0 920 God a0 Tomoecaure,"F Fig 1-3 Thermal conductivity of metals at low temperatures. (From Powel etal. [2]) (Rate ofenergy generation in V). { ate,t)de (1-56) i f aTIr, Rats ofenergy storagei C, (Ra ay storagein V)= | pC, (1-Se)6 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS | Fig, 14 Nomenclature for the derivation of heat conduction equation. ‘The substitution of equations (1-5) into equation (1-4) yields ant, f[ Paes anne, EO lao—o 6) Equation (1-6 is detived for an arbitrary small-yolume element V within the solid; ence the volume V may be chosen so small 2s to remove the integra. We obtain, aT (et) a = Vogt.) + alt, = 0 (7) Subnating arom equation) into equation (1-7, we obs the aiferer- fal quaion 9 fea conduction oro staonary,homogenectn,otpi os with Rent gencraon within the bodys OTTr, t) weser n+ a= 9,20 os “This equation is intended for temperate of space dependent K as wel x tempersure dependent‘, Whet ie het cndusityasumel 0 be ‘constant (ie, independent of position and temperature), equation (1-8) simplifies to 10Tte.0) VT) + paleo (1-92) a at ‘hermal diffusivity‘CARTESIAN, CYLINDRICAL, AND SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS TABLE 1-1 Effect of Thermal Diffivity on the Rate of Heat Propagation ‘Material Silver Copper Steel Giass ‘Cork ax 10m 170 103 129 059 015s Time SSmin 16Smin 22h 200days_—_—_77 days For a medium with constant thermal conductivity and no heat generation, ‘equations (1-9) become the diffusion or the Fourier equation 1aT%,0) vr) = (1-10) Here, the thermal diffusivity zis the property of the medium and has a dimension of length/time, which may be given in the units m2/h or m?/s. The physical significance of thermal dilfusivity is associated with the speed of propagation of heat into the solid during changes of temperature with time. The higher the thermal diffusivity, the faster is the propagation of heat in the medium. This statement is better understood by referring to the following specific heat conduc. tion problem: Consider a semiinfinite medium, x>0, initially at a uniform temperature To, For times >0, the boundary surface at x=0 is kept at zero temperature. Clearly, the temperature in the body will vary with position and time. Suppose we are interested in the time required for the temperature to decrease from its initial value Ty to half of this value, $7, at a position, say, 30cm from the boundary surface, Table I-1 gives the time required for several diflerent materials, I is apparent from these results that the larger the thermal diffusivity, the shorter isthe time required for the applied heat to penetrate into the depth of the solid. 13 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN CARTESIAN, CYLINDRICAL, AND SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS ‘The fist step in the analytic solution ofa heat conduction probiem for @ given ‘epion is to choose an orthogonal coordinate system such that its coordinate surfaces coincide with the boundary surfaces of the region. For example, the ‘ectangular coordinate system is used for rectangular bodies, the cylindrical and ‘hespherical coordinate systems are used for bodies having shapes such as cylinder find sphere, respectively, and so on. Here we prosent the heat conduction equation for an homogeneous, isotropic solid in the rectangular, cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems. Equations (1-8) and (1-9) inthe rectangular coordinate system (x,y 2), respec- tively, become (487), 2,87), 0/27 s — ke = =, ale) +5 eG a ) a8 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS er eT er 1 iar 7 : tet ant * ay? Saat ta a aa Figure 1-Sajb show the coordinate axes for the cylindrical (r,,2) and the spherical (r, 6,9) coordinate systems, In the cylindrical coordinate system equa- tions (1-8) and (1-9), respectively, become aa Maa 2(s2) 2( 8 )aanne ST cm ral ae) ag a9) * aa ee 12,20), 107 71 Ler tae) aa ae a 2b) 2 oe o Fig. 1-5 (2) Cylindrical coordinate system, 6,25 (6) Spherical coordinate system (0.HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION 9 and in the spherical coordinate system they take the form feat oe i 18 ( ee) «5 o(tno rt tag h (t) somo, (tt 10/.0T 1 eri ier Sono et ot 7 zal?) saan) aati CH 1-4 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN OTHER ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS In this book we shall be concerned particularly with the solution of heat condue- tion problems in the rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems; therefore, equations needed for such purposes are immediately obtained from equations (I-11)-(1-13) given above. The heat conduction equations in other ‘orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems (ie. @ coordinate system in which the coordinate lines intersect each other at right angies) are readily obtained by the coordinate transformation. Here we present a brief discussion of the transforma tion ofthe heat conduction equation into a general orthogonal curvilinear coordi- nate system. The reader is referred to references 5~T for further details, Let u,,u3,nd u, be the three space coordinates, and @,,, and di be the unit direction vectors in the ta, and us directions ina general orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system shown in Fig, 1-6, A differential length dS in the rectangular coordinate system (x, y,2) is given by (a8)? = (as)? + (dy) +P (1g) A differential length de in curvilinear coordinate syste (ass)10 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS Let the functional relationship between orthogonal curvilinear coordinates (ptt, ta) and the rectangular coordinates (x,y, 2) be given as Ha Xity ty), Y= VuysMaety) and = Zluyyg,g) (I-43) ‘Then, the differential lengths dx, dy, and de are obtained from equations (1-15) by diferentiation (16) (16) any ay, (1-166) Substituting equations (1-16) into equation (1-14) and noting that the dot products must be zero when 1,2, and uy are mutually orthogonal yields the following expression forthe differential length dS in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system t,t My (dy)? + ai(du,)? + a5(dus)? ay J +(ZY. tenas (18) nts dy d, and a, are called the scale factors, which may be constants or functions of the coordinates. Thus, when the functional relationship between the rectangular and the orthogonal curvilinear system is available [ie., asin equation (1-15)], then the scale factors a, are evaluated by equation (1-18), Once the scale factors are known, the gradient of temperature in the ortho- gonal curvilinear coordinate system (1,43, 4s) is given by where Lar, ier, 1or a ag AST 1-19) radu, * "a, dug * "a, uy ae The expression defining the heat flux vector q becomes, ~ wr 638 ST (1-20) and the three components of the heat flux vector along the wy, uz, and wyHEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION 11 ‘coordinates are given by 2) au ‘The divergence of the heat flux vector q in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate syste (uy, ) is given by (Se)ran(ee)] (1-224) ven Taal) a=a,a,¢5 (1-228) where ‘The differential equation of heat conduction in a general orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system is now obtained by substituting the results given by equations (1-21) and (1-22) into equation (1-7) Wa(jear\, a/,aar\, 0,0 ar ar 8 (8 RPV 22 TV ige P Teles) al alta ani eG pune ‘The heat conduction equations in the cylindrical and spherical coordinates given previously by equations (1-12) and (1-13) are readily obtainable as special cases from the general equation (1-23) if the appropriate values of the seale factors are introduced. ‘Length, Area, and Volume Relations In the analysis of heat conduction problems integrations are generally required over a length, an area, or a volume. If such an operation is to be performed in an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, expressions are needed for a dif ferential length di, a differential area 44, and a differential volume d¥. These relations are determined as now described. In the case of rectangular coordinate system, a differential volume element dV is given by av. ixdyde (1-24a) and the dilferential areas d4,,d,, and dA, cut from the planes x — constant, y= constant, and 2 = constant are given, respectively, by dA,=dydz, dAy=dxds, and dA, dy (1-240) In the case of an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, the elementary lengths dl,,dl,, and dl, along the three coordinate axes u,,¥,, and us are given,12 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS respectively, by dl,=aydu, dig=azduj, and dls =ayduz_—_(1-25a) ‘Then, an elementary volume eloment d¥ is expressed as d,a;a, _(1-25b) dV = 4005 dus du, dus = adu, du; dus, where ‘The differential areas dA,,dAa, and dA, cut from the planes uj = constant, tus = constant, and 14 = constant are given, respectively, by yay duty duty, dA, =dlydly=ayay du duy and ayaa duy diy (1-250) aA, = diya Ay = dl dl Example 1-1 Determine the scale factors for the eylindrical coordinate system (r, #2) and write the expressions for the heat flux components. Solution. The functional relationships between the coordinates (r,, 2)and the rectangular coordinates (x, y,2) are given by x=re0sd, sin}, Let (1-26) Cd i ‘The scale factors a, =4,,4; = ay, and a, =a, for the (r, 3) coordinate system are determined by equation (1-18) as, (2 s(2Y (BY arersw eons (2)+(2) +> —rsin g)? + (reos 6? +0= (BIG) von ence the scale factors for the cylindrical coordinate system become and a=r (1-21@) a ay ‘and the three components of the heat flux are given as,GENERAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 13 ‘Example 1-2 Determine the scale factors for the spherical coordinate system (r, 9). Solution. The functional relationships between the coordinates (r,¢,6) and the rectangular coordinates (x, y,2) are given by sind cos, sinsing, 2 =reos@ Let (1-28) 4 and uy ‘Then, by utilizing equation (1-18), the scale factors a, = 4,,4; = ay, and ay = ay are determined as a] =a} = (sinOcose) + (sin Bsn 6 + (cos)? @sak asin? Osin? $ +r?sin* 0 cos? }-+0=r? sin? O a8 a3 =r? c0s* cos" 4 + r?cos? Osin? 6 +7 sin? Hence the scale factors become 4 ag=rsin®, ap=r, and a=r'sin® (1-29) 18 GENERAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS. ‘The differential equation of heat conduction will have numerous solutions unless a set of boundary conditions and an initial condition (for the time-dependent problem) are prescribed. The initial condition specifics the temperature distribu- tion in the medium at the origin ofthe time coordinate (that is, -=0), and the boundary conditions specify the temperature or the heat flow at the boundaries ofthe region. For example, ata given boundary surface, the temperature distribu- tion may be prescribed, or the heat flux distribution may be prescribed, or there may be heat exchange by convection and/or radiation with an environment at a prescribed temperature, The boundary condition can be derived by writing an energy balance equation at the surface of the solid, We consider a surface element having an outward-drawa unit normal vector 4, subjected to convection, radiation, and external heat supply as illustrated in Fig, 1-7. The physical significance of various heat fluxes shown in this figure is as follows, The quantity gyi, Fepresents energy supplied to the surface, in W/m?, from an external source, ‘The quantity 4.on, fepresents heat loss from the surface at temperature T’ by convection with a heat transfer coefficient h into an external ambient at temperature T.., and is given by Gover HTT), Wim? (1-308)$4. HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS: 1 Fig. 1-7 Energy balance at the surface of = TABLE 1-2 ‘Typical Values of the Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient 4 Type of Flow hwil"O) Free Convection, AT = 25°C (0.25-m vertical plate in ‘Atmospheric air 5 Engine oil 37 ‘Water 40 (002-m-OD horizontal eylinder in ‘Atmospheric ai 8 Engine oil a Water 744 Foreed Convection Atmospheric air at 25°C with U., = 10mjs over sm lat plate 40 Flow at Sts across 1-cm-OD cylinder of ‘Atmospheric air 85 Engine oil 1,800 Water flow at Lkg/s inside 2S-emID tube 10,500 Bolling of Water at atm Pool boiling in a container 3,000 Poo! boiling at peak heat flux 35,000 Film boiling 300 Condensation of Steam at 1 atm Film condensation on horizontal tubes 19,900-25,000 Film condensation on vertical surfaces 4000-11,000 Dropwise condensation 60,000-120,000GENERAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 15 Here the heat transfer coefficient hvaries with the type of low (laminar, turbulent, cic), the geometry of the body and flow passage area, the physical properties of the fluid, the average temperature, and many others. There is a wide difference in the range of values of the heat transfer coefficient for various applications. Table 1-2 lists the typical values off, in W/m?°C, encountered in some apptica~ tions, ‘The quantity gig represents heat loss from the surface by radiation into an ambient at an effective temperature T,, and is given by na =e0(T!— TS) Wim? (1-305) where cis the emissivity of the surface and o is the Stefan—Boltzmann constant, that is, «= 5.6697 x 10-* Wim? K) ‘The quantity g, represents the component of the conduction heat Nux vector 4 ‘normal to the surface element and is = i= VTA (31a) For the Cartesian coordinates we have T aT or ee ae - Gh (1-316) amit +54, (1-316) Introducing equations (1-31b,¢) into (1-314), the normal component of the heat flux vector at the surface becomes -1(2 oat ar or K ax Poy ar a ) an fe where ll, and |, are the direction cosines (ie, cosine of the angles) of the unit normal vector with the x,y, and z coordinate axes, respectively. Similar expres- sions can be developed for the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems, ‘To develop the boundary condition, we consider the energy balance at the surface as Heat supply = heat loss or (1-33) Wy + Yeap = deans + Ment Introducing the expressions (1-30a,b) and (I-32) into (1-33), the boundary condi- tion becomes Ts tag MP Ta) eT 18) (1349)16 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS which can be rearranged as oe AT ycoTt IT, + dup tet (1-34b) ‘where all the quantities on the right-hand side of equation (1-34b) aze known and the surface temperature T'is unknown, ‘The general boundary condition given by equations (I-34 s nonlinear because itcontains the fourth power ofthe unknovin surface temperature T*.In addition, the absolute temperatures need to be considered when radiation is involved. If (T= TJyT-<1, the radiation term can be linearized and equation (1-34a) takes the form ar Gy Peo MT Ta) +H T (0-35a) where the heat transfer coefficient for radiation is defined as 4eoT? (1-358) 1-6 LINEAR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS In this book, for the analytic solution of linear heat conduction problems, we shall consider the following three different types of linear boundary conditions 1. Boundary Condition of the First Kind. This is the situation when the temperature distribution is prescribed at the boundary surface, that is T=f(.) on 8 (1-362) where the prescribed surface temperature (r,t) is, in general, a function of position and time. The special case T=0 on S (1-366) is called the homogeneous boundary condition of the frst kind. 2. Boundary Condition of the Second Kind. This is the situation in which the heat flux is prescribed at the surface, that is ar =f, on § (1-372) an where G7/én is the derivative along the outward drawn normal to the surface,LINEAR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 17 Here {t,t} is the prescribed heat flux, W/m?, The special case er i on S (1-37) is called the homogeneous boundary condition of the second kind. 3, Boundary Condition of the Third Kind. This is the convection boundary condition which is readily obtained from equation 1-35a) by setting the radiation ‘erm and the heat supply equal to zero, that is on (1-388) Where, for generality, the ambient temperature T,(r, 1)is assumed to be a function of position and time. The special case eT yr=0 on S (1-386) on js called the homogencous boundary condition of the third kind. It represents ‘convection into a medium at zero temperature. Clearly, the boundary conditions ofthe first and second kind are obtainable from the boundary condition of the third as special cases ifk and hare treated as coefficients. For example, by setting K—Oand T.(r,t) = ftr,),equation (I-38a) reduces to equation (1-36a). Similarly, by setting h(t.) = i,t) and then letting h ~0 on the left-hand side, equation {(1-38a) reduces to equation (1-372). “4, Interface Boundary Condition, When two materials having different thermal conductivities k, and k, ate in imperfect contact and have a common boundary asillustrated in Fig. -8, the temperature profile through the solids experiences a sudden drop across the interface between the two materials. The physical signifi- cance of this temperature drop is envisioned better if we consider an enlarged view of the interface as shown in this figure and note that actual metal-to-metal contact takes place at limited number of spots and the void between them is filled with air, which is the surrounding fluid. As thermal conductivity of air is ‘much smaller than that of metal, a steep temperature drop occurs across the gap. ‘To develop the boundary condition for such an interface, we write the energy balance as (emcndasion) (ean ) (mater) ay thrv.solid —)~ across the gap, thru solid 2 or; on, 2) ane) me 3 | PMT ~ Tah= hs 5, (1-398)18 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS nt Fig. 1-8 Boundary condition atthe interface of two contacting surfaces ‘where subscript! denotes the inferface and h,, in W/{(m?-°C) is called the contact Conductance for the interface. Equation (1-39b) provides two expressions for the boundary condition at the interface of two contacting solids, and itis generally ‘called the interface boundary conditions. For the special case of perfect thermal contact between the surfaces, we have hhc-+ 0, and equation (1-396) reduces to (1-402) (1-400) where equation (I-40a) is the continuity of temperature, and equation (1-40b) is the continuity of heat flux atthe interface. The experimentally determined values of contact conductance for typical materials contact can be found in references 8-10. The surface roughness, the Interface pressure and temperature, thermal conductivities of the contacting etal and the type of tuid inthe gap are the principal factors that affect contact conductance. “To illustrate the effects of various parameters such as the surface roughness, the interface temperature, the interface pressure, and the type of material, we present in Fig, 1-90 the interface thermal contact conductance i for stainless tee to-stainless steel and alurainum-to-aluminum joints. The results on these figures show that interface conductance increases with inereasing interlace pres sure, increasing interface temperature, and decreasing surface roughness. The jntedace conductance is higher with a softer material (aluminutn) than with & harder material (stainless steel)LINEAR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 19 Sitar weotertical ad io) Gasewe 008) oe 1-986 385276 aluninun oan lt ‘sr avert Intec rear en o Fig. 1.9 Picts of interface pressure, contact temperature, and roughness on interface conductance h. (Based on data from reference 8)2 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMEN TALS, ‘The smoothness of the surface is another factor that affects contact conduc- ‘ance; a joint with a superior surface finish may exhibit lower contact conductance purine to waviness. The adverse elect of waviness can be overcome by introducing between the surfuces an interface shim from a soft material such as lead, Contact conductance also is reduced with a decrease in the ambient-air Pressure, because the effective thermal conductance of the gas entrapped in the interface is lowered, Example 1-3 Consider a plate subjected to heating at the rates of f; and fs, in W/m?, at the boundary surfaces x=0 and x—L, respectively. Write the boundary conditions, Solution. The prescribed heat flax bound: lary condition is given by equation (0-37) as ar ‘an foo (140) The outward-drawn normal vectors at the boundary surfaces x = Oand x = L azein the negative x and positive x directions, respectively. Hence the boundary conditions become at cs ae =L 1-428) atx. (1-42b) Example 1-4 Consider 2 hollow cylinder subjected to convection boundary conditions at the inner r= a and outer r=b surfaces into ambient at temperatures. Convection Carvectin i Fig. 110 Boundary conditions for Example 1-4“TRANSFORMATION OF NONHOMOGENEOUS BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 21 ‘and Ticz, With heat transfer coefficients ht. and itz Yespectively, as illustrated in Fig, 1-10, Write the boundary conditions. Solution. ‘The convection boundary condition is given by equation (1-38a) in the form or Tenant, at S 43) ‘The outward-drawn normal at the boundary surfaces r =a and r= are in the negative r and positive r directions. Hence the boundary condition (1-43) Keogh ToheTos at Ta (1-440) a iT ehateheds rab Ge 1-7 TRANSFORMATION OF NONHOMOGENEOUS BOUNDARY CONDITIONS INTO HOMOGENEOUS ONES In the solution of transient heat conduction problems with the orthogonal expansion technique, the contribution of nonhomogeneous terms of the boundary Conditions in the solution generally gives rise to convergence difficulties when the solution is evaluated near the boundary. Therefore, whenever possibl desirable to transform the nonhomogeneous boundary conditions into homo- igeneous ones, Here we present a methodology for performing such transform: ations for some special cases. We consider one-dimensional transient heat conduction with energy genera~ tion and nonhomogeneous convection boundary conditions for @ slab, hollow cylinder and sphere given by 12 y2P) 4 gg. ot Lala) tga! secret 0 9 a aD nT ehh wore 0 (4 ar gg aT ahh at x= 2, 10 (1-450) ai) for 0 Xo 0 (sta air s+ nr=0 —onboundary, ¢>0 (sib) T=Fe) inregionR, — t=0 (15te) will be referred to homogeneous because both the differential equation and the boundary condition are homogencous ‘The problem willbe referred to as nonhomogeneous ifthe differential equation, or the boundary conditions, or both are nochomogeneous. For example, the problem very Me) Lor tna inrevionR, = t>0 (1-528)24 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS wha, ffi) onboundaryS, 1>0 (1-52) T=Fi) imregionR, —t=0 (1-526) is nonhomogencous because the differential equation and the boundary condition are nonhomogeneous. The problem inregionR, > (1-53a) ‘onboundaryS,, 1>0 (1-530) inregionR, — t=0 (1-539) is also nonhomogeneous because the differential equation is nonhomogeneous. 1.9 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION FOR MOVING SOLIDS So far weconsidered stationary solids, Suppose the solid is moving with a velocity wand we have chosen the rectangular coordinate system. Let ua, tt, and 1, be the three components of the velocity in the x, y and z direction, respectively, For solids, assuming that pC, is constant, the motion of the solid is regarded to give rise to convective or enthalpy fluxes PC; Ty, — pC,Tuy, — pC,Tu, in the x, , and 2 directions, respectively, in addition to the conduction fluxes in those directions. With these considerations the components of the heat flux vector q are taken as oa pC, T (54a) 2 + pC,Tu, (1-546) a= -k a + 0C, Tig (1-S4e) (Clearly, on the right-hand sides of these equations, the first terms the conduction(1-53a) (1-536) HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION FOR ANISOTROPIC MEDIUM — 25 flux and the second term is the convection flux due to the motion of the solid For the case of no motion, equations (1-54) reduces to equations (1-3). ‘The heat conduction equation for the moving solid is obtained by introducing equations (1-54) into the energy equation (I~ ar, an, at at Tbe tim oC et aoe ew 1 AT + ote.) 00 FactSet an) (155) This equation is written more compactly as pt 056) 1 ov?T + — att, eT aeDe oC which are strictly applicable for constant pC, Here, «= (k/pC,) is the thermal diffusivity and D/D+ isthe substantial (or total) derivative defined by z Leary eater Dt at ax ay “ae sy For the case of no motion, equation (1-56) reduces to equations (1-9). 110 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION FOR ANISOTROPIC MEDIUM So far we considered the heat fhx law for isotropic media, that is, thermal conduc- tivity kis independent of direction, and developed the heat conduction equation accordingly. However, there are natural as wel as synthetic materials in which thermal conductivity varies with direction. For example, in a tree trunk the thermal conductivity may vary with direction; that is, the thermal conduct ties along the grain and across the grain are dilferent, In laminated sheets the thermal conductivity along and across the laminations are not the same. Other examples include sedimentary rocks, fibrous reinforeed structures, cables, heat shielding for space vehicles, and many others. Orthotropic Medium First we considera situation in the rectangular coordinates in which the thermal conductivities k,,,, and k, inthe x,y, and z directions, respectively, are different ‘Then the heat flux vector a(x, 52,1) sven by equation (1-2) is modified as a3, 9.2.1) = (To, Ee) (1-58)26 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS. and the three components of the heat flux vector in the x,y, and z directions, respectively, become ar ar ar = 1-59) ay (0-59) anh a ‘Similar relations can be written for the heat flux components in the cylindrical ‘and spherical coordinates, The materials in which thermal conductivity vary in the (x, 2) oF (%,8,2) oF (7, 8,4) directions are called orthotropic materials. The heat conduction equation for an orthotropic medium in the rectangular coordi- nate system is obtained by introducing the heat flux vector given by equation (1-58) into equation (1-7). We find a(, a), af, ar), a(, a) oF) 4 2647) 2(4,27 SoS) +a(5) alae)? ‘Thus thermal conductivity bas three distinct components, (1-60) Anisotropic Medium In a more general situation encountered in heat flow through crystals, at any point in the medium, each component 4,,d,, and q, of the heat flux vector is Considered a lincar combination ofthe temperature gradients OT/ax, 2T/dy, and OT dz, that is eT éT ar | ha + hia + his 61a) (bobo a nol?) (0st) ar, ar, an wo (Fa hs 4 bas 1-610) oe een a) (16th) ar.) 0,, ar {ksi sot bart bea 5 Le a(t thes Ea to) (1-616 Such a medium iscalled an anisotropic medium and the thermal conductivity for such a medium has nine components, k;, called the conductivity coefficients that are considered to be the components of a second-order tensor k: Fa kis bal Ke|iar Kas kas (1-62) Fess Rox as Crystals are typical example of anisotropic material involving nine conductivityLUMPED SYSTEM FORMULATION 27 coefficients [11,12]. The heat conduction equation for anisotropic solids in the rectangular coordinate system is obtained by introducing the expressions for the three components of heat flux given by equations (1-61) into the energy equation (1-7), We find fa Oe kaa aE bay Et haat hed x oy az? T(x, ¥, 208) ‘ae Tr +(kast bday, tame) = where hy 2~ Kars key3 = sy» and ka = ky, by the reciprocity relation. This matter will be discussed further in Chapter 15. 1-11 LUMPED SYSTEM FORMULATION The transient heat conduction formulations considered previously assume tem- perature varying both with time and position, There are many engineering applications in which the variation of temperature within the medium can be neglected and temperature is considered to be a function of time only. Such formulations, called lumped system formulation, provide great simplification in the analysis of transient heat conduction; but their range of applicability is very restricted. Hore we illustrate the concept of lumped formulation approach and examine its range of validity. Consider a small, high-conductivity material, such as a metal, initially at a uniform temperature To, suddenly immersed into a well-stirred hot bath main- tained at uniform temperature T.,. Let V be the volume, A the surface area, p density, C, specific heat of the soli, and h the heat transfer coefficient between the solid surface and the fluid, We assume that the temperature distribution ‘within the solid remains sufficiently uniform for all times due to its small size and high thermal conductivity. Then the temperature T(:) of the solid can be consi dered to be a function of time only, The energy-balance equation on the solid is stated as Rateotheatfonintothe )_(_ stetinrsawatthe |) «4 solid through ts boundaries )~ internal energy ofthe solid ‘When the appropriate mathematical expressions are written, the energy equation (1-64) takes the form ane HALT. — TON] = pC,¥—? (1-65) at28 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS Which is rearranged as aT, A : £ =T]=0 for #50 66) det pc,itTO— Tod ‘ (1-66) T=» for (1-660) A temperature excess 6) is defined as @)=T0)—T. (1-67) ‘Then, the lumped formulation becomes ae) BO + matt) = fort 1-684) a tma=0 for t>0 (1-684) 8)=To—Ta=0 for (1-686) where m=, 1 ae (1-686) ‘and the solution is given by (1-69) ‘This is a very simple expression for temperature varying with time and the parameter m has the unit of (time), “The physical significance of the parameter m is better envisioned ifits definition hea gm ; ia) (ermal caastanco 1 external thermal a. 7 ‘Then, the smaller is the thermal capacitance or the external thermal resistance, the larger is tho value of m, and hence the faster is the rate of change of temperature 6) of the solid according to equation (1-69) Tn order to establish some criteria for the range of validity of such a simple method for the analysis of transient heat conduction, we consider the definitionLUMPED SYSTEM FORMULATION 29 ofthe Biot number Bi, and rearrange it in the form (iveraltecmal AL _(bik,A)_\ resistance k, (ha) (eemalthema (7) resistance where k, = thermal conductivity ofthe solid and L= V/A ~ characteristic length of the solid, We recall that the lumped system analysis is applicable if the temperature distribution within the solid remains sufficiently uniform during the transients, ‘whereas the temperature distribution in a solid becomes uniform ifthe internal resistance of the solid to heat flow is negligible. Now we refer to the above definition of the Biot number and note that the internal thermal resistance of solid is small in comparison to the external thermal resistance: the Biot number js small. Therefore, we conclude that the lumped system analysis is valid only for small values ofthe Biot number. For example, exact analytic solutions of transient hheat conduction for solids in the form of a slab, cylinder or sphere, subjected to convective cooling show that for Bi < 0.1, the variation of temperature within the solid during transients is less than 5% Hence it may be concluded that the Jumped system analysis may be applicable for most engineering applications if the Biot number is less than about 0.1 Example 1-5 ‘The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured with a thermocouple. The junction may be approximated as a sphere of diameter D= }mm, k= 30W/ (on-°©), p= 8400 kg/mm? and C, » 0.445/(kg:°C), Ifthe heat transfer coefficient between the junction and the gas stream is h = 600 W/{m?-°O), how long does it take for the thermocouple to record 99% of the temperature difference between the gas temperature and the initial temperature of the thermocouple? V_@/mrP or D_ 3/4 1 107? _it,_s0010-* k 30 8 L: 25x 10-9 hence the lumped system analysis is applicable since Bi < 0.1. From equation (1-69) we have TO-To 1 pnw ToT. 100”30 HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS ow 00, m= 46 ‘The valuc of m is determined from its definition hah 8 pC,V~ pC,L 8400 x 400 10-3 A285 Then 46 46 rm 1428 That is, about 3.225 is needed for the thermocouple to record 99% of the applied temperature difference. 23.228 Partial Lumping In the lumped system analysis described above, we considered a total lumping in all the space variables; as a result, the temperature for the lumped system became a function ofthe time variable, Itis also possible to perform a partial lumping, such that the temperature variation i retained in one of the space variables but lumped in the others. For example, if temperature gradient ina solid is very steep, say in the x direction and very small in the y and z directions, then iis possible to ump the system in the y and z variables. To illustrate this matter we consider a solid as shown in Fig. 1-11, in which temperature gradients are assumed to be large along the direction, but small over the y-z plane perpendiculas to the x exis, Let the solid dissipate heat by convection from its lateral surfaces into an ambient at a constant temperature T,, with 2 heat transfer coefficient h Fig, 1-11 Nomenclature for the derivation of the patti equation, ly lumped heat conduetionLUMPED SYSTEM FORMULATION 31 ‘To develop the heat conduction equation with lumping over the plane per- pendicular to the x axis, we consider an energy balance for a disk of thickness ‘Ax about the axial location x given by rateofincrease gain by conduction | +| by convection rom| ~ |ofinternalenergy| (1-72) inthe xdirection ) \ thelateralsurfaces, Netrateofheat ) ( rateofheat gain + ] ofthe disk ‘When the appropriate mathematical expressions are introduced for each of these three terms, we obtain ~Zuaaax + hp@\AXET., — Ts 01 = Axa A (1-730) where the heat flux q is given by 1-738) m (1-736) and other quantities are defined as A(x) = cross-sectional area of the disk ple) =perimeter ofthe disk hh =heat transfer coeticent k = thermal conductivity ofthe solid T, =ambient temperature We introduce a new temperature 6, as Os 0)= Ths.) Te 79) and substitute the expression for g into the energy equation (1-73a). Then ‘equation (1-73) takes the form AL gy] tr gy 12 i wool] FAs) Oa oe fe For the steady sate, equation (1-75) simpli to AF gp AO] 2003 gy = . af 9 Ma) 0 (79 Ifwe further assume that the cross-sectional area A(x) = Ay = constant, equation32. HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS, (1-16) reduces to PH) hp om PP as) = ur Gta 8 “7 which is the fin equation for fins of uniform cross-section. "The solution to the fin equation (1-77) can be constructed in the form (x) = cy cosh mx + 62 sinh mx (1-78a) mete (1-786) ‘The two unknown coefficients are determined by the application of boundary conditions at x= 0 and x =, and the solutions can be found in any one of the standard books on heat transfer [13] “The solution of equation (1-76) for fins of variable cross section is more involved. Analytic solutions of fins of various cross sections can be found in the references 14 and 15, REFERENCES 1. 1.B. Foutier, Theorie Analytigue de Ja Chalew, Pacis, 1822 (English trans. by {A Freeman, Dover Publications, New York, 1955). 2, RW. Powell, . Y, Ho, and PE, Liley, Thermal Conduetiity of Selected Materials NSRDS-NBS , US. Department of Commerce, Netional Bureau of Standards, 1966, 4, Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Vols. 1-3, 1F/Plenum Data Corp.,.New York, 1369, 4, CY. Ho, R. W. Powell, and P.E. Liley, Thermal Conductisty of Elements, Vol. 1, first supplement to J. Phys: Chom, Ref. Data (1972) 5, P. Moon and D. F, Spencer, Field Theory for Engineers, Van Nostrand, Princeton, NJ, 1961 6 M. P. Morse and H, Feshbuch, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part, MeGraw-Hill, [New York, 1955. 7. G, Arfken, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, Academie Press, New York, 1966, 8. M.E.Barzelay, K. N, Tong, and G, F, Holloway, NACA Tech, Note, 3295, May 1955, 9. E. Fried and F. A. Castello, ARS J. 32, 237-243, 1962. 10, 11.L. Atkins and E, Fried, ATAA Paper No, 64-283, 1964 11, W.A. Wooster, A Textbookiin Crystal Physies, Cambridge University Press, London. 12. J.P. Nye, Physical Properties of Crystals, Clarendon Press, London, 1957. 13. M.N. Ozisik, Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985. 14, DLA. Kern and A.D, Kraus, Extended Surface Heat Transfer, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1972. 15. M.D. Mikhailoy and M,N. Ozisik, Unified Analysis and Solutions of Heat and Mass Diffusion, Wiley, New York, 1984,PROBLEMS 33 PROBLEMS LA Verily that VT and V-q in the cylindrical coordinate system (r,¢,2) ate given as ar, , ar ar rm OT + ae OT 1.2 Verify that VP'and V-q in the spherical coordinate system (r,# 0)are given s ea 1 Tar ’rsind a6} 68 get Me, 1 2% 04 int a rind 50) 1.3. Byusingthe appropriate scale factors in equation (1-23) show that the heat conduction equation in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems are given by equations (1-12) and (1-13). 1-4 Obtain expressions for elemental areas da cut from the surfaces r = cons: tant, @ = constant, and z= constant, also for an elemental yolume dV in the cylindrical coordinate system (r, 8,2) 145 Repeat Problem 1-4 for the spherical coordinate system (r, 0) nie of Royce eee yoni |p Bs, test VEO YET |e il if + T ay om 112 Prolite spheroidal oorinates 6.04 16 18 Ww HEAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS "The prolate spheroidal coordinate system (p, 6, @)asillustrated in Fig. 112 consists of prolate spheroids 7 = constant, hyperboloids 8 = constant, and planes @ = constant. Note that as n> O spheroids become straight lines of Jength 24 on the 2 axis and as y—> co spheroids become nearly spherical. For =0, hyperboloids degenerate into z axis from A to +00, and for hypetboloids degenerate into 2 axis from —A to —cn, and for 6 = n/2 hyperboloids become the x-y plane. If the coordinates (7,0,¢) of the prolate spheroidal system are related to the rectangular coordinates by x= Asinhy sin 8 cos y= Asinhnsinésin = Acoshy cos show that the seale factors are given by Alsin® 0+ sinh? 9)? iy = Alsin? 0+ sinh? 9)? ag = Asinhysin® Using the scale factors determined in Problem 1-6, how that the expression for VT in the prolate spheroidal coordinates (7,8, ) is given as 1 er or ar VPs ay aa cothi cot! 7 a Tal at" | ag” ap tt G Obtain expressions for elemental arcas dA cut from the surfaces 7 = cons- tant, 6=constant, and g=constant, and also for an elemental volume ‘element dV in the prolate spheroidal coordinate system (7,8, 6) discussed above, ‘The coordinates (7,8, ) of an oblate spheroidal coordinate system are related to the rectangular coordinates by x= Acosh sin cos @ y= Aoshi sindsing 2=Asinhycosé Show that the scale factors are given by af = af = A(cosh? 9 —sin® 6) = A(cosh? ~sin* 6) a3 =a} = AP cosh? sin?PROBLEMS 35 1-10 Using the scale factors in Problem 19, show that the expression for V2 in the oblate spheroidal coordinate system (n,6, @) is given by i [ote ar er Pieosh?g ain? OL or? a 1 er * cosh? isin O 66 wr. ar +coeolZ 1-11 Show that the following three different forms of the differential operator in the spherical coordinate system are equivalent. dr ta(.aT) 12) eT aT S4(r fon-4 28 Pa ae a 1412 Set up the mathematical formulation of the following heat conduction problems: 1. Aslab in 0 0, the boundary at x=0 is kept insulated and the boundary at x dissipates heat by convection into a medium at zero temperature, 2. A semiinifinite region 0 0, heat is generated in the medium at a constant rate of do W/m, while the boundary at x =0 is kept at zero temperature, 3. A solid cylinder 0 0, heat is generated in the medium ata rate of g(r), W/m?, while the boundary at r= b dissipates heat by convection into a medium at zero temperature. 4, Asolid sphere 0 << bis initially at temperature Fir). For times t> 0, heat is generated in the medium at a rate of g(), W/m?, while the boundary at r= bis kept at a uniform temperature Ty, 143. For an anisotropic solid, the three components of the heat condu vector gy, 4, and 4, are given by equations (1-61), Write the similar expressions in the cylindrical coordinates for q,qg.q. and in the spherical coordinates for 4, 4434 1-14 Prove the validity of the transformation of the heat conduction problem [equation (1-45)] into the three simpler problems given by equations (1-47), (1-48) and (1-49) by using the splitting-up procedure defined by equation (1-46). 1-18 A long cylindrical iron bar of diameter D = Sem, initially at temperature To = 650°C, is exposed to an air stream at 7, = 50°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the air stream and the surface of the bar is h 80W/im?°C), Thermophysical properties may be taken as p=RAT CONDUCTION FUNDAMENTALS 7800 kg/m, C, =460kg:“C), and k = 60 W)C), Determine the time required forthe temperature ofthe bar to reach 250°C by using the lumped system analysis, : 'A thermocouple isto be used {o measure the temperature in a gas stream. ‘Thejunction may be approximated asa sphere having thermal conductivity i= 28 Whtm-°C), p = S400kg/m?, and C, = 04 kI(kg"C) The heat trans- fer coeficient between the junction and the gas stream ist = 560 W/(ma?-“C). Caleulat the diameter of the junction ithe thermocouple should measure 95% of the applied temperature difference in 3s,