Group 1

Diana Janica S. Magalong

Joyce C. Soriano
Anallene B. Viray
Reynaldo C. Collado Jr.
Arianne F. Molina
Daren V. Perez

C
E
V

S
R
O
T

Vectors Defined
Quantities
which
possess both magnitude
and direction which can
t
n
i
e
o
d
u
p
t
l
i
be represented
by
arrows.
n
a
in
Mag
m
r
Te
Some examples are tiforce
n
o
c
e
r
i
D
and velocity.
t
n
i
o
p
l
a
i
Init

Read as Vect
u

N
I

S
N
O
S
I
R
T
A
O
R
T
E
C
P
E
O V

I. Addition

The resultant of u+v

of two vectors u and v
is obtained by the so
called parallelogram
law, i.e., u+v is the
diagonal
of
the
parallelogram formed

u+v is illustrated as follows:

u

v
u

u+

In adding two vectors such as u and v

graphically, place the initial point of v to
the terminal point of u. Then, we can get
u+v by connecting the initial point of u
to the terminal point of v.

i. Scalar Multiplication

The product k u
vector u by a
number
k
obtained
multiplying
magnitude of u
and retaining

of a
real
is
by
the
by k
the

Suppose:

If k=2, then 2u is
2u

If k= -2, then -2u is

2u

T
C
E
V

S
R
O

N
I

The set of all n-tuples

of
real
numbers,
denoted by Rn is called
n-space. A particular ntuple in R, is called a
point or vector.

Vect
or u

u= (uComponents/
1 , u 2 , , u n )
Coordinates of
vector u

Two vectors u and v are

equal, written u=v, if they
have the same number of
components, belong to the
same
space,
and
if
corresponding components
are equal.

Suppose ( x - y, x + y, z
- 1) = (4,2,3). Then, by
definition of equality of
vectors,
x+y=4
x+y=2
z 1 =3
Thus, x = 3, y = -1 ,

Column Vectors
0
1

1
-3

1
7
-8

1.
2
35
28

n
o

d
n
a

i
t
i
d
n
r
d
o
a
i
l
A
t
a
r
a
c
c
o
i
S
t
l
c
p
i
e
t
V
l
u
M

Let u and v be vectors in

R n:

u= (u 1, u 2, , u n) and v= (v 1, v 2, ,

v n)
Then the sum of u and v, u
+ v , is the vector obtained
by adding corresponding
components.
u + v = (u 1 + v 1, u 2 + v 2, , u n + v n)

The
product
of
the
vector u by a real number
k, written ku, is the vector
obtained by multiplying
each component of u by k.
ku = (ku 1, ku 2, , ku n)

e
h
t
r
f
o
o ct
s
e
r
e
V
i
a
t
l
r
r
a
e
e
c
d
p
S
:
n
o
n
r
u
d
P Rn an tio
c s
i
a
n
s
c
r
i
o
a
l
o
i
B ct it tip
d
e
l
V Ad u
M

Theorem 2.1:
For any vectors u, v, w
Rn and any scalars k, k
(i) k(u+v) =
R
+ kv
(i)(u+v) + w = u + ku
(v+w)
(ii) u + 0 = u
(ii) (k+k)u =
(iii) u + (-u) = 0
ku + ku
(iv) u + v = v + u

(iii) (kk)u =

r
a
e
n

i
L
d
s
n
n
a io
s
t
r
a
o
u
t
q
c
E
e
V

Linear Combinations:
Consider a nonhomogeneous
system of m equations in n
unknowns:
(a 11 x 1 , + a 12 x 2 , , + a 1n x n) = b 1
(a 21 x 1 , + a 22 x 2 , , + a 2n x n) = b 2

(a m1 x 1 , + a m2 x 2 , , + a mn x n) = b m

or equivalent
equation:

x1

a11
a21

+
x2

to

the

following

vector

b1
a1n
a12
A22 + + A2n = B2

x2

am

am

am

bm

.
.

that is, the vector equation

n
1
2
(x1u1 + x2u2, + + xnun) = v

Definition:
A vector v is a linear combination
of vectors
u 1, u 2, , u n if there exist scalars,
k 1, k 2, , k n, such that,
v = k1 u1 + k2 u2 + + kn un
that is , if the vector equation
v = x1 u1 + x2 u2 + + xn un
has a solution where x 1 are
unknown scalars.

Example:
Suppose
2
v 3 u1
= -4 =

1
1
1

u2
=

1
1 u3
0 =

1
0
0

Then, v is a linear combination of

u 1, u 2, u 3 since the vector equation
x+y+z=2
x+y=3
x = -4
Has a solution of x = -4, y = 7 ,and
z =-1
In other words, v= -4u 1 +7u 2 - u 3

Linear dependence
Consider a nonhomogeneous
system of m equations in n
unknowns:
(a 11 x 1 , + a 12 x 2 , , + a 1n x n ) = 0
(a 21 x 1 , + a 22 x 2 , , + a 2n x n ) = 0

(a m1 x 1 , + a m2 x 2 , , + a mn x n ) = 0

or equivalent
equation:

x1

a11
a21
.

+
x2

to

the

following

a1n
0
a12
a22 + + a2n = 0
.

x2

am

am

vector

am

that is, the vector equation

n
1
2
(x1u1 + x2u2, + + xnun) = 0

.
.
.

If the homogeneous system

has a nonzero solution, the
vectors u 1, u 2, u n are said to
be linearly dependent; on the
other hand, if the equation
has only the zero solution,
then the vectors are said to
be linearly independent.

Definition:
Vectors u 1, u 2, u n in R n are linearly
dependent if there exist scalars k 1,
k 2, k n , not all zero, such that
(k 1u 1 + k 2u 2, + +k nu n) = 0
That is, if the vector equation
(x 1u 1 + x 2u 2, + +x nu n) = 0
has a nonzero solution where x 1 are
unknown scalars. Otherwise, the
vectors are said to be linearly
independent.

Example 1:
Suppose

x
=

1
1
1

+
y

1
1
0

+
z

1
0
0 =

Or x + y+ z = 0 Solution:
x + y = 0 x= 0 , y= 0, z= 0
x = 0 thus, linearly
independent

0
0
0

Example 2:
Suppose

x
=

1
1
1

+
y

2
-1
3

+
z

1
-5
3 =

0
0
0

Or x + 2y+ z = 0 Solution:
x y -5z = 0 x= 3 , y= -2, z= 1
x + 3y + 3z = 0
thus, linearly
dependent

)
R
A
L
A
T
C
C
S
( DU
T
O
O
D PR

Let u and v be vectors in Rn:

u = (u1, u2, , un) and v = (v1, v2,
, vn)
The dot, scalar, or inner product of
u and v, denoted by u v, is the
scalar obtained by multiplying
corresponding components and
adding the resulting products:
u v = u1v1 + u2v2 + + unvn

The vectors u and v are said to be

orthogonal (or perpendicular) if

Example 2.4.
Let u = (1, -2,
3, -4), v = (6, 7, 1, -2), and w
= (5, -4, 5, 7). Then,
u v = 1 6 + (-2) 7 + 3
1 + (-4) (-2) = 6 14 + 3 +
8=3

u w = 1 5 + (-2) (-4) + 3
5 + (-4) 7 = 5 + 8 + 15
28 = 0

Theorem 2.2: For any vectors u, v, w R n and

any scalar k R,

(i)(u + v) w = u w + v w (iii) u v = v
u
(ii)(ku) v = k(u v) (iv) u u 0, and u u = 0 if u
=0

Remark: The space Rn with the above

operations of vector addition, scalar
multiplication, and dot product is usually
called Euclidean n-space.

F
O R
M
O
R
T
O
C
N VE


Let u = (u1, u2, , un) be a vector in Rn. The norm
(or length) of the vector u, written ||u||, is
defined to be the nonnegative square root of u
u:

Since u u 0, the square root exists. Also, if u

0, then ||u|| > 0; and ||0|| = 0.

The definition of the norm of a

vector conforms to that of the
length of a vector (arrow) in
(Euclidean)
geometry.
Specifically, suppose u is a
vector (arrow) in the plane R2
with endpoint P(a,b). Then |a|
and |b| are the lengths of the
sides of the right triangle formed
by u and the horizontal and

|u|
=

P (a ,
b)

u
O

|
a
|

|
b
|

Example
Suppose u = (3, -12, -4). To find
||u||, we first find
||u||2 = u u by squaring the
components of u and adding:

||u||2 = 32 + (-12)2 + (-4)2 = 9 + 144

+ 16 = 169
Then ||u|| = 169 = 13

Theorem 2.3 (CauchySchwarz)

For any vectors u, v in Rn, ||u
v|| ||u|| ||v||.
Example: Suppose u = (3, -4,12) and v = (4,2,-4)
Then,
||u v|| ||u|| ||v||
||(12,-8, 48,) || ||(3, -12,
-4) || || (4,2,-4) ||
50.119 13 x 6

Theorem 2.4 (Minkowski)

For any vectors u, v in Rn, ||u + v||
||u|| + ||v||.
Example: Suppose u = (3, -4,-12)
and v = (4,2,-4)
Then,
||u + v|| ||u|| + ||v||
||(7, -2,-16) || 13 + 6
17.58 19

Distance, Angles, Projections

Let u = (u1, u2, , un) and v = (v1,

v2, , vn) be vectors in Rn. The
distance between u and v,
denoted by d(u,v) is defined as
d(u,v) = ||u v|| =
Example: Suppose u = (1, -2, 3)
and v = (3, -5, -7). Then
d(u,v) =
=113

D
N
n A
R
L
N
I IA
S
T
R
A
S
P
O
R
S
T
O
n
,
C
T
E
C
C
V
E
V

SPATIAL VECTORS, I j k NOTATION IN

R3
Vectors in R3, called spatial vectors,
appear in many applications, especially in
physics. In fact,
special notation is
frequently used for such vectors as
follows:
i = (1, 0, 0) denotes the unit vector in the
x direction,
j = (0, 1, 0) denotes the unit vector in the
y direction,
k = (0, 0, 1) denotes the unit vector in
the z direction.

Then any vector u = (a,

b, c) in R3 can be
expressed in the above
notation as follows. u =
(a, b, c) = ai + bj + ck
Since i, j, k are unit
vectors and are mutually
orthogonal, we have

The
various
vector
operations
discussed
previously may be expressed
in the above notation as
follows. Suppose u = a1i + a2j
+ a3 k and v = b1i + b2j +b3k.
Then

Where c is a scalar.

Suppose u 3i +5j 2k and v = 4i 3j + 7k.

(a) to find U + v, add corresponding
components yielding
U + v = 7i + 2j + 5k
(b) to find 3u 2v, first multiply the vectors
by the scalars, and then add:
3u 2v = (9i + 15j 6k) + (-8i +6j 14k) = 4i
+ 21j -20k
(c) to find u v, multiply corresponding
components and then add:
uv = 12 15 14 = -17
(d) to find ||u||, square each component and
then add to get ||u||2. That is,
||u||2 = 9 +25 + 4 = 38 and hence ||u|| = 38

Cross Product
There is a special operation for vectors
u, v in R3, called the cross product and
denoted by u x v. Specifically, suppose
u = a1i + a2j + a3k and v = b1i +b2j+ b3k

then
u x v = (a2b3 a3b2) I + (a3b1 a1b3) j +
(a1b2 a2b1)k
Note u x v is a vector; hence u x v is
also called vector product or outer
product or outer product of u and v.

then
u x v = (a2b3 a3b2) I + (a3b1 a1b3) j +
(a1b2 a2b1)k

Note u x v is a vector; hence u x

v is also called vector product
or outer product or outer
product of u and v.
Using determinant notation
(Chapter 7), where
=
ad bc,

the cross product may also

be expressed as follows:

Or, equivalently,


Two important properties of the
cross product follow
Theorem 2.5: Let u, v, w be vectors in
R 3.
The vector u + x is orthogonal to both
u and v.
The absolute value of the triple
product u.v x w represents the
volume of the parallelepiped formed
by the vectors u, v, and w (as shown
in Figure 2-9)

X
E
L
S
P R
M
E
B
O
C M
U
N

The set of complex numbers is

denoted
by
C.
Formally,
a
complex number is an ordered
pair (a, b) of real numbers;
equality, and multiplication of
complex numbers are defined as
follows:
(a, b) = (c, d)
iffa = c and b = d
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
(a, b)(c, d) = (ac bd, ad + bc)


We identify the real number a with
the
complex number (am 0):
a
(a,0)
This
is
possible
since
the
operations
of
addition
and
multiplication of real numbers are
preserved
under
the
correspondence
(a, 0) + (b, 0) = (a + b, 0) and (a,
0)(b,0) = (ab, 0)
Thus we view R as a subset of C
and replace (a, 0) by a whenever

Furthermore, using the fact

(a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, b) and (0, b) =
(b, 0)(0, 1)
We have
(a, b) = (a, 0) + (b, 0)(0, 1) =
a + bi
The notation z = a + bi, where a Re z
and b Im z are called, respectively, the
real imaginary parts of the complex
number z, is more convenient than (a,
b). For example, the sum and product of
two complex numbers z = a + bi and w =
c + di can be obtained by simply using

S
R
O
n
T
C
C
E

N
I

The set of all n-tuples of

complex numbers, denoted by
Cn, is called complex n-space.
Just as in the real case, the
elements of Cn are called
points or vectors, the elements
of
C
are
called
scalars,
multiplication on Cn are given
by

Example:
A. (2 + 3i, 4 I, 3) + (3 2i, 5i, 4
6i) = (5 + I, 4 + 4i, 7 6i)
B. 2i (2 + 3i, 4 I, 3) = ( -6 + 4i, 2
+ 8i, 6i)
Now let u and v be arbitrary
vectors in Cn:
U = (z1, z2,.,zn) v= (w1,w2,
,2n) zi, wi C
The dot, or inner, product of u and

Note that this definition

reduces to the previous one in
the real case, since wi wi
when wi is real. The norm of u
is defined by

Observe that u .u and so ||u

are real and positive when u

The space Cn with the

above operations of vector
addition,
scalar
multiplication,
and
dot
product, is called complex
Euclidean n-space.
Remark: If u .v were
defined by u . v = z1 w1 +

,
E
C
N
,
S
S
A
T
E
N
L
S
O
I
I
G
D N
T
A JEC
O
R

 Find the distance d(u, v)

between the vectors u
and v where
(a) u = (1, 7),
v
= (6, 5),
(b) u = (3, 5, 4),
v
= (6, 2, 1),
(c) u = (5, 3, 2, 4, 1), v

In each case use the

formula
d(u, v) = |u, v| =
(a) d(u, v) =
(b) d(u, v) =
(c) d(u, v) =

Find k such that d(u, v) = 6

where u= (2, k, 1, 4) and v =
(3, 1,6, 3).
First find:
[d(u,v)]2=(23)2 + (k1)2 +(16)2+
( 4+3)2 = k2 +2k+28
Now solve k2 +2k + 28 = 62 to

Find proj(u, v) where u = (1,

3, 4)
and v = (3, 4, 7).
First find u v = 3 12 + 28 =
19 and
|v| = 9 + 16 + 49 = 74. Then

,
S
E
N
I
L
,
S
S
E
D
T
N
N
N
A
I
A
L
O
P
P
R
E
P
Y

This
section
distinguishes between an
n-tuple P (a1, a2 an) = P
(a1 ) viewed as a point in
Rn and an n-tuple v = [c1,
c2 cn ] viewed as a
vector (arrow) from the

 Find the vector v

that is
identified with the directed
line segment PQ for the points
(a) P (2,5) and Q ( 3, 4) in R2,
(b) P (1, 2, 4)
and Q (6, 0, 3) in R3
(a) v =Q P = [ 3 2, 4 5] =
[ 5, 1]

Consider points P (3, k, 2) and Q

(5, 3, 4) in R3. Find k so that PQ is
orthogonal to the vector u = [4,
3, 2].
First find v = Q P = [5 3, 3 k, 4
+ 2]= [2, 3 k, 6]. Next compute
u v = 4 : 2 3(3 k) + 2*6 = 8 9 +
3k +12= 3k +11

Consider the hyperplane H in R n

which is the solution set of the
linear equation
a1x1 + a2x2 + + anxn = b (1)
where u = [a1 ,a2 an] = 0. Show
that the directed line segment
PQ of any pair of P, Q of H is
orthogonal to the coefficient
vector u; the vector u is said to
be normal to the hyperplane H.

Let w1 = OP and w2 = OQ;

hence u = w2 w1 = PQ. By
(1), uw1 =b and uw2 = b.
But then
u v = u (w2 w1) = u w2
u w1 = b - b = 0
Thus v = PQ is orthogonal to

Find a parametric representation

of the line in R4 passing through
P (4, 2, 3, 1) in the direction u
= [2, 5, 7, 11].
The line L in Rn is passing through
the point P (a1) and in the
direction of the nonzero vector
u = [u1] consists of the points X
=(x1) which satisfy the equation
X = P + tu or xi = ai + ui t (for f

S
R
O

T
C
,
E
S
V
( NE ES
S
I
C
L
R
A
,
O
F
S
T
R
E
C
U
N
E
V LA D S3
L
P
N
A
R
,
I
A
3
)
T
,
N
A
I
R
S
P
S IN V E
R
U
C

The equation of a plane through

the point
P0( x0, y0 , z0) with normal
direction
N=ai+bj+ck is
a (x x0) + b (y y0)+ c (x x0)=0
The parametric equation of a line
L through a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0) in
the direction of the vector
v=ai+bj+ck is

or equivalently
f (t) = (at + x0) i+( bt + y0) j +
( ct + z0) k
The equation of a normal
vector N to a surface F (x, y,
z) = 0 is
N = FX I + F y j + Fz k

Find the equation of the

plane with normal direction N
= 5i 6j + 7k and containing
the point P(3, 4, 2).
Substitute P and N in
equation to get
5(x 3) 6(y 4)+7(z+2)=0

Find a normal vector N to the

plane
4x+7y 12z = 3.
The coefficients of x,y,z give a
normal direction; hence N =
4i + 7j 12k.
(Any multiple of N also is

Find the plane H parallel to

4x + 7y
12z = 3 and
containing the point P (2,3, 1).
H and the given plane have the
same normal direction; that is
N = 4i + 7j 12k is normal to
H. Substitute P and N in
equation (a) to get
4(x 2) + 7(y 3) 12(z+1) = 0

Cross Product
Cross product is denoted by u x
v.
Suppose,

U= a1i+a2j+a3k and v = b1i+b2j+b3k

Then,

u x v = (a2 b3 - a3 b2)i - (a1 b3 - a3 b1)j + (a1 b2 a2 b1)k

 The cross product may also be

expressed using the
determinant notation such as :

Where,

= ad-bc.

Or, equivalently
Theorem 2.5: Let u,v,w be vectors in .
The vector u x v is orthogonal to
both u and v.
The absolute value of the triple
product
u . v x w represents the volume of
the parallelepiped formed by the
vectors u,v and w.

w
v

u
y

Example
Suppose u = 4i+3j+6k and v =
2i+5j-3k. Then,