CURRENT AFFAIRS

Environment - 2

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Contents

Climate Change Debate Between Developed and Developing Nations

Issues Related to Climate Financing

Recent Programmes and Policies Initiated for Mitigating Climate Change

India Unveils Intended Nationally Determined Contributions to UNFCCC

Second Commitment to Kyoto Protocol

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

State of Forest Report, 2013

Compensatory Afforestation Bill

Sustainable Land Management

Steps taken by Government to balance Forest Conservation and Development

Heavy Metal Pollution and its Impact

Radioactive Pollution and Machinery for Handling Nuclear Waste

Sustainable Development - An Essay

Pollution Due to Idol Immersion

Green Highways (Plantation, Transplantation, Beautification & Maintenance) Policy

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Climate Change Debate Between Developed and

Developing Nations

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Climate change and global warming are the result of massive emissions of
greenhouse gases such as CO2, CFCsand nitrous oxide. This has been a
problem due to the exponential increase in the burning of fossil fuels throughout
the industrial revolution which began in the 19thcentury. Climate change is a
phenomenon which will have a global impact, although of course nations will
be affected to different degrees. Although the problem is a global one, developed
nations who are heavily industrialised usually release more greenhouse gases
per capita than developing ones. In attempting to address and solve global
warming, many have asked whether developed nations - which led the industrial
revolution and are responsible for most of the greenhouse gases now in the
atmosphere - should bear a greater responsibility for combating climate change.
This debate has been stimulated in large part by the Kyoto Protocol signed in
1992, which exempted developing nations such as China and India, from the
same emissions-reductions obligations as developed countries. The principle
underlying Kyoto is known as common but differentiated responsibilities,
which continues as a centerpiece principle for those calling on Developed
countries to assume a greater responsibility. China, India, and other developing
countries call for recognition of this principle, while many developed countries
argue that conditions have changed as developing countries have begun to
industrialize and pollute more rapidly in recent years.
Hence developing nations argue emissions cuts should be based on the
accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the developed world says
in the long term, targets should be based on current levels.
The group representing the developed nations argued a carbon emission reduction
approach based on the GDP of a given country. They argued this accurately
reflected the carbon efficiency of a nations economy. If economic stability is
to be preserved, the degree to which carbon is reduced should be tied to
economic output, representing a carbon tax proportional to the amount
contributed to the global economic stage.
It was argued that developing economies rely on the strength of developed
nations economies to purchase those goods which cant be consumed internally.
Any carbon tax disproportionately affecting developed countries economies
would upset this balance and cause economic instability. If developed economies
stumble or stall due to heavy taxation, then demand will fade for goods from
developing nations, resulting in a drag on their economies and thus the domino
spiral into global recession ensues.
There were additional points made indicating that developing nations are uniquely
exposed to the damaging effects of climate change. Many are island or coastal
nations whose geographical position happen to make them more susceptible or
inland locations which models predict may turn to desert. This argument implies
that developing nations should want to contribute as much as possible to
carbon emission reductions because they are especially vulnerable to the
consequences of business as usual.
Whereas on the other hand the group representing the developing nations
contended that carbon emission standards should be based on population. In

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other words, if one country has say, around 250 million people and another has
1 billion, then the country with 1 billion would be permitted to produce 4
times the carbon emissions as the country with 250 million. There are plenty
of statistics out there that show how drastically different the per capita carbon
footprint is between developed and developing nations. In this technological
and energy hungry age, the per capita carbon footprint of a nation is closely
linked to the quality of life of its citizens. Developing nations argue that every
person in the world has an equal right to engage in activities which result in
carbon emissions and benefit from the industries which produce them.
According to developing nations historical responsibilities of developed
countries and equity in access to global atmospheric resources should continue
to be the basis of defining mitigation commitments. The 2015 agreement
must ensure that the developing countries be given their fair share of carbon
and development space. The contribution of developing countries to mitigation
efforts is far greater than that of developed countries and could be further
enhanced if developed countries effectively implement and significantly increase
their commitments of providing finance, technology, and capacity building
support to developing countries.
Equal weightage has to be given to adaptation as it is essential for reducing
vulnerabilities of communities to climate change. This assumes more importance
in view of the fact that the developing countries are the most vulnerable to
climate change. However, both global action and finance flows have been
biased in favour of mitigation. The developing countries are pushing hard to
include adaptation in a comprehensive and balanced manner in the 2015
agreement.
As the responsibility of providing financial assistance to the developing countries
lies with the developed countries and this has been clearly articulated in the
UNFCCC. India together with other developing countries continue to urge the
developed countries to honour their obligation to provide new, additional, and
predictable financial support to developing countries in a measurable, reportable,
and verifiable manner. In this context ambitious capitalization of the GCF
assumes significance. Developed countries have been urged to provide clear
timelines and pathways to reach the US$ 100 billion annual commitment
made by them in 2010.
Further technology forms a major component of any move towards combating
climate change. The important issue in this regard is that while the developed
countries are the frontrunners in clean technology, the developing countries do
not possess either sufficient technical capability or the financial resources to
develop clean technologies. Appropriate mechanisms for smooth transfer of
technology from the developed to developing countries have to be agreed
upon. The intellectual property rights price-tag should not come in the way of
such technology transfer.
Hence it can be concluded that there are clear advantages to developed countries
if carbon emissions are regulated based on economic output (GDP). Their
industrial sector is more carbon efficient and a substantial portion of their
economies are service based. Individual citizens in developed countries could
continue to benefit from a larger piece of the carbon pie than their developing
world counterparts.
Developing countries benefit from their oversized populations compared to
GDP when carbon emissions are regulated based on a countries population.

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While their industrial sector is less carbon efficient, fewer of its citizens have
access to the benefits of industrialization, bringing down the per capita carbon
footprint. If regulation is not at all dependent on the carbon efficiency of
economic output, then incentives to improve efficiency are diminished and
equivalent economic output from developed countries would shoulder a
substantial majority of the economic burden from carbon emission reduction.

Notes

Thus, a balance is needed to meet the requirements of both the ends.

Issues Related to Climate Financing

Climate change is a complex policy issue with major implications in terms of
finance. All actions to address climate change ultimately involve costs. Funding
is vital in order for countries like India to design and implement adaptation and
mitigation plans and projects. The problem is more severe for developing
countries like India, which would be one of the hardest hit by climate change,
given its need to finance development. Most countries do indeed treat climate
change as a real threat and are striving to address it in a more comprehensive
and integrated manner with the limited resources at their disposal. But financial
ways and means must be found to enable developing countries to enhance
their efforts in this direction, especially enhancing their adaptive capacity.
Thus, climate change is both an environmental issue and an economic costs
and development issue.
Lack of funding is a large impediment to implementing adaptation plans. The
scale and magnitude of the financial support required by developing countries
to enhance their domestic mitigation and adaptation actions are a matter of
intense debate in the multilateral negotiations under the UNFCCC. The
Convention squarely puts the responsibility for the provision of financial support
on the developed countries taking into account their contribution to the stock
of GHGs in the atmosphere.
Attempts are being made to design appropriate institutions and mechanisms for this
purpose at global level. Some are discussed as below:
Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF): This fund is managed by the GEF and
finances projects relating to: adaptation; technology transfer and capacity
building; energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry, and waste management;
and economic diversification.
Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF): The Least Developed Countries
Fund (LDCF) supports a work programme to assist LDCs in the preparation
and implementation of National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs).
As of December 2011, LDCF had approved some US $217 million for projects
and mobilized more than US $919 million in cofinancing.
Adaptation Fund (AF): This fund was established under the Kyoto Protocol
to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing country
Parties to the Protocol. The Adaptation Fund is financed from the 2 per cent
share of proceeds on the clean development mechanism project activities and
other sources of funding. The Adaptation Fund is supervised and managed by
the Adaptation Fund Board (AFB). The most important characteristics of this
Fund are that Parties have direct access which has led to increased country
ownership over adaptation projects.

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Green Climate Fund (GCF): At COP 17 held in Durban, South Africa, the
COP established a Green Climate Fund (GCF) under the Convention to support
projects, programmes, policies and other activities in developing nations. The
Fund will start operating from 2013 where developed nations will provide the
fund. Long term finance of $100 billion by 2020 has been decided by the
nations and the GCF is expected to manage significant part of this. GCF is
expected to be one of the most important sources of international finance. The
important distinction of GCF is that it has an independent legal status and
personality and nationally designated authorities have a paramount role to play.
This has been achieved after many rounds of different negotiations. So far
more than 10 bn dollars have been pledged but there is no clarity, how there
would be dispensed.
Issues are:
Developed and developing countries cannot agree on even the fundamentals of
what should be included (e.g. should private finance through carbon markets
be included?), let alone the level and terms of financing commitments, regulatory
and other mechanisms, or governance structures.
This impasse, which reflects a lack of trust between developed and developing
countries, has manifested itself in basic disagreements over three main issues
relating primarily to mitigation finance: first, the necessity of credible and
substantial developed country commitments on public funding; second, the
role of private finance; and third, the institutions and governance structures to
ensure equity and environmental effectiveness.
First, developing countrieswary from a half-century of often-frustrating
experience with official development assistance (ODA)are rightly skeptical
of developed country assurances regarding future climate finance through public
funding arrangements. The gap between promises and performance in general
ODA is well known; low levels of definite financial commitment, commitments
made but not kept, linkage of aid delivery to other political agendas, and
disappearing donors whose support wanes after initially encouraging a project.
Developed countries, on the other hand, are for the most part generally reluctant
to sign over large sums of taxpayer is money on international projects where
their publics do not see both a strong self-interest and effective results. Even
when they are willing to spend significant funds, donor countries generally
want to maintain flexibility regarding future spending levels depending on
experience with program performance, unforeseen developments, and competing
priorities.
The second divisive issue is the role of private finance. Developing countries
are understandably suspicious of developed countries using conjectured private
finance flows as an excuse to shirk their financial responsibilities. There is
undeniably some temptation for developed country leaders to assign as much
of the responsibility as possible to private financial sources or, in any case, to
use off-balance sheet modalities to limit political contention over payments
from public fiscal sources. Yet, it is inescapable that private as well as public
sources must be part of a mitigation finance mix. Agreement on this
fundamental point must be first. Bargaining about the extent and character of
developed country financial commitments, both public and through markets,
should come second.
The third basic source of impasse concerns the institutions and governance
structures for public and private finance. Developing countries are seeking to

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replace or reform existing multilateral institutions such as the World Bank

administered Global Environment Facility (GEF)dominated by donor
countriesin favour of new structures that give them significant decisionmaking power over cost sharing, conditionality, and disbursement and use of
funds. Moreover, achieving far-reaching mitigation will require changes in topdown donor conditionalities to allow a more flexible bottom-up strategy that
affords developing countries latitude to develop and pursue locally appropriate
mitigation and adaptation initiatives. Developed countries, on the other hand,
are rightly unwilling to commit funds without adequate financial controls and
assurances of positive environmental outcomes. Currently, OECD countries
are unilaterally developing domestic or regional cap-and-trade and offset credit
systems that will likely become the main vehicle for private climate finance.
This threatens to fragment the existing multilateral Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) approach and marginalization of developing countries
role in governance. Furthermore, developed countries are increasingly planning
to leverage their public and private financial contributions to achieve maximum
emissions reductions, potentially to the financial detriment of developing
countries. Yet the role, structure, and governance of both domestic offset and
leveraging mechanisms has scarcely been dealt with in the Copenhagen
discussions.

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It is imperative that agreement be reached on a comprehensive global framework

for diversified financing that will include:
1)

Arrangements for credible developed country commitments on public and

private mitigation finance for developing countries, as well as adaptation
funding;

2)

Regulatory and governance mechanisms to ensure effective leveraging of

public and private funds to achieve efficient mitigation; and

3)

Institutional reforms and structures so that developing countries have a

significant role in governance and considerable flexibility and initiative to
achieve reductions that are funded externally as well as domestically.

This framework must be such that the twin goals of reversing anthropogenic
climate change and facilitating low-carbon development can viably be funded
and achieved.

Recent Programmes and Policies Initiated for

Mitigating Climate Change
As a responsible country, India has taken several measures on the environment
front to the extent its capacity permits. India has continually improve the
efficiency of its economy and reduced CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 20
per cent between 1990 and 2011. Indias renewable power capacity continued
its strong growth, reaching 23 GW in January 2012, nearly 12 per cent of total
power capacity. Indias core plans for addressing climate change are outlined in
the following sections.

For mitigating Climate Change

India has adopted the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in
2008 which has both mitigation and adaptation measures. The eight National
Missions which form the core of the NAPCC represent multi-prolonged, longterm, and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in the context of climate
change. Adaptation is the focus of the NAPCC. At the same time, Missions

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on Solar Energy and Energy Efficiency are geared to mitigation. Objectives of

each mission have been discussed below:
The Eight Missions of NAPCCI.

National Solar Mission - The ultimate objective is to make solar energy

competitive with fossil-based energy options. By increasing the share of
solar energy in the total energy mix, it aims to empower people at the
grass roots level. Another aspect of this Mission is to launch an R&D
programme facilitating international co-operation to enable the creation
of affordable, more convenient solar energy systems and to promote
innovations for sustained, long-term storage and use of solar power.

II. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency - The Energy

Conservation Act of 2001 provides a legal mandate for the implementation
of energy efficiency measures through the mechanisms of the Bureau of
Energy Efficiency (BEE) in the designated agencies in the country. A
number of schemes and programmes have been initiated which aim to
save about 10,000 MW by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan in 2012.
III. National Mission on Sustainable Habitats - This Mission was launched
to make habitats sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency
in buildings, management of solid waste and a model shift to public
transport. It aims to promote energy efficiency as an integral component
of urban planning and urban renewal through its initiatives.
IV. National Water Mission - By 2050, India is likely to be water scarce.
Thus, the Mission aims at conserving water, minimizing wastage, and
ensuring more equitable distribution and management of water resources.
It also aims to optimize water use efficiency by 20% by developing a
framework of regulatory mechanisms. It calls for strategies to accommodate
fluctuations in rainfall and river flows by enhancing water storage methods,
rain water harvesting and more efficient irrigation systems like drip
irrigation.
V.

National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem - Himalayan

eco-system is vital to preserving the ecological security of India. Increase
in temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, drought and melting of
glaciers are obvious threats. The Mission calls for empowering local
communities especially Panchayats to play a greater role in managing
ecological resources. It also reaffirms the measures mentioned in the
National Environment Policy, 2006.

VI. National Mission for a Green India - Mission aims at enhancing

ecosystem services such as carbon sinks. It builds on the Prime Ministers
Green India Campaign for afforestation and increasing land area under
forest cover from 23% to 33%. It is to be implemented through Joint
Forest Management Committees under the respective State Departments
of Forests. It also strives to effectively implement the Protected Area
System under the National Biodiversity Conservation Act, 2001.
VII. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture - Mission aims to make
Indian agriculture more resilient to climate change by identifying new
varieties of crops (example: thermally resistant crops) and alternative
cropping patterns. This is to be supported by a comprehensive network of
traditional knowledge, practical systems, information technology and
biotechnology. It makes suggestions for safeguarding farmers from climate

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change like introducing new credit and insurance mechanisms and greater
access to information.

Notes

VIII.National Mission on Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change - The

aim is to work with the global community in research and technology
development by collaboration through different mechanisms. It also has
its own research agenda supported by climate change related institutions
and a Climate Research Fund. It also encourages initiatives from the
private sector for developing innovative technologies for mitigation and
adaptation.
A new central-sector scheme titled Climate Change Action Programme has
been approved during the Twelfth Five Year Plan. The objective of the scheme
is to build and support capacity at central and the state levels for assessing
climate change impacts and formulating and implementing adequate response
measures. Implementation of the SAPCCs is one of the eight approved
components of the scheme, which has been allocated Rs. 90 crore by the
Planning Commission.

Steps for Improving Energy Efficiency

The 2010 amendment to the ENERGY CONSERVATION ACT created PAT

scheme.
PAT is a scheme for trading energy-efficiency certificates in large energyintensive industries under the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency.
Identified industries are required to improve their specific energy consumption
(SEC) within the specified period of three years or face penalty provisions. At
the same time this mechanism facilitates efficient industries to trade their
additional certified energy savings (that go beyond the assigned target) with
other designated consumers who could use these certificates to comply with
their SEC-reduction targets. In the Twelfth Five Year Plan, the PAT scheme
is likely to achieve about 15 million tonnes oil equivalent of annual savings
in coal, oil, gas, and electricity (including 6.686 million ton of oil-equivalent
energy savings of first phase)
Similarly, the RPO is creating domestic markets for renewable energy through
regulatory interventions at state level. The RPO is the minimum level of
renewable energy (out of total consumption) the obligated entities (DISCOMs,
Captive Power Plants, and Open Access Consumers) are entitled to purchase
in the area of a distribution licensee. The obligation is mandated by the State
Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC). Since the renewable energy sources
are not evenly spread across India, SERCs cannot specify a linear level of
RPOs for all states. Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) under the RPO
mechanism is an instrument that enables the obligated entities to meet their
Renewable Purchase Obligation by trading surplus or deficit RECs among
themselves with the owner of the REC being able to claim to have purchased
renewable energy.

Steps for Promoting use of Renewable Energy

Giving a fillip to the countrys renewable energy programme, the new

government has taken a slew of decisions in a span of six months to boost
Clean Energy in the country.
These include providing support to Rs 1000 crore to Central Public Sector
units to set up over 1,000 MW grid connected solar photovoltaic power projects,

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setting up of 25 solar parks each with a capacity of 500 MW requiring financial

support from the centre of Rs 4050 crore and setting up of over 300 MW of
solar power projects by Defence and Para military establishments. With these
decisions,India will emerge as a major solar power producing country as nowhere
in the world are solar parks are being developed on such a large scale.
The Governmentrestored Accelerated Depreciation benefit to give muchneeded relief to wind power developers and to ensure ramp-up of production.
This will enable to kick start & ramp up wind capacity addition expeditiously.
The Governmentamicably resolved the anti-dumping duty dispute. A whole
host of measures have been undertaken to make IndiaSolar manufacturing
hubwith priority for domestic players in line with Make in India programme.
With these initiatives, domestic manufacturers will have greater visibility on
order books, have an opportunity to upgrade technologically and be able to
reduce costs.
In order to facilitate speedy growth of Renewable energy Power generation in
the country, theMinistry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is preparing
aRenewable Energy Bill.This apart, the Ministry is also preparing a scale up
plan for the development of Solar in the next five years.
On the request of MNRE, Ministry of Environment and Forests has decided
that classification of Solar, Wind and Small Hydro Projects be out of Red
Category to Green Category under Central and State Pollution Control Boards.
CPCB has issued an amendment in the categories of industries, according to
which the Wind and Solar power projects of all capacities and Small Hydro
projects of <25 MW capacity have been put in Green category, i.e. the project
developers to obtain clearance from SPCB to establish and operate only
once in the beginning.
Unnat Chulha Abhiyan Programmewith the objectives to develop and deploy
improved cook-stoves for providing cleaner cooking energy solutions in rural,
semi urban and urban areas using biomass as fuel for cooking launched. This
will save rural women from the carcinogenic fumes emitted when traditional
fuels are burned.

Steps for Making Transport Sector Climate Friendly

Transport India has taken substantial initiatives to make the transport sector
less emission intensive. One of the major initiatives has been upgradation of
vehicular emission norms such as Bharat Stage II, Bharat Stage III and Bharat
Stage IV. The commercial manufacture of battery-operated vehicles has begun
in India with a view to promoting low/ no carbon emitting vehicles. Also in
Delhi there has been a large-scale switchover from petrol and diesel to CNG,
with over 50,000 vehicles already converted. In addition to this Integrated
Transport Policy (2001) promotes the use of ethanol-blended petrol and biodiesel.
The National Urban Transport Policy emphasizes the development and usage
of extensive public transport facilities (including non-motorized modes) over
personal vehicles.

India Unveils Intended Nationally Determined

Contributions to UNFCCC
At COP 19, held in Warsaw in November 2013, Parties to the UNFCCC
decided (Decision 1/CP.19) to invite all Parties to initiate or intensify

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domesticpreparations for their intended nationally determined contributions.

Notes

The process for INDCs pairs national policy-setting in which countries

determine their contributions in the context of their national priorities,
circumstances and capabilities with a global framework that drives collective
action toward a low-carbon, climate-resilient future.
The INDCs can create a constructive feedback loop between national and
international decision-making on climate change.
INDCs are the primary means for governments to communicate internationally
the steps they will take to address climate change in their own countries.
INDCs will reflect each countrys ambition for reducing emissions, taking into
account its domestic circumstances and capabilities. Some countries may also
address how theyll adapt to climate change impacts, and what support they
need from, or will provide to, other countries to adopt low-carbon pathways
and to build climate resilience.
Indias INDC
Keeping in view its development agenda, particularly the eradication of poverty
coupled with its commitment to following the low carbon path to progress and
being sanguine about the unencumbered availability of clean technologies and
financial resource from around the world, India hereby communicates its
Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in response to COP
decisions 1/CP.19 and 1/CP.20 for the period 2021 to 2030:
1.

To put forward and further propagate a healthy and sustainable way of

living based on traditions and values of conservation and moderation.

2.

To adopt a climate friendly and a cleaner path than the one followed
hitherto by others at corresponding level of economic development.

3.

To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent by 2030

from 2005 level.

4.

To achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity

from nonfossil fuel based energy resources by 2030 with the help of
transfer of technology and low cost international finance including from
Green Climate Fund (GCF).

5.

To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2

equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.

6.

To better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in development

programmes in sectors vulnerable to climate change, particularly agriculture,
water resources, Himalayan region, coastal regions, health and disaster
management.

7.

To mobilize domestic and new & additional funds from developed

countries to implement the above mitigation and adaptation actions in
view of the resource required and the resource gap.

8.

To build capacities, create domestic framework and international

architecture for quick diffusion of cutting edge climate technology in
India and for joint collaborative R&D for such future technologies.

To achieve the above contributions, India is determined to continue with its

on-going interventions, enhance the existing policies as detailed in previous

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sections and launch new initiatives in the following priority areas:

1)

Introducing new, more efficient and cleaner technologies in thermal power

generation.

2)

Promoting renewable energy generation and increasing the share of

alternative fuels in overall fuel mix.

3)

Reducing emissions from transportation sector.

4)

Promoting energy efficiency in the economy, notably in industry,

transportation, buildings and appliances.

5)

Reducing emissions from waste.

6)

Developing climate resilient infrastructure.

7)

Full implementation of Green India Mission and other programmes of

afforestation.

8)

Planning and implementation of actions to enhance climate resilience and

reduce vulnerability to climate change.

India has also revisited the National Missions under the NAPCC in the light
of new scientific information and technological advances and identified new
missions or programs on wind energy, health, waste to energy, and coastal
areas. It is also redesigning the National Water Mission and National Mission
on Sustainable Agriculture. It is clarified that Indias INDC do not bind it to
any sector specific mitigation obligation or action, including in agriculture
sector. Indias goal is to reduce overall emission intensity and improve energy
efficiency of its economy over time and at the same time protecting the
vulnerable sectors of economy and segments of our society.
Indias INDC is fair and ambitious considering the fact that India is attempting
to work towards low carbon emission pathway while endeavoring to meet all
the developmental challenges the country faces today.
Through this submission, India intends to reduce the emissions intensity of its
GDP by 33 to 35 % by 2030 from 2005 level. This commitment is further
echoed in Indias actions in climate change adaptation with setting up its own
National Adaptation Fund.
The current policy framework also includes a favorable environment for a rapid
increase in renewable energy, move towards low carbon sustainable development
pathway and adapting to the impacts of climate change. It represents the
highest possible efforts as evident from the multiple initiatives of the
Government of India.
Accordingly, Indias development plans will continue to lay a balanced emphasis
on economic development and environment.

Second Commitment to Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, whichcommitsits Parties by setting
internationally binding emission reduction targets.
Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current
high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150

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years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed

nations under the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.

Notes

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and
entered into force on 16 February 2005. Its first commitment period started in
2008 and ended in 2012.
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto
Protocol was adopted. The amendment includes:

New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed
to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January
2013 to 31 December 2020;

A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by Parties in

the second commitment period; and

Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically

referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and which
needed to be updated for the second commitment period.

During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the European
Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent
against 1990 levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed
to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eightyear period from 2013 to 2020.
In Doha (Qatar), the following countries agreed to a further commitment period
under the Kyoto Protocol: Australia, the EU, Croatia, Iceland, Liechtenstein,
Monaco, Norway and Switzerland. Major emitters such as China, the USA,
Russia, India, Japan, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Indonesia, South Korea and South
Africa announced politically binding reduction targets to be achieved by 2020
under the Convention.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

These are the goals that will replace MDGs once they expire at the end of
2015.
Background:

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were adopted in

2000 and were to be achieved by 2015. With 2015 drawing to a close, its
time for a new set of goals.

Also, at the Rio+20 meet in 2012 to mark 20 years of the Rio Environment
Summit, world leaders had to concede that decades of environmental
activism had not achieved the set targets, leading to a consensus that a
new sustainability document was in order for the world to commit itself
to. So at Rio+20 conference, the 193 Member States of the United Nations,
following negotiations that lasted from July 2012 till last month, agreed
upon the text of a new document entitled, Transforming Our World: The
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This agenda contains 17
goals and 169 targets.

These were officially adopted at the UN Sustainable Development Summit

in New York in September 2015.

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The goals are:

End poverty in all forms;

End hunger,

Achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable

agriculture;

Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education;

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls;

Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation

for all;

Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for

all;

Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and

productive employment; build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation;

Reduce inequality within and among countries;

Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable;

Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns;

Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts;

Conserve and sustainably use the oceans,

Seas and marine resources; protect, restore and promote sustainable use
of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification,
and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss;

Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,

provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and
inclusive institutions at all levels;

Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global

partnership for sustainable development.

The goals are to be achieved by all member countries within the next fifteen
years, thereby giving it the moniker of Agenda for 2030.
Critical Aspect: Positives
a.

The document is being seen as a political document, not a technical one.

b.

Criticism that there are too many 17 goals with 169 targets makes it
a complex task to monitor, ensure reporting and hold governments
accountable, but the Rio+20 consensus was for a comprehensive
document, and this is comprehensive.

c.

But while the jury remains out on whether these are achievable and realistic,
whether the lack of clarity on monitoring and accountability makes it an
exercise in spelling out truisms and platitudes, the fact that this is a
political undertaking is important. As undertakings that civil society and
citizens can hold leaders accountable for, the goals are significant.

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d.

Also, given that this is the first time that ALL nations adopt the same set
of goals, regardless of their relative position on the development continuum,
given that emerging economies in the developing world will play significant
roles as donors in their own right even as the developing world negotiates
with the developed world to keep its commitments on Official Development
Assistance and other forms of financial structural reform, the goals are
more than just 17 desirables.

e.

The 1st SDG end poverty in all its forms everywhere. But acc. to critics
this is an over-ambitious target. The earlier target of halving extreme
poverty was achieved only because of chinas growth, not everywhere.

f.

Also, trying to alleviate poverty and achieving all the other SDGs will
require $ 2-3 trillion per annum for the next 15 years which appears to be
not feasible. AIIB and NDB have a role to play. Another criticism in words
of NITI Aayog CEO, in 12th plan there are 25 indicators which we could
not monitor properly due to lack of data, then how will we track 300+
indicators

Notes

State of Forest Report, 2013

Forest Survey of India (FSI) is an organisation under the Ministry of
Environment & Forests, Government of India Its principal mandate is to conduct
survey and assessment of forest resources in the country. The Forest Survey of
India (FSI) conducts a biennial survey of the countrys forests and compiles
SFR every two years.
The forest cover includes all lands which have a tree canopy density of 10 per
cent and above and have a minimum area of one hectare.
The total forest and tree cover of the country is 78.92 million hectare which
is 24.01 percent of the geographical area of the country.
As compared to the assessment of 2011, there is an increase of 5871 sq km
in the forest cover of the country. The majority of the increase in the forest
cover has been observed in open forest category mainly outside forest areas.
The maximum increase in forest cover has been observed in West Bengal
(3810 sq. km.) followed byOdisha(1444 sq. km.) and Kerala (622sq km).
Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover of 77,522 sq. km. in terms of area
in the country followed by Arunachal Pradesh with forest cover of 67,321 sq.
km. In terms of percentage of forest cover with respect to total geographical
area, Mizoram with 90.38 percent had the highest forest cover in terms of
percentage of forest cover to Geographical area followed by Lakshadweep with
84.56 percent.
Interestingly States from northeast like Nagaland, Arunanchal Pradesh, Tripura
and Manipur, whose forest cover comprises over 75 percent of the States area,
have shown a decrease in forest cover. The main reason for this is attributed
to the biotic pressure and shifting cultivation in the region.
FSI, for the first time, has also collected the information on various parameters
of quality of forests such as intensity of regeneration, damage to crops, presence
of weeds and grass, humus, incidents of fire and grazing. It has also come up

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with the data on contiguity of the forest patches. This, in future, would help
the government to monitor the changes in the quality of forests along with
their area and density.
However, the area and quality of forest is diminishing and the rate of forest
destruction is escalating worldwide, despite increased environmental activism
and awareness. This is due to widespread deforestation.
Important Agents Leading to Deforestation, Degradation and Fragmentation
Agents

Links to Deforestation, Degradation and

Fragmentation

slash-and-burn farmers

clear forest to grow subsistence and cash crops

commercial farmers

clear the forest to plant commercial cash crops,

sometimes displace slashand-burn farmers who then
move to the forest

cattle ranchers

clear the forest to plant pasture, sometimes displace

slash-and-burn farmers who then move to the forest

livestock herders

intensification of herding activities can lead to

deforestation

loggers

remove commercial timber, logging roads provide

access to other land users

commercial tree planters

clear mostly forest fallow or previously logged

forests to establish plantations to supply fibre to
the pulp and paper industry

firewood collectors

intensification of firewood collection can lead to

deforestation

mining and petroleum

industrialists

roads and seismic lines provide access to other

land users, localized deforestation related to their
operations

land settlement planners

relocation of people into forested areas as well as

settlement projects displacing local people who then
move to the forest

infrastructure developers

new access for other land users from road and

highway construction through forested areas,
flooding by hydroelectric dams

Recent steps taken by government

To increase forest and tree cover in the country, the Central Government has
initiated several measures. Notable among them are launching of National
Mission for a Green India and taking appropriate measures to put in place a
proper institutional mechanism for expeditious utilization of amounts realised
in lieu of forest land diverted for non-forest purpose.
The National Mission for a Green India aims at following:

Enhancing quality of forest cover and improving ecosystem services from

4.9 million hectares (mha) of predominantly forest lands, including 1.5
mha of moderately dense forest cover, 3 mha of open forest cover, 0.4
mha of degraded grass lands.

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Eco-restoration/afforestation to increase forest cover and eco system

services from 1.8 m ha forest/non forest lands, including scrub lands,
shifting cultivation areas, abandoned mining areas, ravine lands, mangroves
and sea-buckthorn areas. Enhancing tree cover in 0.2 mha Urban and PeriUrban areas (including institutional lands) Increasing forest cover and ecosystem services from Agro-forestry and Social Forestry on 3 mha of nonforest lands

Restoration of 0.1 mha of wetlands and the eco system services thereof.

Notes

The Central Government has approved National Mission for a Green India in
February 2014 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme for a total cost of Rs 13,000
Crore, having a plan outlay of Rs 2,000 crore for the 12th Five Year Plan
(FYP) with a spillover of 1 year in the 13th FYP along with Rs 400 Crores
from 13th Finance Commission Grants towards States Share. The share of
Centre : State being in the ratio 75:25 respectively for all States except NorthEastern States and Jammu & Kashmir for which it will be in the ratio of
90:10. The approval also spells out convergence with MGNREGA for Rs.4000
crore, CAMPA for Rs. 6000 crore and National Afforestation Programme for
Rs.600 crore. Budget allocation for the Mission in the current financial year is
Rs.64.00 crore.
The Central Government is also providing assistance to States Governments
and Union territory Administrations under a Centrally Sponsored Scheme
National Afforestation Programme (NAP) for regeneration of degraded forests
and adjoining areas through peoples participation. The scheme is being
implemented through a decentralized mechanism of State Forest Development
Agency (SFDA) at State level, Forest Development Agency (FDA) at Forest
Division level and Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) at village
level. The Budget allocation for the current financial year under NAP is Rs.
100 crore.

Compensatory Afforestation Bill

Compensatory afforestation is a concept in India since 1980s. Acc. to it, if a
development project seeks land inside a protected area then govt. will impose
levies on project proponent. This money will be used to plant trees to
compensate for forest loss.
In May 2015, environment ministry introduced this bill in Lok Sabha as of oct
2015, its pending there.
Key provisions of the bill :
a.

Creation of Compensatory Afforestation Funds: The Bill seeks to establish

a permanent National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the public
account of India. It also allows states to establish State Compensatory
Afforestation Funds. The National Fund will be under the central
government, and managed by a National Compensatory Afforestation
Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA). The central
government will appoint a State CAMPA in each state. The State CAMPA
will be responsible for the management of the State Fund.

b.

Sources of funds:At present, an ad hoc National CAMPA and ad hoc

State CAMPAs, established by government orders, receive money collected

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for compensatory afforestation. Once the National Fund is created, money

collected by state governments which has been placed with the existing
National CAMPA will be transferred to the National Fund. Other sources
of funds for the National Fund will be: (i) 10% of the funds collected for
compensatory afforestation by states each year; and (ii) grants-in-aid/other
sums received by, and loans/borrowings taken by the National CAMPA.
c.

Utilisation of funds:The money in the National Fund will be used to

meet expenditure for the management of the National CAMPA, and on
schemes approved by the National CAMPA.

d.

Composition and functions of Authorities:The National CAMPA will

consist of a governing body, an executive committee, and a monitoring
group, in addition to an administrative support mechanism. The governing
body will be responsible for formulating the broad policy framework for
the functioning of the National CAMPA. The executive committee will
be responsible for the approval of annual plans of State CAMPAs and the
formulation and implementation of schemes approved by the governing
body. The monitoring group will be responsible for the monitoring and
evaluation of works implemented by states and fund utilization by the
CAMPAs. The State CAMPA will consist of a governing body, a steering
committee, and an executive committee.

Criticism of the bill

a.

It allows development projects inside a protected area which leads to its

fragmentation. This is a major threat to biodiversity (animals need long
stretches to roam).

b.

Forests are not only woods, rather a system of biodiversity which cant be
recreated easily. Acc. to study by forest survey of India, artificial
regeneration in Karnataka and Maharashtra has failed.

c.

Also various states have argued that they dont have land for planting new
forests, thats why Funds raised have been used for the purchasing forest
department vehicles or repairing buildings. Compensatory afforestation is
Done alongside railway tracks/highways where survival rates is poor.

Way forward

Avoid compensatory afforestation by ensuring that forests are not depleted

at first place.

If still done then use this money for Consolidating/preserving the remaining
large blocks of natural old-growth forests. Work for natural restoration of
degraded forests instead of artificial i.e. identify degraded forests with
existent root stock and restore by protection measures such as fencing;
Do artificial regeneration only when there is no existing root stock.

Sustainable Land Management

Land degradation is the consequence of multiple processes that both directly
and indirectly reduce the utility of land. Defined by the FAO as a process
which lowers the current and/or potential capability of soil to produce goods and
services, land degradation is a composite term. The extent and type of problems
experienced depends upon scale and nature of external pressures combined with the

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sensitivity and resilience of the land itself determined by on soil character and
management. The impacts of degradation processes will depend upon how the
land interacts with the surrounding air and water resources, as well as human
settlement and land use needs. Land degradation can be limited, reversed and
avoided through the appropriate management of land. It is, therefore, highly varied in
its nature and consequent impacts.

Notes

There are two types of land degradation:

Physical Degradation: water logging, soil crusting, compaction,

desertification, etc.

Chemical Degradation: salinization, solidification, acidification, nutrient

removal, decrease of organic matter.

Land is a vital resource enabling the production of food, the preservation of

biodiversity, facilitating the natural management of water systems and acting
as a carbon store. Appropriate management can protect and maximise the
services land provides to society.
Hence the need for sustainable land management came up to meet the growing
need of growth and development in the society.
SLM can be defined as the use of land resources, including soils, water,
animals and plants, for the production of goods to meet changing human
needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of
these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions
Sustainable Land Management (SLM) is crucial to minimizing land degradation,
rehabilitating degraded areas and ensuring the optimal use of land resources
for the benefit of present and future generations.
SLM is based on four common principles:

land-user-driven and participatory approaches;

integrated use of natural resources at ecosystem and farming systems

levels;

multilevel and multi-stakeholder involvement; and

targeted policy and institutional support, including development of

incentive mechanisms for SLM adoption and income generation at the
local level.

SLM encompasses other established approaches such as soil and water

conservation, natural resources management,integrated ecosystem
managementand involves an holistic approach to achieving productive and
healthy ecosystems by integrating social, economic, physical and biological
needs and values. It contributes to sustainable and rural development and
requires great attention in national, subnational and community level
programmes and investments.
Some of the methods for sustainable management of land are:

Management on overgrazing: Management practices like water

development, placement of salt and supplements, fertilizer application,
fencing, burning can control the overgrazing.

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Managing irrigation: Irrigation system can be controlled like drip irrigation

to reduce soil erosion. Using high and low salt water was most effective
in maintaining the productive capacity of the clay soil.

Managing urban sprawl: The urban planning is the most important factor,
to control the urban sprawl. Fertile field near by the urbane area need to
be protected by the local government rules. There should be a proper
waste management system dumping of these waste generated as part of
urban sprawling will degrade the land, can cause soil salinity, acidity and
loss of it vegetative properties.

Managing mining and quarrying: The impact can be reduced by proper

management of mining process, using advanced technologies rather than
conventional methods. After mining by proper back filling, spreading the
soil back over the top, the land can be reclaimed.

Managing agricultural intensification: Agricultural intensification need to

be managed properly to reduce the environmental effect. This can be done
through education of the farmers.

Steps taken by Government to balance Forest

Conservation and Development
Human, by nature is progressive and ever-since he witnessed the industrial
revolution in the Seventeenth Century, he never looked back. This is the prime
reason for which mankind has marched forward in a long journey towards
economic development and prosperity. To have an uninterrupted growth of the
countrys GNP, man has applied Science and Technology to augment production,
expand employment opportunities for the rising population and increase the
productivity of the factor inputs. For this, basic and heavy industries were
created, hydel projects were established, irrigation system were developed,
roads and railways, ports & harbors were constructed, canals were dug, mines
were excavated and power projects were opened in suitable areas. However,
the infrastructure projects though increases productivity and production to a
great extent, are not unmixed blessings. They give rise to environmental
degradation.
Recently the Government has taken following steps to create a balance between
development and conservation of flora and fauna of the country.
a)

Transparency ensured by starting online submission of application for

Environment and Forest Clearances successfully

As a major step to ensure that the proposals seeking grant of forest clearance
are processed in time-bound and transparent manner, a web portal for online
filing and monitoring the forest clearance proposal applications has been
launched. The portal will minimize the need for human interface between
project proponents and officials dealing with Forest Clearance proposals in the
Central and the State Governments.
b)

Border roadsand all defence infrastructures within 100 kms of Line of

Actual Control brought under General Approval scheme.

To expedite creation of requisite infrastructure along Line of Actual Control

(LAC) the MoEF accorded general approval under the Forest (Conservation)

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Act, 1980 for diversion of forest land required for construction in the area
falling within 100 kilometers aerial distance. It can also include strategic defence
infrastructure related activities such as Army Stations, Ammunition Depots,
Training Centres and other support infrastructure, such as schools, hospitals,
residential quartersetc.
c)

Notes

ForestClearances for roads in Left Wing Extremism areas brought under

General Approval scheme.

To expedite creation of road infrastructure in the Left Wing Extremism (LWE)

Affected districts to facilitate the Security Forces to effectively combat Left
Wing Extremism, the Ministry has extended general approval under the Forest
(Conservation) Act, 1980 for diversion of forest lands for construction of all
categories of public roads, except those falling in the Protected areas,irrespective
of the area of forest land involved,by Government Departments in 117 LWE
affected districts. Further, relaxation of general approval under the FC Act has
been extended from for diversion of forest land from the present 1 hectare to
5 hectares for execution of public utility projects of 15 specified categories by
Government Departments in Left Wing Extremism (LWE) affected districts.
d)

Process of granting permission for forest diversion upto 40 hectares for

developmental projects decentralized.

The Ministry has decided to delegate powers to the Regional Empowered

Committees (REC) to be constituted at each Regional Office of the Ministry
to finally dispose of all forest clearance proposals seeking diversion of forest
land upto 40 hecatres, except the proposals relating to mining, regularization
of encroachments and Hydel Projects. More than 90% of proposals seeking
forest clearance will now be finally disposed off by the Regional Office. Mere
10% of the proposals for forest clearance will come to the Ministry for decision.
e)

Process of granting permission for forest diversion for all linear projects
like Road, Rail, Canals, Transmission and Pipelines decentralized.

To expedite grant of forest clearance to linear projects like Road, Rail, Canal,
Transmission Lines and Pipelines, most of which are of public utility nature,
the Ministry has decided to delegate powers to grant forest clearance to such
projects irrespective of the area of forest land involved to the Regional
Empowered Committee being constituted at each Regional Office of the
Ministry.
f)

Decentralization of powers to State Level Environment Impact

Assessment Authorities (SEIAAs) for granting Environment Clearance

More powers have been delegated to SEIAAs to grant EC to various projects.

Earlier, the projects in Category B were being appraised as Category A at
MoEF level if they were located within 10 km. of Protected Areas, Critically
Polluted Areas, Eco Sensitive Areas, and Inter-state / International boundaries.
Now, this distance has been reduced to 5 km. subject to stipulations stated in
the aforesaid notification, implying thereby that more projects can now be
considered by SEIAAs for granting ECs.
Hence the above stated steps can lead to development.
The Centre, in its guidelines, stated that development and conservation should
go hand in hand. Awareness, however, among the people is bound to come
from within, provided other necessities such as food, clothing, education, health,
and communication are satisfied. The Centre is committed to expedite its

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efforts for development activities in forest areas, covering the tribal people and
others living in the forest.
The Centre is ready to tackle the problems of sensitive areas on the socioeconomic front. It is set to facilitate special execution of essential development
activities. But, the Government wants to ensure a balance between economic
and development considerations on one hand and ecological considerations on
the other. It is imperative that for creation of these facilities in forest and its
fringe areas, most of the land requirement will have to be met from forest land.
The general approval of the Centre is bound by certain conditions. Forest land
diverted for specific development works should be less than one hectare in
each case and clearance from the Centre is subject to the condition that it is
need based. The legal status of the land will remain unchanged. The user
agency should submit the project report to the State Government in the
prescribed format - Form A as provided in Rule 6 of the Forest (Conservation)
Rules, 2003. The user agency should not fell more than 50 trees per hectare.
Importantly, the project should be outside the national parks or wildlife
sanctuaries or protected areas.

Heavy Metal Pollution and its Impact

The term heavy metals refers to any metallic element that has a relatively
high density and is toxic or poisonous even at low concentration. Heavy metals
occur as natural constituents of the earth crust, and are persistent environmental
contaminants since they cannot be degraded or destroyed. To a small extent,
they enter the body system through food, air, and water and bio-accumulate
over a period of time. In rocks, they exist as their ores in different chemical
forms, from which they are recovered as minerals. Heavy metal ores include
sulphides, such as iron, arsenic, lead, lead-zinc, cobalt, gold silver and nickel
sulphides; oxides such as aluminium, manganese, gold, selenium and antimony.
Toxicity due to few heavy metals has been discussed below:

Arsenic

In nature As and its compounds exhibit both metallic and non-metallic properties
and can be found almost everywhere. Humans are exposed to arsenic primarily
from air, food and water. Arsenic (As) is introduced into soil and groundwater
during weathering of rocks and minerals followed by subsequent leaching and
runoff. It can also be introduced into soil and groundwater from anthropogenic
sources.
The major regions affected are in the river basin of the Ganga, Brahmaputra
and Meghna in India and Bangladesh with an estimated 25 million people in
Bangladesh and 6 million people in West Bengal, India exposed to arsenic
contaminated ground water
Arsenic groundwater contamination has far-reaching consequences including
its ingestion through food chain, which are in the form of social disorders,
health hazards and socioeconomic dissolution besides its sprawling with
movement, and exploitation of groundwater. The food crops grown using arsenic
contaminated water are sold off to other places, including uncontaminated
regions where the inhabitants may consume arsenic from the contaminated
food. Arsenic tends to accumulate in keratin- rich tissues like nails, hair and

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skin. Inorganic arsenic is converted to organic arsenic (biomethylation to

monomethyl arsenic- MMA or DMA) in the liver.

Notes

Technological options to combat arsenic menace, in groundwater, to ensure

supply of arsenic free water, in the affected areas, can be one of the followings
or a combination of all: i) In-situ remediation of arsenic from aquifer system,
ii) Ex-situ remediation of arsenic from tapped groundwater by arsenic removal
technologies, iii) Use of surface water source as an alternative to the
contaminated groundwater source, iv) Tapping alternate safe aquifers for supply
of arsenic free groundwater.

Mercury (Hg)

Methyl mercury enters the human diet through fish; the highest accumulation
of methyl mercury is found in predatory fish at the top of the aquatic foodchain. Microorganisms can also contribute to the release of Hg into the
environment.
Man-made sources of Mg are many and wide-spread. Mercury is also produced
in the mining and smelting of cinnabar ore. Mercury is used in industries
which produce Cl2 and NaOH, paints, electrical equipment, batteries, measuring
and control equipments, vacuum apparatuses, chemicals, lamps, explosives,
tooth-fillings and fungicides. Mercury is also released by the burning of fossiI
fuels, smelting, cement manufacture and waste disposal.
Exposure to mercury, even in small amounts, is a great danger to humans and
wildlife.
When mercury enters the body it acts as a neurotoxin, which means it harms
our brain and nervous system. Mercury exposure is especially dangerous to
pregnant women and young children, but all adults are at risk for serious
medical problems.
The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human
health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury. The major
highlights of the Minamata Convention on Mercury include a ban on new
mercury mines, the phase-out of existing ones, control measures on air emissions,
and the international regulation of the informal sector for artisanal and smallscale gold mining.
The Convention draws attention to a global and ubiquitous metal that, while
naturally occurring, has broad uses in everyday objects and is released to the
atmosphere, soil and water from a variety of sources. Controlling the
anthropogenic releases of mercury throughout its lifecycle has been a key
factor in shaping the obligations under the convention.

Lead

Lead is a highly toxic substance, exposure to which can produce a wide range
of adverse health effects. Both adults and children can suffer from the effects
of lead poisoning, but childhood lead poisoning is much more frequent.
There are many ways in which humans are exposed to lead: through deteriorating
paint, household dust, bare soil, air, drinking water, food, ceramics, home
remedies, hair dyes and other cosmetics. Lead is also found in pewter pitchers,
dinnerware, toys, storage batteries, and hobbies involving soldering such as
stained glass, jewelry making, pottery glazing, paint sets and art supplies, and
miniature lead figures.

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Children under the age of six, especially unborn babies, are most susceptible
to lead poisoning because their brains and central nervous systems are still
developing. Childhood lead poisoning causes reduced intelligent quotient (IQ),
learning disabilities, attention deficit disorders, behavioral problems, stunted
growth, hearing problems, anemia, kidney damage, and stomach pain. High
levels can cause mental retardation, coma, and death. Exposed adults may
suffer high blood pressure, fertility problems, nerve disorders, muscle and joint
pain, irritability, and memory or concentration problems. Most adults with
lead poisoning are exposed through occupations such as house painting, welding,
renovation and remodeling activities, smelters, firing ranges, the manufacture
and disposal of car batteries, and the maintenance and repair of bridges and
water towers.

Cadmium

Cadmium is an extremely toxic metal commonly found in industrial workplaces.

Due to its low permissible exposure limit, overexposures may occur even in
situations where trace quantities of cadmium are found. Cadmium is used
extensively in electroplating, although the nature of the operation does not
generally lead to overexposures. Cadmium is also found in some industrial
paints and may represent a hazard when sprayed. Operations involving removal
of cadmium paints by scraping or blasting may pose a significant hazard.
Cadmium is also present in the manufacturing of some types of batteries.
Tobacco smoke is an important source of cadmium exposure. It is transported
in blood, bound to metallothionin. Urinary excretion is slow, Biological half
life can be up to 30 years. Highest concentration is found in kidney and liver.
The disease Itai itai is caused by cadmium contamination associated with a
diet low in calcium and vitamin D. Cadmium affects lungs, kidneys, liver and
skeletal system. It binds to sulfhydryl groups, displacing other metals from
metalloenzymes, disrupting those enzymes. Cadmium competes with calcium
for binding sites on regulatory proteins. Lipid peroxidation has been
demonstrated. Cadmium has been classified as a suspected human carcinogen
The bones become soft (osteomalacia), lose bone mineral density (osteoporosis)
and become weaker. This causes the pain in the joints and the back, and also
increases the risk of fractures. In extreme cases of cadmium poisoning, mere
body weight causes a fracture.
The kidneys lose their function to remove acids from the blood in proximal
renal tubular dysfunction. The kidney damage inflicted by cadmium poisoning
is irreversible. The proximal renal tubular dysfunction creates low phosphate
levels in the blood (hypophosphatemia), causing muscle weakness and
sometimes coma. The dysfunction also causes gout, a form of arthritis due to
the accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints because of high acidity of
the blood (hyperuricemia). Another side effect is increased levels of chloride
in the blood (hyperchloremia). The kidneys can also shrink up to 30%. Cadmium
exposure is also associated with the development of kidney stones. Other
patients lose their sense of smell (anosmia).

Radioactive Pollution and Machinery for

Handling Nuclear Waste
Radioactive pollution is the release of radioactive material into the environment.

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Anthropogenic Sources of Radiation includes:

Notes

This includes mining and refining of plutonium and thorium production and
explosion of nuclear weapons, nuclear power plants, nuclear fuels and
preparation of radioactive isotopes.
Production of nuclear weapons involves the tests of nuclear arms. These tests
produce large amount of radioactive elements into the environment and make
other materials also radioactive. They include strontium 90, cesium 137, iodine
131 and some others.
The radioactive materials are transformed into gases and fine particles which
are carried to distant places by wind. When rain drops, the radioactive particles
fall on the ground, it is called nuclear fallout. From the soil radioactive
substances are taken by plants, thence they reach humans and animals through
food chains. Iodine 131 damages white blood corpuscles, bone marrow, spleen,
lymph nodes, skin cancer, sterility and defective eye sight and may cause lung
tumours. Strontium 90 accumulates in the bones and may cause bone cancer
and tissue degeneration in most animals and man.
The radioactive materials are washed from land to water bodies where the
aquatic organisms absorb them. From these organisms radioactive materials
may reach man through food chains.
The operation of a nuclear power plant releases large amounts of energy.The
biggest problem is the disposal of these radioactive wastes. If these wastes are
not properly disposed off, can harm the living organisms wherever they may
be dumped. Inert gases and halogens escape as vapours and cause pollution as
they settle on land or reach surface waters with rain.
Many radioactive isotopes such as14C.125I,32P and their compounds are used
in scientific research. Waste waters containing these radioactive materials reach
water sources like rivers through the sewers. From water they enter human
body through food chains.
Harmful Effects of Radioactive Pollution

The effects vary from organism to organism and from level of radioactivity
of nuclear isotopes. The radiations destroy the cells in human body and
causes cancer.

A longer exposure to radioactive radiations can damage the DNA cells

that results in cancer, genetic defects for the generations to come and even
death.

Kills foetus in the womb

Affects animals, some species preferentially accumulate specific radioactive

materials- oysters deposit Zn-65, fish Fe-55, marine animals Sr-90.

Machinery for Handling Nuclear Waste

Central Government established the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

(AERB) to carry out certain regulatory and safety functions.

The constitution of AERB together with the Atomic Energy (Radiation

Protection) Rules, 2004, has mandated AERB to develop and issue safety

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codes and standards and to develop safety policies in radiation and industrial
safety areas.

The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) deals with certification

and disposal of radioactive material, but does not monitor if the disposal
rules are being followed.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, responsible for checks against

contamination of such hazardous elements like lead and mercury, oversees
the Hazardous Waste (management, handling and trans-boundary
movement) Rules.

But there is no mention of radioactive waste in either the Bio Medical

Waste Rule 1998 or Hazardous Waste Rules. Although the Bio Medical
Waste Rules 1998 list a number of hospital-generated wastes but the rules
do not include radioactive waste. The Hazardous Wastes Rules include
management, handling and trans-boundary movement of mining waste,
heavy metals, metal ash from photographic film, plastic waste, etc.

Although the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC) is authorized

to check for contamination and spills of all kinds of hazardous waste, it
has no mandate to investigate radioactive waste or material. This means
there is no agency to take complete responsibility for any radioactive
material found at a scrap market in India.

The government must take steps to include radioactive waste in concerned

environmental and municipal laws. And above all, better coordination
among concerned government organizations is critical to prevention and
effective management of radioactive waste.

Sustainable Development - An Essay

Context Theme of this Years world environment day is Seven Billion
Dreams, One Planet. Consume with care
1.

Is very apt as it reminds us of responsible consumerism which is a prerequisite to ensure sustainable development.

2.

The concept of sustainable development was emphasized by the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1987.
SD means that Development which meets the need of the present
generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to
meet their own needs.

3.

But at present we are witnessing unsustainable development

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a.

Less than 3% of the worlds water is drinkable, of which 2.5% is

frozen. Water is being polluted faster than nature can recycle and
purify. More than 1 billion people do not have access to fresh water.
Excessive use/wastage of water is leading to global water stress.

b.

Energy consumption has grown most rapidly in transport sector,

followed by commercial and residential use. The cost of renewable
energy is becoming increasingly competitive, with that being derived
from fossil fuels. We can therefore, shift our consumption patterns
with lower energy and material intensity, without compromising on
the quality of life.

Notes

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c.

4.

5.

Food sector, due to environmental impact in its production phase,

accounts for around 30% of the worlds total energy consumption
and around 22% of total greenhouse gas emissions. 1.3 billion tonnes
of food is wasted every year, while almost 1 billion people go
undernourished and another 1 billion, hungry. Over-consumption
of food is detrimental to our health, as well as to the environment.
Dietary choices and habits, therefore, affect environment.

Notes

Reasons for it
a.

Population: Rising population which is poised to stabilized at 9.6

billion, in India, 2.4% of landmass is supporting 17.5% of global
population

b.

Poverty : huge % population in poverty and thus due to lack of

secure livelihoods they undertake activities which leads to
environmental degradation.

c.

Culturei.e. Business as usual attitude, Rising greed excessive

Consumerism and Capitalism.

d.

To ensure sustainable development efforts are going on at

international level since 1972 in the form of various conferences,
UNFCCCs and CBD negotiation, MDGs which are to be replaced
by SDGs But all these havent yielded much effort (e.g. target of
CBD of halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010) was missed due to
Lack of consensus among countries and Lack of sufficient transfer
of fund and technologies from the developed to developing countries.
(Acc. to critics, achieving SDGs require $2-3 billion per year for next
15 years)

e.

The challenge of production and consumption of environment friendly

goods in India is huge. This would entail use of raw materials which
are organic, locally produced or environment-friendly; and greenenergy based technology. Though there are indications that impressive
changes are taking place, the outlined factors are yet to be embedded
fully with the production processes in India. These create two main
challenges: firstly, the problem of availability and acquisition of
green raw material and technology, which is a critical challenge for
the producers in developing countries such as India, given the lower
level of research and development (R&D) and issues arising from
transfer of technology from other nations. Second, and a more
important challenge is the high cost of production of green goods,
since the inputs (raw material and technology) invariably cost higher
than the ones used for non-green variants.

Why it should be stopped/consequences why to aim for sustainable

development
a.

It affects the Economic, environmental and physical health

b.

We have a moral obligation to hand over the planet earth in good

order to the future generation

a.

Many of the Earths ecosystems are nearing critical tipping points

of depletion, or irreversible change.

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b.

6.

By the year 2050, with an expected population of 9.6 billion and

current production and consumption we will need 3 planets to sustain
ourselves

What the solution? strategies for sustainable development

a.

As a consumer - Theme this year, Seven Billion Dreams.One Planet.

Consume with Care is very relevant, as it reminds us consumers
have an equal responsibility in protecting the environment. We should
alter our consumption patterns in a manner that we do more and
better with less resources

b.

We should remember this Gandhis dictum that Earth provides

enough to satisfy every mans needs, but not for every mans greed.
So we should ask ourselves some difficult questions like
i.

Do I need everything I own?

ii.

What are my real needs?

iii. Am I aware of what I eat, how it is produced and how far it has
travelled?

7.

iv.

What are the social and environmental impacts of my lifestyle?

v.

How do I commute daily?

c.

imposing green tax on a product that damages the environment, in

an attempt to reduce its production or consumption,

d.

We have agreed on SDGs but will be achieved only when funds and
technology are transferred, have consensus on key goals

e.

Local Agenda 21 or LA21 Chapter 28 of the Rio-92 document

talks of implementing the agenda 21 (action plan for sustainable
development) at local level

Indian scenario steps taken by us

a.

India has had a long cultural tradition of frugality and simple living
in harmony with nature; also enshrined in directive principle

b.

In this background, govt has taken various steps like

c.

i.

being a Signatory to some 90+ Multilaterals Environmental

Agreements such as the Ramsar Convention, CITES Convention,
CBD, UNFCC;

ii.

Formulating NAPCC comprising 8 missions

And recently a major thrust has been given by the present govt in the
form of
i.

policy on Zero defect, Zero Effect under make in india;

ii.

program on 100 Smart cities;

iii. Increased emphasis on renewable energy we have set an ambitious

target of 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022.

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iv.

the campaign on Swachh Bharat;

v.

mission on Namami Gange are very apt and relevant.

Notes

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8.

Concluding remark
a.

India, like other developing and emerging economies, has a

tremendous advantage of knowledge about the adverse impact of
earlier development paradigms and a vast array of new technologies.
Significant reductions in environmental pressures can be achieved by
appropriate private and public consumption patterns, to supplement
gains achieved through better technology and improved production
processes.

b.

As we celebrate the 2015 World Environment Day, let us pledge to

make at least one change in our lives towards a more responsible
resource consumption behaviour or practice.

Notes

Pollution Due to Idol Immersion

Idols are constructed by plaster of paris, clay, cloths, small iron rods, bamboo
and decorated with different paints such as varnish, water colors etc. which can
lead to significant alteration in the water quality after immersion. Paints which
are used to colour these idols contains various heavy metals such as Mercury,
Cadmium, Arsenic, Zinc, Chromium and Lead .Particularly, red, blue, orange
and green colours contain mercury, zinc oxide, chromium and lead, which are
potent carcinogens. Two heavy metals such as Lead and Chromium also add
in the water bodies through Sindoor (a traditional red colored cosmetic powder,
usually worn by married women and often used in the festivals). The floating
materials released through idol in the river and lake after decomposition result
in eutrophication, increase in acidity and heavy metal concentration. Heavy
metal pollution caused by idol immersion can damage the ecosystem as it kills
fishes, damages plants, blocks the natural flow of the water, causing stagnation.
The effects of idol immersion on variouswater bodies of India like Bhoj wetland,
Budhabalanga river, Ganges river, Hussainsagar lake, Kolarriver, Sarayu river,
Tapi river, Chhatri lake, north and west lakes of Bangalore and Yamuna river
have been observed so far.
A study by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)-Impacts of Dussehra
Festival on the River Hooghly: A case study-showed that every year at least
15,000 idols of Goddess Durga are immersed in the Hooghly river alone. The
study states that this releases 16.8 tonnes of varnish and garjan oil and 32
tonnes of colours in the water. These colours contain a good doze of heavy
metals like manganese, lead, mercury and chromium. The study also found
that during Dusshera, oil and grease in the river increased by 0.99 milligram
per litre (mg/l) and the concentration of heavy metals increased by 0.104 mg/
l.
According to CPCB, general guideline for idol immersion mentioned below.

Idols should be made from natural materials as described in the holy

scripts. Use oftraditional clay for idol making rather than baked clay,
plaster of paris, etc. may beencouraged, allowed and promoted.

Painting of Idols should be discouraged. In case idols are to be painted,

water solubleand nontoxic natural dyes should be used. Use of toxic and
nonbiodegradablechemical dyes for painting idols should be strictly
prohibited.

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Worship material like flowers, vastras (clothes), decorating material (made

of paper and plastic) etc. should be removed before immersion of idols.
Biodegradable materials should be collected separately for recycling or
composting. Non biodegradable materials should be collected separately
for disposal in sanitarylandfills. Clothes may be sent to local orphan
house(s).

Public should be educated on ill effects of immersion in the holy water

bodies through mass awareness programme.

The "Idol Immersion Points" shall be cordoned and barricaded. Synthetic

liner may be placed in the bottom, well in advance. The said liner shall
be removed on completion of immersion ceremony so that remains of
idols would be brought to the bank. Bamboo and wooden logs, if any
would be reused. Clay, etc may be taken to sanitary land fill for disposal.

In Pune, the municipal corporation has successfully convinced people not to

immerse the 'nirmalya' into the water. Instead, they have installed large bins
shaped as traditional pots or 'kalashes' to recieve this nirmalya. While this is
a good first step, the appropriate management of the nirmalya is still crucial
considering the volumes that are collected every year.
These guidelines if followed and acted upon can help in bringing tremendous
change in the water quality of water bodies post idol immersion. Debris flowing
through in water bodies can be collected and treated with technical measures
that can prevent the further deterioration of the river during immersion period

Green Highways (Plantation, Transplantation,

Beautification & Maintenance) Policy
For Highway projects to be environmentally sustainable, it is necessary that the
natural resources lost in the process of Highway construction are restored in
one way or the other. This requires that ecological needs are taken into
consideration from the stage of project planning and designing to its execution.
The Highways developed as green corridors not only sustain biodiversity and
regenerate natural habitat but also benefit all stakeholders, from road users to
local communities and spur eco-friendly economic growth and development.
The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways has framed Green Highways
(Plantation, Transplantation, Beautification & Maintenance) Policy-2015.
The vision is to develop eco-friendly National Highways with participation of
the community, farmers, NGOs, private sector, institutions, government agencies
and the Forest Department.
India has a total 46.99 lakh kms of road length and out of which over 96214
kms are National Highways, accounting 2% of total road length. The Highways
carry about 40% of the traffic load. The Ministry has decided to develop all
of existing National Highways and 40,000 kms of additional roads in the next
few years as Green Highways.
The objective is to reduce the impacts of air pollution and dust as trees and
shrubs along the Highways act as natural sink for air pollutants and arrest soil
erosion at the embankment slopes. Plants along highway median strips and
along the edges reduce the glare of oncoming vehicles which sometimes become
cause of accidents. The community involvement in tree plantation directly
benefits local people by generating employment. The Panchayats, NGOs and

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Notes

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other Self Help Groups (SHGs) will be involved in the process of planting and
maintenance. The plant species selected will be region specific depending on
local conditions such as rainfall, climate type of soil etc. For example at some
places soil conditions may suit for plantation of Jamun or mango trees while
at other places plants and grasses can be grown to derive biomass. Wherever
possible, transplantation of existing trees will be given preference while widening
the roads.

Notes

The policy aims at changing the whole process for the avenue plantation and
landscape improvement. Earlier, the land needed for these activities was not
considered during the Detailed Project report (DPR) stage. Now the new policy
has recommended that the requirement of land for tree plantation should be
included in the Land Acquisition Plans prepared by the DPR consultants. This
move will help in pre-planning of the plantation activities and the space required
for the same, so that there is a systematic plan before the construction of
National Highways. One percent of the civil cost of the road projects will be
for developing green corridors.
In the new policy, the provisions about the responsibilities attached have also
been clearly defined. Now it will be the responsibility of the planting agency
to ensure that the condition of the site is good enough for the successful
establishment of grasses. The planting agency is required to supervise all field
operations like preparation of surface, sowing of seeds or saplings and quality
of planting material used.
The monitoring of the plantation status has been included as an integral part
of the policy. The MonitoringAgency will monitor progress of planting and
status of plantations on continuous basis. This agency shall carry out the site
visit for field verification in respect of survival, growth and size of plantation
and maintenance of the same. The monitoring Agency will conduct performance
audit of executing agencies for various projects on an Annual basis and
award of new contracts to the agencies will be decided based on their past
performance.
The plantations and its maintenance may be taken up through outsourcing
following bidding process as per standard protocol of procurement of Ministry
of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) and its agencies for the stretch/
ROW not declared as protected forest under Forest Conservation (Act) 1980.
The MoRTH/NHAI will appoint the authorised agency for empanelment of
Plantation Agencies. Only empaneled agencies will be allowed to bid for planting
work on the National Highways.
The new policy has given a new insight to the process of development. It gives
answer to the question whether the development process is putting our
environment and natural resources into danger. Such initiatives taken by the
Government indicate that the process of development is not exclusive of
environment protection. The development can be sustainable when systematic
and conscious decisions are taken.
The policy when implemented in letter and spirit will result into India being
a "Nation with Natural Highways". It will address the issues that lie in the
"road of development" and pave "a journey towards sustainable development".
It is the onus of the communities involved in the path of development that
they also participate in the process of protection of nature. The Government
can frame policies, provide standards, but success of projects depends on
strong monitoring which is not possible without active community participation
and community ownership.

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