Tiltand Shift of Well

INDIAN HIGHWAYS
A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Volume 41
Number 7
July 2013
Contents
ISSN 0376-7256
Page
2-3
4
5
6
7

13

21

26

33

40

47-87
88
89
90
91
92
93
From the Editors Desk

Glimpses of the Release of Fifth Revision of MoRT&H Specifications for Road & Bridge Works
IRC Welcome Honble Union Minister for Road Transport and Highways
Advertisement Tariff
An Automated System for Measuring Pavement Deflection Basin Parameters Under Dual Tyres Assembly of A Vehicle
Huidrom Lokeshwor, G.K. Vij and D.C. Sharma
Laboratory Study on Mastic Asphalt
Dr Praveen Kumar and Maj P. Anand
A Study on Evaluation of Stress Behavior of Rigid Pavement by Concept Shell System
Tapas Kumar Roy and Rathin Ghoshal
Method for Evaluation of Tilt and Shift of a Well
Dhrubajyoti Bhattacharya
Capacity Augmentation of National Highways
K.B. Lal Singal
Behavioural Analysis of Pedestrians for Walking on Footpath and on Carriageway in Space-Sharing Traffic Scenario
Mukti Advani and Nisha G.
Circulars Issued by MORT&H
Tender Notice of MORTH Lucknow
Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow
Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow
Tender Notice of Haryana PWD Jhajjar Circle
Tender Notice of Haryana PWD Rohtak Circle
Tender Notice of NH Circle Bareilly
The Indian Roads Congress

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Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the
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From the Editors Desk
ROAD SECTOR ASSET MANAGEMENT

NEEDS DYMYSIFICATION
Dear Readers,
It is a universal truth that if assets once created are not adequately maintained and managed, then the
possibility of erosion in asset values are not only high but the danger of losing the entire asset is also high.
The systematic approach of maintaining the assets on a sustainable basis is generally termed as Asset
Management System (AMS).
The road sector is a highly complex sector and can be termed as a Strategic Infrastructure Sector also for a
country/economy/society. Not only it is compared as a life line when we talk about economic sustainability
and growth of a country but because of its uniqueness of providing support as well as linkages to all other
sectors of economy and social activities, it attains a much more important & critical role similar of nerve
veins running across the length and breadth of a living being. Therefore, the importance attached with
maintenance and that too adequate maintenance of this uniquely placed infrastructure sector in timely
manner should be given due weightage and accordingly the funds should be allocated.
What value should be assigned to the total road network asset of the country? Some guess estimates have
been made but the ever increasing length of the road network in the country requires a serious evaluation
exercise. This highly valued asset in the country even though owned by different road owning organizations
requires an Asset Management Strategy & System (AMSS) to overcome the potential dangers of falling
into disuse and eventually disintegration on account of inadequate or poor or untimely maintenance. The
consequential economic and social implications may be colossal.
Considering the huge investment targets during the 12th Five Year Plan and the level of investments already
made during last few decade, the sector requires a Re-rating in the area of funds allocation towards effective
maintenance. It is not that the awareness about importance of maintenance is not known. The concepts
of Routine Maintenance, Periodic Maintenance, Special Repairs, Rehabilitation, Pavement Management
System (PMS), Bridge Maintenance System (BMS) and comprehensive maintenance mechanism under PPP
based OMT forms the part of the same. But specific attention of developing appropriate Asset Management
System for Indian road infrastructure sector is need of the hour to enable better distribution of risks, more
efficient & transparent price discovery and to capitalize the real asset value of the sector from commercial
propositions.
Most of the time the Asset Management system is considered only after the asset has been created. However,
road sector is such a complex sector which requires a different approach keeping in view that it gives an
opportunity of introducing the elements of asset management at each of the stages right from the planning
and conceptualization stages starting with the sustainability of the alignment.
The Asset Management System allows enough scope for adoption of the simple methodologies and addresses
the issues of timely removal of deficiencies even from project preparation/designing stage to make the road
assets so created more sustainable. The basic essentiality of Asset Management System is the collection of
authentic data in respect of all the constituent components for road sector. The data includes the inventory
of the roads, bridges/structures/culverts/cross drainage works, signages, traffic control devices, road side
furnitures, traffic related details including traffic count, axle load spectrum, condition survey details of the
road/bridges/structures, unit cost for various maintenance activities, vehicle operating cost, developmental
activities taking place abutting the road land, climatic condition variation, etc. However, it needs to be kept
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, July 2013
EDITORIAL
in view that the data collection & revalidation is not a one-time exercise. It needs to be institutionalized.
Because of nature of road infrastructure, it gives a flexibility to conceptualize and evolve a centralized Asset
Management System or a decentralized Asset Management System with appropriate linkages and interlink
ages.
How many times a serious thought has been given for timely preventive maintenance in an institutionalized
manner which may not only preserve the road asset and prolong its life but also contribute towards higher
traffic carrying capacity, less accidents, less maintenance of vehicles and more users satisfaction. The cost
benefit ratio in this aspect requires critical analysis.
The road sector requires a simple methodology to calculate its asset value and also a methodology to predict
the financial & other resources needed to preserve and maintain this network as well as similar methodology
to improve this network along with the timely interventions. Simultaneously the Asset Management System
should be such that it should be able to predict the consequences of under-funded maintenance; reluctant/
under compulsion maintenance; and the optimal investment based maintenance.
One may always argue that PPP projects are better placed as the maintenance needs are covered during the
concession period of the project. However if proper monitoring especially in respect of time and intensity of
interventions needed and provided are not in place, then the same facility may not only come under severe
criticism and scrutiny but the level of qualitative service also deteriorates. The Indian roads requires an
Asset Management System which should be devised and designed for Indian conditions based on real field
data of Indian roads. It should be simple to use. It should also have component of indexing in respect of road
safety rating, drainage effectiveness, pavement condition, deficiency removal/rehabilitation, etc. The data
needs can be refined and evaluated at regular interval to maintain robustness of the system.
The advantages and benefits of the Road Asset Management System (RAMS) are immense and many. It would
help in resource & asset allocation optimization; promotes life cycle cost analysis concept, thereby opening
up the avenue for innovative concepts/new methodologies with better risk management including that of
Forgiving Roads, Green Concrete using municipal water/industrial waste, Maintenance Free Roads (for
certain time period), preventive treatment methodologies for pot free roads, etc. ; reducing the probability
of defect ingress during various stages of project; improves users satisfaction and help in bridging the trust
deficit among different stakeholders; improves viability of the projects including opportunities to capitalize
the value addition (for PPP projects) thereby helping to bring in fresh capital in road sector; improves project
management efficiency; helps in human resource optimization as well as harnessing positivitys of human
resource capital in the road sector; etc.
Often debate is made in the road sector as to whether the connectivity or mobility or sustainability is
to be given more weightage over the other. RAMS would be able to facilitate the road sector professionals as
well as decision makers to allocate the financial resources in a realistic manner while addressing the critical
issues of connectivity, mobility and sustainability in an optimized manner. However this requires a dedicated
effort and pooling of resources & expertise of all the stakeholders. It is a much needed effort which needs to
be made in a collective manner without any prejudice as the expected returns would benefit immensely all.
The search for truth is one way hard and another way easy for, it is evident that no one can master it fully
or miss it wholly. But each adds a little to our knowledge of nature and from all the facts assembled there
arise a certain grandeur.
Aristotle, the Philosopher
Place: New Delhi
Dated: 21st June, 2013
Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Secretary General
3
Glimpses of the Release of the

Fifth Revision of MoRT&H Specifications for Road & Bridge Works
by the then Honble Union Minister for Road Transport & Highways Dr. C.P. Joshi
on 30th May, 2013 at Transport Bhavan, New Delhi
Introduction by Shri C. Kandasamy, Director General (Road

Development) & Special Secretary, MoRT&H and President, IRC
Copy of Release being Presented to Honble Minister by

Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, IRC
Honble Union Minster, RT&H, Dr. C.P. Joshi Released Fifth Revision of MoRT&H Specifications for Road and Bridge Works
First copy being received by Shri D.P. Gupta, senior most

Road Expert present during the Event
Another view of the Event
Indian Roads Congress (IRC) Welcomes the

Honble Union Minister for Road Transport & Highways Shri Oscar Fernandes
Position held in the past by Shri Oscar Fernandes:1972-76 Member, Municipal Council, Udupi; 1980-84 Member, Seventh Lok Sabha; 1983 Joint Secretary,
All India Congress Committee; Member, Committee on Absence of Members from the Sittings of the House;
Dec. 1984-June 1985 Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister of India; 1985 and 1996 onwards
General Secretary, All India Congress Committee; 1985-89 Member, Eighth Lok Sabha; 1986 President,
Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee; 1989-91 Member, Ninth Lok Sabha; 1990 Member, Consultative
Committee for the Ministry of Energy; 1991-96 Member, Tenth Lok Sabha; 1996-97 Member, Eleventh Lok
Sabha; April 1998 Elected to Rajya Sabha; 1998-99 Member, Committee on Human Resource Development;
Member, Consultative Committee for the Ministry of Human Resource Development; Dec. 1999-Feb. 2004
Member, Committee on Agriculture; Jan. 2000-Feb. 2004 Member, Consultative Committee for the Ministry
of Petroleum and Natural Gas; 2000-2004 Convenor, Parliamentary Forum on HIV-AIDS; May 2004 - Jan.
2006 Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation;
July 2004 Re-elected to Rajya Sabha; 18 Nov. 2005 - 29 Jan. 2006 Minister of State (Independent Charge)
of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of
Overseas Indian Affairs; 29 Jan. 2006 - 24 Oct. 2006 Minister of State (Independent Charge) Without
Portfolio; 24 Oct. 2006 - 2 March 2009 Minister of State (Independent Charge) of the Ministry of Labour
and Employment; July 2009 - Jan. 2012 Member, National Board for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises;
Aug. 2009-Aug. 2012 Member, Consultative Committee for the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare; Aug.
2009 onwards Chairman, Committee on Human Resource Development; Oct. 2009- Oct. 2010 Member,
General Purposes Committee; July 2010 Re-elected to Rajya Sabha; Aug. 2010-Nov. 2011 Member, Coffee
Board; Aug. 2010 onwards Member, National Monitoring Committee for Minorities Education; Oct. 2012
onwards Member, Joint Parliamentary Committee on Installation of Portraits/Statues of National Leaders
and Parliamentarians; Member, Joint Parliamentary Committee on Maintenance of Heritage Character and
Development of Parliament House.
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TECHNICAL
PAPERS
AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM
FOR
Measuring PAVEMENT
Deflection Basin Parameters under Dual
TyreS Assembly OF A VEHCILE
Huidrom Lokeshwor*, G.K. Vij **, D.C. Sharma***
ABSTRACT
For structural evaluation of a road surface, accurate measurement
of deflection basin parameters of the road surface is one of the
important tasks. The use of Benkelman Beam for measurement
of pavement deflection under fixed wheel load and tyres pressure
is a common practice in India. However, the pavement deflection
measured using Benkelman Beam is single valued and does
not give detailed information about the condition of the road
structure.
This paper presents development of an automated system called
Road Parameter Measurement System (RPMS) for measuring
pavement deflection basin parameters under dual tyres assembly
of a truck using some displacement measuring sensors. The
deflection basin parameters which can be measured by the
developed system include maximum deflection, surface curvature
index, base curvature index, spread-ability, area, shape factors,
base damage index and slope of deflection. In the developed
system, deflections of the pavement are measured at radial
distances from the centre of the loading point using Linear
Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs). The developed
system has been implemented in a PXI (Peripheral Components
Interconnect extensions for Instrumentation) platform with the
help of Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench
(LabVIEW).The test results indicates that the developed system
has potential to acquire and analyze the pavement deflection basin
parameters automatically.
INTRODUCTION
For efficient road maintenance management and

judiciously utilization of its available funds,
performance evaluation of the existing road networks
is required to be done on a regular basis. Today,
the performance evaluation of a pavement is done
based on four categories of roads information viz.(a)
Roughness (b) Surface distress (c) Skid resistance and
(d) Structure. The structural evaluation of a pavement
is done to assess pavements structural ability to

receive the loads plying over it. For the structural
evaluation of a pavement, use of Benkelman Beam
for measurement of pavement deflection under fixed
wheel load and tyres pressure, is a common practice in
India1. Using a Benkelman Beam, pavement deflection
is measured by placing the tip of the beam probe at a
test point in between the dual tyres of a loaded vehicle.
As the loaded vehicle moves away from the test point,
rebound or recovery movement of the pavement is
measured by an attached dial gauge. However, the
deflection measured using such beam is single valued
and does not give detailed information about the
condition of the road structure. Earlier researcher2
has shown that for an appropriate assessment of a
pavement structure, one needs to have information
about the complete deflection basin i.e. deflections at
various radial distances from the loading point. The
complete profile measurement of deflection basin
gives an overall indication about the strength of the
pavement structure. And some deflection bowl studies
were also carried out in Indian conditions using a
modified Benkelman Beam fitted with LVDTs7.
In this paper, development of an automated system
called Road Parameter Measurement System (RPMS)3
for measuring pavement deflection basin parameters
under dual tyres assembly of a loaded vehicle is
presented. The RPMS was developed using a PXI
(Peripheral Components Interconnect extensions for
Instrumentation) platform, LabVIEW (Laboratory
Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench) and
Instrumentation Division, Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-CRRI), New Delhi, Email: hlokeshwor@gmail.com
**
Former Head, Instrumentation Division, Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-CRRI) New Delhi
*** Head, Instrumentation Division, Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-CRRI), New Delhi, Email: dcs.crri@nic.in
TECHNICAL PAPERS
five numbers of LVDTs (Linear Variable Differential
Transformers). PXI4 is one of the modular based
electronic instrumentation platforms which are used
as a basis for building electronic test equipment,
automation systems, modular laboratory instruments
in science and technology. A PXI platform can take
several forms and it is the combination of flexible, userdefined software and scalable hardware components.
The heart of a PXI based system is its GUI (Graphical
User Interface) based application which is developed
using a graphical design and simulation software such
as Lab VIEW from National Instruments.
2
DEVELOPMENT OF RPMS
The overall objective of this study is to test whether

deflection basin parameters of Indian roads can be
measured accurately using economical displacement
transducers such as Linear Variable Displacement
Transformers (LVDT) and compare its performance
with that of other types of displacement, velocity or
vibration based sensors such as laser, geophones, and
accelerometers. With regard to the first part of this
objective, an automated system called RPMS was
developed using five numbers of economical LVDTs.
A LVDT5,6 is a device commonly used to measure
linear displacement and it consists of a single primary
winding and two secondary windings.
The architecture of the developed system (Fig.1) is
based on a PXI platform developed for data acquisition
using Ac LVDTs. This platform is chosen to allow us
to accommodate device changes over time. In this
system3, five numbers of LVDTs are fixed at equal
intervals of 30 cm on a supporting beam to measure
the pavement deflections at distances of 0, 30, 60,
90 & 120 cm respectively. The supporting beam is
designed in such a way that it can hold the LVDTs with
adjustable knobs at equal distances from each other.
Then, the specialized GUI based application software
is developed using Lab VIEW to acquire and analyze
deflection basin parameters automatically with the
help of a laptop, which acts as a remote controller.
8
Fig.1 Hardware Module of the Developed RPMS
The Deflection Basin Parameters2 that can be

measured using the developed RPMS includes the
following parameters given in Eqs.1 to 8.These
parameters are illustrated in Fig. 2.
Fig.2 Depiction of Deflections and the

Corresponding Parameters
Max. Deflection = d0
(1)
Surface Curvature Index, SCI = d0-d1
(2)
Base Curvature Index, BCI = d2-d3
(3)
Spread-ability,
S = {(d0 + d1+ d2 + d3 + d4)/5}100/d0
(4)
Area, A = 6 [1+ 2(d1/d0) + 2(d2/d0) + d3/d0]
(5)
Shape Factors, F1 = (d0-d2)/d1; F2 = (d1-d3)/d2 (6)

Base Damage Index, BDI = d1-d2
(7)
Slope of Deflection, SLD = tan-1(d0-d2)/610mm (8)

TECHNICAL PAPERS
The developed system is comprised of two modules.
The first module is called hardware module
(Section 2.1) while the second one is called software
module (Section 2.2).
2.1
Hardware Module of the Developed RPMS
The hardware module consists of an assembly

and integration of four basic components such as
displacement transducers, chassis, system controller
and peripheral modules. These components
include displacement transducers (five Ac LVDTs),
PXI chassis, PXI Controllers (One is local PXI
controller and other is a Laptop, remote controller),
DAQ card (multifunction I/O card), Counter card,
LVDT signal conditioning card and Thermocouple
signal conditioning card for measuring pavement
temperature. The hardware components which were
used in the development of the RPMS are shown in

Fig.1.
2.2 Software Module of the Developed RPMS
The heart of the RPMS is a graphical user interface
based application software developed using Lab
VIEW. The developed software (Fig.3) is installed in
the remote controller, HP make Laptop with Windows
XP. It is a simple graphical user interface based
application program which allows user to conduct
tests, acquire and analyze the data automatically.
Using the developed application, pavement deflection
basin parameters can be acquired by triggering
manually, timely or with counter while the acquired
and calculated parameters can be displayed in the
menu in real-time. In addition, acquired data can be
also stored and analyzed later according to the choice
of the user.
Fig.3 Software Module of the Developed RPMS
TEST RESULTS
To test the performance of the developed system, two

tests were performed using the developed RPMS. The
first test was performed in the laboratory while the
second test was performed in the field. The preliminary
test results were examined for its accuracy.
3.1
Testing of RPMS in the Laboratory
To evaluate its performance, the developed system

was tested inside the laboratory using five numbers
of the LVDTs and a set of brass spacers (plates) of

known thicknesses. A set of brass spacers includes five
numbers of brass spacers of different thicknesses kept
on the floor under the corresponding tips of each LVDT
and each spacer thickness were assumed to be the
corresponding pavement deflection. Then, thicknesses
of the spacers were computed automatically using
RPMS for three times each and compared with their
true values measured manually using Vernier Caliper.
The test results are shown in Table 1.
9
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Comparison of Thickness Measurements by RPMS Using a Manual Method Based on Different Sets of
Brass Spacers of Various Thickness for Testing its Accuracy and Precision or Repeatability
Based on Table 1, the thickness of each brass spacer

measured using their corresponding LVDT of RPMS
was reasonably accurate and precise. For instance, the
accuracy rate of the first LVDT (d0) was found to be
up to 92% in measuring the thickness of three brass
spacers for three times each.
3.2
Testing of RPMS in the Field
Field trials were conducted on a flexible pavement

within the CRRI premises using the RPMS and a
loaded truck. The air pressure of the trucks tyres was
kept 5.6Kg/cm2 while the load in the truck was kept
at 10.2 tonnes. The tip of the LVDTs beam was kept
within the dual tyres so that the LVDTs core remains
in the central position between the tyres. Fig.4 shows
the set-up for field testing showing the front view. The
electric power supply for the system was provided
by the truck battery using an inverter. The pavement
deflection data was collected at five different
locations. The results obtained are shown in Table 2. In
10
Table 2, the two parameters Radius of Curvature and

SLD were zero in all cases since the corresponding
LVDTs and the equations were not fixed during time
of field trials, though these parameters had been
incorporated in the software front menu.
Fig.4 A Set-up for Field Testing (Front View)
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 2 Analysis Report for Field Testing on Flexible Pavements of
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute
Based on the test reports, the developed system

has potential to acquire and analyze the pavement
deflection basin parameters data automatically with
reasonable accuracy and precision. And the measured
parameters can be directly used in other simulation
software like ELMOD (Evaluation of Layer Moduli

and Overlay Design) for calculating the thicknesses
and the moduli of each layer of pavements. However,
more extensive field trials are required to be done to
validate the existing RPMS.
11
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE

DIRECTIONS
In this paper, an automated system for measuring

pavement deflection basin parameters under dual tyres
assembly of a vehicle is presented. In the developed
system, pavement deflection parameters at loading
point of the vehicle as well as intervals of 30cm from
the loading point are measured using five numbers of
economical LVDTs in a PXI based platform.
To test its performance, the developed system was
first tested in the laboratory conditions using three
different sets of brass spacers of known thickness
and the results were found to be reasonably accurate
and precise. Later, the developed system was tested
in the actual field sites. However, the system needs
to make more compact and robust so that it could be
used extensively without much human intervention in
the field.
REFERENCES
1.
MORT&H (2004), Guidelines for Maintenance

Management of Primary, Secondary, and Urban Roads,
Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, May.
2.
Horak E (1987), The use of surface deflection basin

measurements in the mechanistic analysis of flexible
pavements, Proceedings of the Fifth International
Conference on the Structural design of Asphalt Pavements,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
3.
Automated Measurement of Deflection Basin Under Truck

Dual Tyres Assembly - Final Report, March 2007, CSIRCentral Road Research Institute, New Delhi-110025.
4.
http://www.ni.com/, Last view on 15-07-2007
5.
C.S. Rangan, G.S. Sarma, V.S.V. Mani (1983),

Instrumentation Devices and Systems, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publications, New Delhi, pp. 38-42.
6.
Chester L. Nachtigal (1990), Instrumentation and Control:

Fundamentals and Applications, Wiley-Interscience
Publications, pp.312-318.
7.
A. Veeraragavan, J.K. Dattatreya, M. Prabhudeva (1991),

Development of failure criteria for flexible overlays
for Indian conditions, Indian Roads Congress Journal,
Vol.52-1, pp. 183-205.
There is a big scope for further improvements in

the presented RPMS. In future, well focus on two
identified areas. The first one is the use of sensors such
as lasers, geophones and/or accelerometers in place
of existing LVDTs to evaluate the performance of the
sensors in the context of pavement deflection basin
measurement. The second one is the replacement
of existing manual based LVDT support beam by a
hydraulic based lifting arrangement system. These
modifications will help in converting the existing
RPMS into a more robust and compact system
which isuser friendly and acceptable to the highway
professionals.
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are very grateful to the Director,

CSIR-Central Road research Institute, New Delhi
for giving permission to publish this paper. We are
thankful to the Planning Commission, Govt. of India
and Council of Scientific & Industrial Research
(CSIR), New Delhi for providing financial support for
the present research. The authors extend their deep
thanks to all the persons directly or indirectly related
to this research.
12
TECHNICAL PAPERS
LABORATORY STUDY ON MASTIC ASPHALT

Dr Praveen Kumar* and Maj P. Anand**
ABSTRACT
Mastic asphalt is potentially advantageous paving material due to
high stability, high durability, very low maintenance and good riding
quality. But, in India, due to poor mechanization, skid resistance
and cost considerations, the use of mastic asphalt is very limited
till today. This study includes various specifications essential
requisites of mastic asphalt. This investigation was performed
to study the effect of industrial grade bitumen and its blend with
penetration grade bitumen in mastic asphalt preparation. The skid
resistance and rut resistance of mastic asphalt were studied and
compared with other surface courses.
INTRODUCTION
The increase in urbanization and concentration of

activities lead to higher demand especially in transport
sector. Thick surfacing materials are not only costly
and time consuming but also fail at times due to
tremendous increase in traffic intensity in axle load. In
India, approximately 98 percent roads are flexible types
probably because of economy. Mastic asphalt is laid
on pavements for city streets which carry extremely
heavy traffic, on critical locations such as roundabouts,
intersections, bus stops, bridge decks etc which is
recognized for excellent service for many years.
Mastic asphalt concrete is a mix of filler, bitumen, fine
aggregates and coarse aggregates in suitable proportion
so as to yield a voidless mass which flows like fluid
at high temperature, but on cooling down to normal
temperature, it is in solid or semisolid state. It does not
require any compacting effort also.
The continuous and systematic research for a strong
and durable surface to cater heavy traffic volume
with higher axle loads has resulted in development
of mastic asphalt concrete. In India, due to poor
mechanization, skid resistance and cost considerations,
the use of mastic asphalt is very limited till today. But
development of automated equipment, new mixing
techniques and reduced cooking time has brought down

cost to a greater extent. Also improved skidding, less
repairs and more service life indicates an economical
mix in the long run. From a road construction stand
point, the placing of mastic asphalt concrete is less
weather dependent than conventional bituminous
mixes and also having less maintenance problems.
It overcomes the problems of water seepage through
its voidless nature. Mastic asphalt has been found to
satisfy several requirements to an acceptable degree
though improvement is desirable in certain respects.
1.1
Objectives of Study
Mastic asphalt is potentially advantageous paving

material due to high stability, high durability, very low
maintenance and good riding quality. Mastic asphalt
has gained and would further gain wide acceptance
in road construction technique. The objectives of the
present investigation are:i)
To study the effect of industrial grade bitumen

in mastic asphalt preparation.
ii)
To study the effect of blending of industrial

grade bitumen and VG in mastic asphalt
preparation.
iii)
To study the skid resistance and rut resistance

of mastic asphalt and carry out its comparison
with other surface courses.
2.1
Components and their

Characteristics
Basically coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, filler and

binder are the main components of mastic asphalt
concrete. However, the materials used and their
specifications are discussed below:-
Professor & Coordinator, Transportation Engg. Group, Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee.
E-mail: pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in
**
Army Sponsored M.Tech. Student, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
13
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.1.1 Bitumen
Although, harder grades of bitumen are generally
used but it is found that softer grades of bitumen can
also be used for mastic asphalt preparation. As per
IRC:107-1992, 14 to 17% of binder content is required
by weight without coarse aggregate for wearing course
and it can be straight run bitumen or industrial bitumen
of suitable consistency satisfying the requirements of
physical properties as per IS:702-1961.
2.1.2 Coarse Aggregate
The coarse aggregates shall consist of clean, hard,
durable, crushed rock free of disintegrated pieces,
organic and other deleterious matter and adherent
coatings. They shall be hydrophobic, low porous,
and satisfy the physical requirements as set forth in
IRC:107-1992.
coarse aggregates is added and heating of mix shall

continue for another one hour. Thus a total period of
minimum three hours is needed to prepare the mastic.
During mixing and cooking, care is taken to ensure
that the contents in the cooker are at no time heated to
a temperature exceeding 200C.
2.2
Hardness Number
The hardness number of bitumen mastic shall be

determined at 25C in accordance with the method
specified in Appendix-D of IS: 1195-1978 as given in
Table-1.
Table 1: Hardness Number Requirement
Type of mastic asphalt
Without coarse aggregates
With coarse aggregates
Limit of hardness number

at 25C
60-80
10-20
2.1.3 Filler Material

The stability and strength to an asphalt mix is imparted
by filler which may be fly ash, lime, limestone,
hydrated lime, stone dust, cement etc. The filler
shall be passing 75 micron and shall have a calcium
carbonate content of not less than 80 per cent when
determined in accordance with IS: 1195- 1978.
2.1.4 Fine Aggregate
The fine aggregates shall consist of crushed hard rock
or natural sand or a mixture of both. The grading of
fine aggregates inclusive of filler material passing 75
micron shall be as per IRC:107-1992
2.1.5 Manufacture of Bitumen Mastic
As per IRC:107-1992, the manufacture of bitumen
mastic involves different stages. Initially the filler
alone is heated to a temperature of 170C to 200C
in a mechanically agitated mastic cooker and half the
required quantity of bitumen heated at 170C to 180C
is added. These are mixed and cooked for one hour.
After that the fine aggregates and the balance bitumen
(at 170C to 180C) are added to that mixture in the
cooker and heated upto 170C to 200C and further
mixed for another one hour. In the final stage, the
14
3.1 Experimental Programme

Result Ananlysis
and
Mastic asphalt is used extensively as surfacing

material for highways and streets subjected to heavy
traffic. Therefore, it should have the basic properties
like resistance to rutting and deformation under heavy
traffic conditions, good riding quality, better skid
resistance and high durability. It has been found to
satisfy these requirements to an acceptable degree
though improvements are highly desirable in certain
respects such as skid resistance and rut resistance
property. The grading and amount of coarse aggregate
is governed by the thickness at which the mastic
asphalt is laid. Since mastic asphalt is voidless, it is
not mechanically compacted unlike materials such as
rolled asphalt and bituminous macadam, however, in
India; it is hand spread till today. The binder content
in mastic asphalt concrete is roughly twice of rolled
asphalt. To keep permanent deformation or rutting
within reasonable limits, a much more viscous binder
is normally recommended for mastic asphalt.
The following tests were performed on samples of
mastic asphalt concrete to determine its properties at
TECHNICAL PAPERS
various conditions:i)
Wilson Hardness Test.
ii)
Wheel Tracking Rut Resistant Test.
iii)
Portable Skid Resistance.
3.2 Material Selection and Properties

Mastic asphalt is a mix of bitumen, filler, fine aggregate
and coarse aggregate in suitable proportions. The
Indian standards and the Indian Roads Congress
specifications are commonly used for design of
mastic asphalt. These specifications specify a mix
for most modern roads and bridges that will provide
a compromise between various properties of the
materials, in particular its stability, resistance to rutting
and shoving. However, it may be possible to improve
these properties by varying the ingredients and their
contents as well as introducing various additives such
as polymers, rubber, sulphur etc.
Under the present investigation, following materials
were used to prepare different type of mixes.
Table 2: Final Grading of Coarse Aggregates

IS Sieve
Percent Passing (by wt)

Adopted
19.0 mm
13.2 mm
2.36 mm
As per IRC/MORSTH
100
92.5
4.5
100
88-96
0-5
Table 3: Physical Requirements of

Coarse Aggregates for Mastic Asphalt
Properties
Values (in %)
As per Observed
IRC
Los Angeles
Abrasion Value
30
30.3
Flakiness Index
35
37
Stripping Value
25
18.2
IS:6241
Soundness (Sodium
Sulphate 5 cycles)
12
7.3
IS:2386
(Part V)
Water absorption
1.2
IS:2386
(Part III)
Coarse Aggregate - Crushed rock (19mm -2.36mm).

Fine Aggregate
- Natural sand.
Filler
- Marble dust, cement and slacked

lime stone powder.
Binder
- Industrial grade and VG 30.
The first attempt was made to use VG 30 bituminous

binder by adding varying quantity of lime, marble dust
and cement. Mastic was formed but desired hardness
number could not be achieved.
3.2.1 Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate is added to the mastic to achieve extra
stability, resistance to wear and better skid resistance.
The coarse aggregates shall consist of clean, hard,
durable, crushed rock free of disintegrated pieces,
organic and other deleterious matter and adherent
coatings. The grading of the coarse aggregate used in
this investigation is given in Table 2 and the physical
properties are shown in Table 3.
Test Method
IS:2386 (Part
IV)
IS:2386 (Part I)
3.2.2 Fine Aggregate and Filler

The fine aggregate shall consist of crushed hard rock
or natural sand or a mixture of both. An essential
requirement needed in fine aggregate is that it
conforms to the grading specified by IRC:107-1992.
For this investigation, natural sand has been used as
fine aggregate and the grading of fine aggregate used
has been given in Table 4. If the fine aggregate is
free from moisture, and is warm, it has an advantage
during the manufacture of the mastic asphalt. In mastic
asphalt, filler content is about four to five times than
that of conventional bituminous mixes and has more
pronounced influence on strength and rheological
behavior. The filler shall be lime stone powder or
suitable other material passing 75 micron with calcium
carbonate not less than 80 percent when determined in
accordance with IS: 1195-1978. Lime stone powder is
no doubt the best filler, because of its inherent affinity
to bitumen. The filler in the mix has a multiple action
15
TECHNICAL PAPERS
such as filling of voids, controls voids in mineral
aggregate, increase contact area and stiffness of the
mix and improves strength and adhesiveness.
Table 4: Grading of Fine Aggregate
Passing IS
sieve
2.36 mm
600 micron
212 micron
Retained on
IS sieve
600 micron
212 micron
75 micron
% by weight
As per IRC
Adopted
0-25
5-35
10-20
20
35
20
3.2.3 Binder
Mastic asphalt contains about 14 - 17% of bitumen and
hard bitumen are preferred because of higher viscous
properties. The binder shall be straight run bitumen
conforming to IS: 73-1961 or industrial bitumen as
per IS: 702-1961 of suitable consistency satisfying the
requirement of physical properties. In order to be used
in a surfacing material the binder must be capable of
getting softened by heat until it becomes a purely
viscous fluid, so that it can be mixed with the mineral
aggregate. Also, it should be not so soft in summer that
the surface deforms nor so hard in winter that surface
becomes brittle and cracked. In this investigation,
industrial grade bitumen, VG 30 and their blend in the
ratio of 60 to 40% have been used.
Table 5: Physical Properties of
Bitumen Used for Mastic Asphalt
Specification
Test Result
Industrial VG 30 Requirement
grade
as per IS
Bitumen
Specification
Penetration at 25C
10
60
20/40
Softening Point
85C
47C
50C to 90C
Ductility at 25C
100
10
Loss on Heating
1%
<1%
1%
3.3 Laboratory Testing Procedures and Results

Wilson hardness test, skid resistance test and rutting
resistance tests have been performed on the mastic
16
asphalt samples. The equipment used in the conduct

of these tests and procedure followed alongwith the
results obtained are enumerated in the paragraphs
below.
3.3.1 Wilson Hardness Test and Results
The Wilson hardness test is the only standard test
adopted by the design codes of various countries,
including India and England. This test is called as
Indentation test in Germany. The Wilson hardness test
is a very quick and simple test in which a 6.35 mm
diameter rod is loaded to cause an indentation in the
test sample. The depth of indentation is in hundreds
of a cm, recorded as the hardness number. A load of
31.7kg is applied to the rod for a period of 60 seconds.
The test is performed in a water bath at a constant
temperature of 25C. The hardness number for mastic
asphalt specimens shall conform to the requirements
given in Table 6. In this investigation, optimum binder
content have been selected based on the results of
Wilson hardness test and thereafter other tests were
performed on the specimens thus selected.
3.3.2 The Hardness number on both mortar of mastic
asphalt and mastic asphalt concrete were determined
at 25C in accordance with the method specified in
Appendix D of IS:1195-1978. This test was carried
out in two steps:Step I: Design of Mastic Asphalt Mortar: At
this step, mastic asphalt specimens without coarse
aggregate were prepared for hardness number testing,
with varying percentages of VG 30 bitumen and
fillers. However, due to unsatisfactory results of VG
30 bitumen, industrial grade as recommended by IS
1195-1978 was used. Later, to overcome disadvantages
of industrial grade, a blend of industrial grade 85/25
and VG 30 bitumen was tried with percentages of 60
and 40 respectively. In case of blending, only slacked
lime was used as filler. Based on the hardness number
(60-80), the binder content has been selected for all
types of mixes. A summary of results is given in tables
below:INDIAN HIGHWAYS, July 2013
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 6: Results of Hardness Test on
Mastic Mortar with VG 30
Filler
type
Filler
%
Mix Type
% of Binder Content
14
15
16
17
Marble
Dust
40
50
I
II
165
152
178
165
Cement
40
50
I
II
147
126
159
138
Lime
Slacked
30
40
50
I
II
III
128
113
*
136
126
98
study on time, previous study reports were considered

and a single percentage of coarse aggregate was
decided to check the hardness number of mastic
asphalt concrete. Results of hardness test on mastic
asphalt concrete are listed in tables below:
*Mix did not form mastic asphalt.

Mastic Mortar with Industrial Grade
Filler
type
Filler
%
Mix Type
Cement
20
25
Lime
Slacked
20
25
Fig. 1: Test Set Up of Wilson Hardness Test
% of Binder Content
18
19
20
I
II
33
21
52
44
66
58
I
II
29
18
49
38
61
55
Table 8: Results of Hardness Test on Mastic Mortar

with Blend of Industrial Grade and VG 30
Filler
type
Filler
%
Mix Type
Lime
Slacked
20
25
30
I
II
III
% of Binder Content
18
19
20
52
47
*
59.5
53
*
73
63
*
Fig. 2: Wilson Hardness Test Specimens
*Mix did not form mastic asphalt.
Step II: Design of Mastic Asphalt Concrete: At

this step, with selected bitumen content for mastic
mortar of each type of filler and mix type, different
percentages of coarse aggregates needs to be added
and again the Wilson hardness test has to be performed
to obtain hardness number of samples. Thereafter the
percentages of coarse aggregate are to be selected on
the basis of hardness number (10-20). To complete the
Fig. 3: Specimen after Testing
17
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Mastic Asphalt Concrete
Filler
type
Mix
Type
%
Hardness Hardness no.
Coarse
no. with
with blend
aggregate Industrial of Industrial
grade
grade and VG
30
Cement
42.5
12
Lime
Slacked
42.5
11
Lime
Slacked
II
42.5
10
bolts. The machine was then started and the sample

underwent 5,000 wheel passes of a rubber tyred
wheel. Then the sample was again taken to the British
portable skid resistance tester and both the dry and
wet skid resistance values were measured. The process
was repeated for 10000, 20000, 30000, 40000 and
50000 wheel passes and alongwith skid resistance, the
rut depth was also measured. It has been found from
the investigations that mastic asphalt has a very high
rut resistance. But the results confirm the recoverable
nature of Mastic Asphalt in terms of Rutting.
Based on above results, the proportions of coarse

aggregate, fine aggregate, filler and binder content
have been finally adopted and are as given in
Table 10 below:Table 10: Final Percentage of Aggregates and
Bitumen after Hardness Number Verification
Fig. 4: Mastic Asphalt Samples for Rutting Machine
Filler Mix Binder % of Ingredients(by wt of total mix)

Type Type Type
Fine
Filler Binder
new
Coarse
(say)
Aggregate Aggregate
Cement
Industrial
grade
42.5
26.7
20
10.8
Lime
Slacked
Industrial
grade
42.5
26.3
20
11.2
Lime
Slacked
Blend of
Industrial
Grade
and VG
30
42.5
20.7
25
11.8
Fig. 5: Indigenous Wheel Tracking machine with sample
With these percentages, three mastic asphalt samples

(approximately 8.5 kg in weight) were prepared and
tested for skid resistance and rutting resistance.
3.3.3 Wheel Tracking Device and Testing
After measuring the initial skid resistance, the sample
was placed on the table of the equipment fabricated
in IIT, Roorkee, and fixed with the help of nuts and
18
Fig. 6: Mastic Asphalt Sample under Testing for Rutting
TECHNICAL PAPERS
of wheel passes. The mastic asphalt samples were
tested and the results are analyzed and presented in
the Table 12.
Table 12: Skid Resistance Values of Mastic Asphalt Vs
No. of Passes by Rubber Wheel
No. of
Mastic
Wheel Asphalt (Mix
Passes
Type A)
Fig. 7: Mastic Asphalt Sample after Rut Resistance Test
Table 11: Rut Resistance (mm) Values of Mastic

Asphalt Vs No. of Passes by Rubber Wheel
No. of
Wheel
Passes
Mastic
Asphalt(Mix
Type A)
5000
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
Mastic
Mastic
Asphalt (Mix Asphalt (Mix
Type B)
Type C)
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 0.5
3.3.4 Skid Resistance Test and Results
0
5000
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
Mastic
Asphalt (Mix
Type C)
dry
wet
dry
wet
dry
wet
0.95
0.89
0.80
0.74
0.66
0.58
0.53
0.81
0.74
0.72
0.66
0.64
0.63
0.62
0.98
0.90
0.86
0.84
0.76
0.74
0.70
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.66
0.65
0.61
0.60
0.85
0.82
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.69
0.63
0.77
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.58
-
CONCLUSIONS
Based on this investigation, following conclusions are

drawn:i)
The mix designs have been attempted to achieve

a dense mix with industrial grade of bitumen
and also with the blend of industrial grade of
bitumen and VG 30 bitumen.
ii)
It is found in the investigation that time taken

for the mastic cooking with industrial grade
bitumen is 3 to 3.5 hours whereas in case of
blending of industrial grade bitumen and VG
30 bitumen, time taken was merely 2.0 to 2.5
hours.
iii)
The mastic mix prepared with cement as a filler

requires less bitumen content than the mastic
prepared with slacked lime as the filler. Also,
in the rutting resistance tests both the samples
behaved equally well.
iv)
Surface friction of all types of mixes is adequate

(>0.5).
v)
Cost of the mastic formed using blended

bitumen will be comparatively lesser, since
softer grades of bitumen are cheaper.
The skid resistance values of the samples were tested

by using the British Portable Skid Resistance Tester
(Pendulum Type) and wheel tracking device to verify
the change in skid resistance with increase in number
Fig. 8: Skid Resistance Testing in Progress
Mastic
Asphalt (Mix
Type B)
19
TECHNICAL PAPERS
vi)
Rutting resistance of mastic asphalt is almost

negligible and even if small amount exits, it
heals with time.
vii) Mastic asphalt can be prepared with filler

quantity of 20-30% whereas IRC/MoRTH
recommended the use of 30-50% of filler with
harder grades of bitumen.
REFERENCES
Chandra Nikesh (2008). Laboratory study of low cost bituminous

wearing courses. M.Tech. Dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engg.,
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 45-83.
IRC:107-1992, Tentative Specifications for Bitumen mastic
wearing courses. Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
IS: 1195-1978, Specification for bitumen mastic for flooring.
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Partl, M.N., Vinson, T.S., Hicks, R.G. (1994). Mechanical
properties of stone mastic asphalt infrastructure: new materials
and methods of repair. Material Conf. 804, ASCE, 849-858.
Arya, I.R., and Goel, D.C. (1996). Design and construction of

mastic asphalt for bridge deck. J. Indian Highway, 24, 15-25.
Rajbongshi Pabitra (2001). Investigation on mastic asphalt using

soft bitumen with rubber. M.E. Dissertation, Dept. of Civil Engg.,
University of Roorkee, Roorkee, 1-46.
Azadani, M.N. (1997). Evaluation of mastic asphalt concrete as

a wearing course. Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Civil Engg., University
of Roorkee, Roorkee, 58-92.
Road Research Laboratory (RRL). Bituminous Materials in Road

Construction. Ministry of Transport, HMSO, London, 1962.
20
TECHNICAL PAPERS
A Study on Evaluation of Stress Behavior of

Rigid Pavement by concept Shell System
Tapas Kumar Roy* and Rathin Ghoshal**
ABSTRACT
Now-a-days the use of rigid pavement has been encouraged by
various agencies throughout the world due to its sustainability, low
life cycle cost, environmental friendly nature etc. Conventionally
such pavement is designed by considering a plate resting on
elastic foundation. However, development of stresses in the plate
is much higher compared to that of shell due to application of
load on top of both the structures. So, the idea to study the nature
of stress occurring in a concrete pavement in the shape of a shell
has been taken in this investigation. This study has been done
with preparation of model with different radius of curvature and
the stress generated is analysed with simplest form of loading to
establish the nature of stress behavior variations with change of
radius of curvature. The analysis have been done by using finite
element software and presented in the paper.
1 Background
When a beam is employed to transfer a load across
a gap, it does so by developing bending stress. Here
the material of the beam is stressed to its maximum
useful limit only at the top and bottom surfaces and
in most part of its section, the material remains understressed. Thus the local efficiency of the beam is only
far below 100% for most part of its section.
If a system of beam put side by side to cover a space
is compared with a flat slab, it will be seen that a
slab is more efficient than the beams because its twodimensional behavior introduces transverse moment
and twisting. Hence a large portion of the slab comes
into action to support a concentrated load. Further,
the flat slab deflects its middle surface and acts as a
membrane to resist deflection under concentrated
load.
A cable supported between two points and carrying
given load is subjected to tensile stresses, which
will be uniform on the entire section. Thus the local
efficiency is nearly 100%.
Further, in every thin slab, the membrane action

increases and the bending stress become less
prominent. But as a cable cannot carry loads unless
it is having suitable sag, so a slab must be given a
sag or shape to support loads by membrane stresses
alone. The membrane in that case will develop axial
tensile stresses along its curve. If the membrane curve
is inverted, the stresses will be equal in magnitude but
compressive.
Presently, the rigid pavement is designed as a thin
plate resting on elastic foundation. The shape of the
pavement in cross section is considered as a horizontal
rigid plate, which remains plain after bending. For
this bending stress, the slab thickness becomes higher.
On the other hand due to curved shape of the thin
slab, only the membrane stress becomes prominent
compared to that of bending stress. In view of this the
stress behavior of the pavement designed in a shape of
shell has been explored in this study.
2
Review of Literature
Large number of investigators made their investigations

on different properties e.g. structural response,
abrasion resistance, stress-strain, green strength and
consolidatability, load transfer characteristics of
plain jointed as well as reinforced concrete pavement
[Darestani et al. (2007); Ghafoori and Tays (2007);
Francesco et al. (2008); Thomas et al. (2010); Roy
Maitra et al. (2010)]. Further some researchers studied
the performance of rigid pavement by mixing some
alternative materials [Kumar et al. (2007); Tao et al.
(2008); Issa et al. (2008)]. All the analysis performed
by assuming the pavement structure as a plate. But,
such analysis by changing the basic shape of concrete
pavement in the form of a shell type structure has not
Assistant Professor (Sr. Grade), Dept. of Civil Engineering, BESU, Shibpur, E-mail: tapasn2000@hotmail.com
**
Project Manager, Consulting Engineering Services (I) Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata
21
TECHNICAL PAPERS
been undertaken yet. The present study is therefore an
effort with such an idea of shell type for the design of
concrete pavement.
3 Objectives
The objectives of the study are summarized as under:

To investigate the stresses in concrete pavement

in a shape of a shell due to application of load
resting on an elastic foundation.
To compare the developed stresses between plate

and shells.
4 Methodology
4.1
The Concept
In Fig.1, a conventional a single-lane pavement of

3.5 m width with a 3.5% camber practically feasible
maximum value over a single lane road has been
shown. It is observed from the figure that, for such
specified camber, the road center remains 61.25 mm
above the two edges on either side. Now, if a circle
is drawn through two edge points and the center, a
25 m radius is obtained. This circular top surface can
be used as pavement surface behaves as a shell or arch
structure effect on the pavement.
by using STAAD ProV8i, a popular finite element

software (FES), to assess the stress generated in the
structures under consideration. The software models
have been prepared with the above curvature values
in a full width single lane road pavement along with
plate models and applied load. Stress generated in
the top and bottom fiber of the models is obtained
and compared to study the stress behavior of all the
models.
4.2
Assumptions
The following assumptions have been made to carry

out the analysis to achieve the objectives:

M 40 concrete has been used.
Analysis done with static wheel load with one

wheel placed on the slab at a time at centre or
corner or edge.
Single lane pavement with a length of slab

along traffic flow assumed as 5 m.
Only wheel load and no other stress generating

parameter have been used.
Stresses due to temperature have not been

considered.
4.3 Support Conditions

All the models are supported on elastic sub-grade
foundations. Supports are only along global Y axis for
plates, whereas, beside support along Y axis, horizontal
(along X) support is also provided in shell models. The
pavement is expected to get this horizontal support
from the horizontal friction. Modulus of subgrade
reaction for the supporting medium is assumed
as 54.2MN/m3 (200 pci) for the analysis which is
approximately equivalent CBR of 10.
Fig. 1: A Single Lane Shell Shaped Pavement Cross-Section
Further, to study the effect of curvature, two more

such values have been considered as 8.8 m and
2.9 m besides 25.0 m in this study. These values have
been assumed approximately as one third and oneninth of 25.0 m. These analyses have been performed
22
4.4 Loading
The loading is done in three patterns, near the corner,
in the interior of the slab at a considerable distance
from any edge, and near the edge far from any corner.
Details of loads are given as follows:

Wheel Load: 44.5kN (10000lb)

TECHNICAL PAPERS

Radius of wheel load area: 150 mm (6 in)
Area of wheel load: 0.072966 sqm (0.785399

sft)
Fig. 3(b) Evaluated Maximum Bottom Stresses for

Varying Shell Radius
Fig. 2: Loading in the Interior of the Slab

Obtained from Model in STAAD
The load is imposed in the model with respect to

local co-ordinate system as per the requirement of the
software used. The entire section is divided in 100
equal divisions comprising small segments of area
0.175 sqm (0.35 m 0.5 m).
5
Results and Discussions
5.1
Variation of
Curvature
Stresses
with
Radius
of
Study has been done on the above concept with

the assumptions, support conditions and loading
mentioned earlier and the results are presented
graphically in the Fig. 3(a) and 3(b) by showing the
variation of stresses both at top and bottom fiber of
the shell sections of varying thickness due to change
of radius of curvature.
Fig. 3(a) Evaluated Maximum Top Stresses for

Varying Shell Radius
Maximum stresses evaluated by FEM at top fiber of

shell sections for varying thickness of slab shown in
Fig. 3 (a) indicated that the increment in the radius of
shell from 2.9 m to 8.8 m, the stress values increases
sharply and remain as 3.667 N/mm2, 2.576 N/mm2,
2.223 N/mm2, 2.141 N/mm2, 2.061 N/mm2, and
1.985 N/mm2 for the thickness of slab 50 mm,
70 mm, 80 mm, 85 mm, 90 mm and 95 mm respectively.
However further increment of radius, this values
increases at a slow rate and the developed stresses for
lower thickness have shown a higher value compared
to that of higher thickness for the same shell radius.
The development of stress at bottom fiber of shell
section having various thickness as shown in Fig. 3(b)
also increases gradually with the increment of shell
radius and shown by (-) sign as it is tension in nature.
5.2
Variation of Stresses in Plate and Shell of

Varying Thickness
Evaluation of stresses in shell for three different radii

and also in plate has been done for varying thickness
and results are given in the Table 1and also graphically
shown in the Fig. 4(a) and 4(b).
From the graphical representation shown in Fig. 4(a),
it is observed that due to decrease in thickness of the
section of all models obviously increases the amount
of stress gradually in the top fiber of all sections. This
may be occurred due to section modulus and strength.
However, the developed stress at the top fiber of the
section of shell having radius of curvature (R) 2.9 m
is considerably lower than that of plate as well as all
other R-value of shell sections for all the thickness
considered in the observations. Similarly observations
23
TECHNICAL PAPERS
are made in Fig. 4(b) for the stress developed in the
bottom fiber of all the sections of the model with
opposite phenomenon.
Table 1: Stresses Developed in Shell Sections of
Varying Radius and Plate Section
Stress
(N/mm2)
Top
Plate
Shell
2.9
Shell
8.8
Shell
25
95
90
1.906
1.984
Thickness (mm)
85
80
2.066
2.202
70
50
2.647
3.795
Bottom -1.906 -1.984 -2.066 -2.202 -2.647 -3.795

Top
1.69
Bottom -1.648
Top
1.985
1.749
1.812
1.877
2.017
2.614
-1.75 -1.862
0.446 -2.264 -2.984
2.061
2.223
2.141
2.576
3.667
Bottom -1.724 -1.802 -1.948 -2.134 -2.573 -3.713

Top
1.948
2.026
2.107
2.2
2.643
Fig. 4(b) Evaluated Stresses in Bottom of Plate &

Shell for Various Thicknesses
3.78
Bottom -1.851 -1.929 -2.011 -2.193 -2.639 -3.792
To have a clear idea about the amount of stress being

reduced by shell effect compare to that generated in
plate, results are presented in the Table 2. This value
is basically presenting (Absolute value of stress
generated in shell of certain thickness Absolute
value of stress generated in a plate of same thickness).
(+) value indicates the stress generated in shell is
less by that amount compared to a plate and (-) value
indicates stress generated in shell is more.
Table 2: Net Stresses Developed in Shell Sections of

Varying Radius Compared to that of Plate Section
Thickness (mm)
90
85
80
70
50
0.235
0.254
0.325
0.63
1.181
0.234
0.204
0.218
0.383
0.811
-0.079 -0.077 -0.075 -0.021 0.071

Stress Top
Shell
8.8 (N/ Bottom 0.182 0.182 0.118 0.068 0.074
mm2)
0.128
0.216
Stress Top
Shell
2.9 (N/ Bottom 0.258
mm2)
Stress
Shell
25 (N/
mm2)
Fig. 4(a) Evaluated Stresses in top of Plate & Shell

for Various Thickness
24
95
Top
-0.042 -0.042 -0.041 0.002
Bottom 0.055
0.055
0.055
0.009
0.082
0.004
0.015
0.008
0.003
It is observed from the Table 2 that stress reduction is

occurred by a considerable amount in the bottom fiber
of shell section of all the varying radius compared
to that of plate section. Ultimately this is the gain
in stress of shell section compared to the plate and
such gain increases with the decrease in thickness
of the shell section and maximum gain is achieved
for the shell section having radius 2.9 m. However,
with the increasing radius, this gain decreases with
the decrease of thickness of the shell section. This is
perhaps due to membrane action becomes prominent
TECHNICAL PAPERS
with lesser thickness. As the stresses in bottom fiber is
tension in nature and shall rule the design thickness,
this gain can be treated as a significant one. Top stress
also shows a gain for R=2.9, but for other increasing
R-values of shell sections, showing a loss for higher
thicknesses.
6
6.
Roy Maitra, S., Reddy, K. S., and Ramachandra, L. S.

(2010) Load Transfer Characteristics of Aggregate
Interlocking in Concrete Pavement Journal of
Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Volume 136, No.3,
pp.190-195.
7.
Tao, M., Zhang, Z. and Zhong Wu. (2008) Simple

Procedure to Assess Performance and Cost Benefits of
Using Recycled Materials in Pavement Construction,
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Volume
20, No.11, pp. 718-725.
8.
Thomas, V., Jean-Juste, M., Wang, K., and Shah, S.P.

(2010) Using Fly Ash, Clay, and Fibers for Simultaneous
Improvement of Concrete Green Strength and
Consolidatability for Slip-Form Pavement, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Volume 20, No.2,
pp.196-206.
Conclusions
Analysis of rigid pavement by using the concept of

shell section compared to the plate section indicated
a reduction in stresses due to application of load. This
may be achieved due to membrane action of the shell
structure. Further the gradual reduction of stresses is
observed in the bottom fiber of shell section decreases
with the decreasing radius of curvature of the same,
which governs the design thickness of the rigid
pavement and ultimately reduces the construction cost
by reducing the thickness of the same.
References
1.
Darestani, M. Y., Thambiratnam, D. P., Nataatmadja, A.

and Baweja, D. (2007) Structural Response of Concrete
Pavements under Moving Truck Loads , Journal of
Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Volume 133, No.12,
pp. 670-676
2.
Francesco, B., Lidia, R., Giuseppe, S., and Swamy, R. N.

(2008) Stress-Strain Behavior of Steel Fiber-Reinforced
Concrete in Compression, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, Volume 20, No.3, pp. 255-263.
3.
Ghafoori, N. and Tays, M.W. (2007) Abrasion Resistance

of Early-Opening-to-Traffic Portland Cement Concrete
Pavements, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,
ASCE, Volume 19, No.11, pp. 925-935.
4.
Issa, M. A., Alhassan, M. A. and Shabila, H. (2008)

High-Performance Plain and Fibrous Latex-Modified
and Microsilica Concrete Overlays, Journal of Materials
in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Volume 20, No.12, pp. 742753.
5.
Kumar, B., Tike, G. K. and Nanda, P. K. (2007) Evaluation

of Properties of High-Volume Fly-Ash Concrete for
Pavements, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,
ASCE, Volume 19, No.10, pp. 906-911
25
TECHNICAL PAPERS
METHOD FOR EVALUATION OF TILT AND

SHIFT OF A WELL
Dhrubajyoti Bhattacharya*
ABSTRACT
Lateral shift of a well, without any occurrence of tilt, may take
place in very specific occasions. In general, firstly tilt occurs.
During or after sinking, while the tilt is rectified partly or fully,
shift occurs automatically. Shift is generally a result or product
during rectification of tilt of the well. Occurrence of both tilt and
shift in a well depends mainly on the characteristics of the soil as
well as the method and skill for sinking of the well.
by grabbing method. While grabbing method is

followed at site for sinking of well, tilt of well depends
on the following criteria:

Soil characteristics
In case of stiff clay, tilting probability is less.

But as it is difficult to sink a well through highly
cohesive soil due to high friction/cohesion,
creation of deep sump is the normal attitude.
Due to this deep sump, well gets sunk suddenly
and generally as a result tilt occurs.
In case of sandy soil, tilting probability remains

during sinking from the very beginning. For
coarser sand, making central sump is more
comfortable, which helps the well to sink
vertically without major tilt. In case of silty sand
or silty strata, control of central sump in well
becomes difficult, and as a result of which the
well gets tilted.
Systematic grabbing
Systematic and requisite grabbing is very

important to sink a well with minimum tilt.
Alignment of the well
It is very important to keep the alignment of the

well steinings straight while concreting. Zigzag
alignment of steining will disturb sinking of
the well and as a result the well may get tilted.
Besides the above, zigzag steining alignment
may cause danger to the well from design point
of view.
Gauge marking on well steining outer surface
All the gauge marks should be drawn correctly, or

otherwise it may reflect a false/wrong tilt. Action
In a well, IRC code allows tilt upto 1 in 80 and shift upto 150 mm at
base. Shift at top of the well is the criteria mainly to accommodate
the pier / abutment on the well cap top. For the tilt and shift
beyond permissible limits, the design criteria of the well must be
verified by the designer.
For verification of design of the well, it is necessary to find out
the correct resultant tilt and its direction angle with the axis.
The resultant shift at base is also required to be calculated for
verification. Clarifications and method of calculations for finding
out both Tilt and Shift of a well have been made in this paper,
which may help the young engineers at site.
INTRODUCTION
During sinking of a well, Tilt and Shift is a normal

phenomenon. It has been observed at different sites
that during calculation of Tilt and Shift, lots of
discrepancies arise, particularly for calculation of
resultant tilt and resultant shift at base. This paper
contains the detailed method of calculations.
Shift at base of the well is a combination of Lateral
shift at top and Shift at base due to tilt.
Analysis and calculations have been made in this
paper and clarified with some examples.
TILT OF WELL
While the well is sunk by pneumatic method,

probability of major tilt is less. But when the well
is sunk by grabbing method, tilt is a normal
phenomenon. Sinking of wells is normally executed
*
26
Associate, Consulting Engineering Services (India) Private Limited, Kolkata, E-mail : dhruba48@gmail.com
TECHNICAL PAPERS
OR 1 in (AE/ED)
on the basis of false/wrong tilt may even cause

increase in tilt, which will create a misguidance
at site.
AE is well length known from gauge mark.

(assumed as 25m)
2.1 Method of Measurement for Tilt
Considered AA distance = 2 m
So, total well length
Tilt is measured at a specific gauge mark on the

well (on outer surface of the steining).
= 25 m + 2 m = 27 m
ED is shift at base due to tilt, for well length of
25m
Similarly ED is shift at base due to tilt, for well
length of 27m
ADE & ACB are similar.
So, AE/ED will be equivalent to AB/AC.
AB = Outer dia (OD) of the well
AC = Level difference at gauge mark.
So, Tilt can be measured as:
1 in AB/AC (= 1 in AE/ED)
For example:
If the level difference at the particular gauge mark is
400 mm along U/S D/S and OD of the well is
8000 mm, the Tilt is 1 in 8000/400 on U/S D/S
axis.
i.e., 1 in 20.
So, ED = 25000/20 = 1250 mm
Fig. 1: Sectional View Along U/S D/S
U/S & D/S denotes Up Stream and Down

Stream respectively.
L/S & R/S denotes Left Side and Right Side
respectively.
Tilt of the well, as shown in Fig. 1, is ED in AE
length of the well.
ED = Shift due to tilt (for the well of length of 27 m)

= (27x1250)/25 =1350 mm
Or, 27000/20 = 1350 mm
At site, for Tilt, level differences on gauge marks at
a specific plane, are measured on both directions.

Along U/S D/S and
(measured on gauge marks at AB plane)
Along L/S R/S
Or, in the other way, tilt of the well is ED in AE

length of the well.
Thus the Tilt can be calculated on both the directions

individually.
(considered full length of the well on the basis

of AB plane)
Example:
So, Tilt = 1 in (AE/ED)
Gauge marks considered at 25 m steining height
OD of Well = 8000 mm
27
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Level difference along U/S D/S = 400 mm (U/S is
up and D/S is down)
Level difference along L/S R/S = 200 mm (L/S is up
and R/S is down)
So, Tilt along U/S D/S
= 1 in (8000/400)
Refer Fig. 2.
Resultant tilt: (calculated level difference along
resultant direction )
= [(400)2 + (200)2] = 447.21 mm
So, Resultant Tilt = 1 in 8000/ 447.21 = 1 in 17.89
Resultant Tilt direction:
= 1 in 20 (Towards D/S)
Shift at base due to tilt (ref fig-1)
= 27000/20 = 1350 mm ...(i)
(Considered length of the well from well top to base =
25m +2m = 27m)
Between D/S and R/S

Tan = 200/400 =0.5
So, = 26.57
Resultant Tilt direction shall be at an angle of 26.57
from D/S axis.
Tilt along L/S R/S
2nd Method to find out Resultant Tilt:
= 1 in (8000/200)
The 2nd method is based on the magnitudes of shift

at base due to Tilt along the axes. Refer equations (i)
and (ii).
= 1 in 40 (Towards R/S)
Shift at base due to tilt (ref fig-1)
= 27000/40 = 675 mm ..(ii)
25 m +2 m = 27 m)
Resultant Tilt direction: Between D/S and R/S
More inclined towards D/S
2.2
Resultant Tilt
Fig. 3: Resultant Tilt
Either of the following two methods can be adopted

for calculating the Resultant Tilt and its direction
Refer fig-3.
1 Method to find out the Resultant Tilt:
Resultant Shift at base due to tilt
The 1st method is based on the level differences along

the axes, but represented in horinzontal direction.
= [(1350)2 + (675)2]
st
= 1509.35 mm....(iii)
25 m +2 m = 27 m)
So,
Resultant Tilt = 1 in 27000/ 1509.35
= 1 in 17.89
Fig. 2: Resultant Tilt
28
(Resultant shift direction at base due to tilt is always

opposite to the resultant tilt direction)
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Shift at well top due to tilt is not calculated separately.
Between D/S and R/S
When fulcrum of rotation of the well is at top axis, no

shift at well top due to tilt occurs.
Tan = 675/1350 = 0.5

So, = 26.57
Resultant Tilt direction shall be at an angle of 26.57
from D/S axis.
It may be noted that the Resultant Tilt shall always
be more than the Tilts on individual axis. This
Resultant Tilt shall also be more inclined towards
the higher tilt direction.
Allowable Resultant Tilt is 1 in 80.
3
SHIFT OF WELL
In general, lateral shift of well does not occur in

cohesive soil strata. Due to non-homogeneous character
of the soil and non-perfection in sinking procedure,
tilt may occur in cohesive soil. Rectification of the tilt
results in shift of the well.
But in non-cohesive soil, like in sandy strata, lateral
shift of the well may occur even without any tilt. In noncohesive soil, if sinking is not done very cautiously, at
the initial stage of sinking, while the well has not been
sunk for a considerable depth, tilt may occur very
easily, which ultimately during rectification, results to
shift of the well.
Shift may occur due to other reasons also.

due to side earth pressure,
due to underground water pressure etc.
When fulcrum of rotation of the well is below the top

axis, shift at top occurs due to tilt about that fulcrum.
But as the fulcrum axis/plane is very uncertain, owing
to soil characteristics, and as the fulcrum axis changes
due to depth of the sinking, the shift at well top due to
tilt, whenever occurs, is not calculated separately.
Shift at well top due to tilt, if any, shall be added to or
subtracted from the Lateral shift of the well based on
the directions of the shifts
The total/net/measured shift, being combined with
both lateral shift and shift at well top due to tilt, is
considered as Shift on top of the well.
3.1.1 Method of Measurement for Shift on Top of the
Well:
Shift of the centre co-ordinate of the well on top level
is measured and it should be recorded axis wise.
Shift of well centre on top may occur in any of the four
quadrants. We have taken only two cases (quadrants)
for sample calculation in the intention to clarify the
shift directions.
Case 1:
When the resultant shift on well top is in the quadrant
between U/S & L/S
Shift of a well is considered/measured as

Shift on top of the well and
Shift at base due to tilt of the well and
Finally combined shift at base of the well
3.1 Shift on Top of the Well
Fig. 4
Shift on top of the well is basically combination of

Lateral shift of the well and
Shift at top due to tilt of the well
Considered Shift on top of the well:

To U/S from centre = 2230 mm
29
TECHNICAL PAPERS
To L/S from centre = 870 mm
Resultant Shift in the quadrant between U/S & L/S
= [(2230)2 + (870)2]
= 2393.70 mm
This Shift of the well at base due to tilt is just

opposite to the tilt direction. Fig. 3 may be referred
in this context. The axis wise magnitudes of the shifts
at base due to tilt are to be calculated as shown in
equation (i) and (ii).
Tan = 870/2230 = 0.39

So, = 21.31
Case 2:
When the resultant shift on well top is in the quadrant
between L/S & D/S
Fig. 6: Shift at Base Due to Tilt
3.3
Combined Shift at Base
We have already calculated shift at top axis wise

(Fig. 4 & Fig. 5) and shift at base due to tilt axis
wise (Fig. 6). All calculations are based on the well
of full length.
Considered Shift on top of the well:
Direction wise the shifts are to be added or subtracted

to get the combined shift at base. Refer Case-1 (Fig.7)
and Case-2 (Fig. 8) below.
To D/S from centre = 2230 mm
Case1:
Fig. 5
To L/S from centre = 870 mm

Resultant Shift in the quadrant between D/S & L/S
= [(2230)2 + (870)2]
= 2393.70 mm
Tan = 870/2230 = 0.39
So, = 21.31
3.2 Method of Measurement for Shift at Base Due
to Tilt of the Well
As the Shift on top of the well has been considered
to be combined with Lateral shift and Shift of the
well on top due to tilt, the Shift of the well at base
due to tilt shall be considered for the full length of
the well as shown in Fig. 6. No fulcrum effect shall be
considered to calculate the Shift of the well at base
due to tilt.
30
Fig. 7: Combined Shift at Base
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Refer Fig. 4 and Fig. 6
Combined shift at base towards
2230 mm + 1350 mm = 3580 mm
U/S
Combined shift at base towards L/S = 870 mm +

675 mm = 1545 mm
Combined resultant shift at base between U/S & L/S
= 3899 mm
Angle of combined resultant shift with U/S towards
L/S
1
= tan (1545/3580) = 23.34
Angle of combined resultant shift with D/S towards

L/S
= tan1 (1545/880) = 60.34
Similarly, shift at top and shift at base due to tilt
may be in other quadrants of the well. The combined
shift at base on axes and the resultant combined
shift shall be in accordance with the system adopted
herein above under fig-7 & fig-8 against case-1 &
case-2 respectively.
In this context it may be noted that allowable Resultant
Combined Shift at well base is 150 mm.
4 Summary of calculations for
tilt and shift
Case2:
Tilt:
Level difference measured along
U/S D/S = 400 mm
(U/S is up and D/S is down)
Level difference measured along
L/S R/S = 200 mm
(L/S is up and R/S is down)
Resultant Tilt = 1 in 17.89
At an angle of 26.57 from D/S axis towards R/S.
Shift:
Case 1:
Fig. 8: Combined shift at base
A.
Shift on top of the well:
Shift measured on top of well along axes:
Towards U/S from centre = 2230 mm
Refer Fig. 5 and Fig. 6
Towards L/S from centre = 870 mm
Combined shift at base towards D/S = 2230 mm

1350 mm = 880 mm
Magnitude of Resultant Shift on top of well in

the quadrant between U/S & L/S
Combined shift at base towards L/S = 870 mm +

675 mm = 1545 mm
= 2393.70 mm
Direction of Resultant shift on top of the well:

At an angle of 21.31 from U/S axis towards
L/S.
Combined resultant shift at base between D/S & L/S

= 1778 mm
31
TECHNICAL PAPERS
B.
Shift at base due to tilt of the well (axis wise):
C.
Combined resultant shift at base:
Combined resultant shift at base between U/S

& L/S = 3899 mm
Direction of combined resultant shift at base of

the well: At an angle of 23.34 o from U/S axis
towards L/S.
Case 2:
A.
Shift on top of the well:
Shift measured on top of well along axes:
Towards D/S from centre = 2230 mm
Magnitude of Resultant shift on top of well in

the quadrant between D/S & L/S
= 2393.70 mm
Direction of Resultant shift on top of the well:

At an angle of 21.31 o from D/S axis towards
L/S.
B.
Shift at base due to tilt of the well (axis wise):
C.
Combined resultant shift at base:
Combined resultant shift at base between D/S

& L/S = 1778 mm
Direction of combined resultant shift at base of

the well: At an angle of 60.34 o from D/S axis
towards L/S.
But, the magnitude of the shift of the well at base

due to tilt depends on the well length. For such
measurements of shift at base due to tilt, always
full length of the well (cast length) is required to be
considered for calculations.
Tilt and shift of a well are required to be measured
at regular interval. After concreting of every lift of
steining, tilt and shift must be measured.
No dug-out material should be dumped close to the
well. Pressure of the dumped materials may cause tilt
to the well.
Immediately on occurrence of tilt to any well,
appropriate measures must be adopted to rectify the
same, otherwise tilt may increase.
It may be noted that rectification of tilt of a well is more
effective, only when the well is in dynamic condition.
In static condition rectification may take long time or
even it may not be rectified. In view of the same, well
in its final stage, when balance sinking is considerably
less, rectification of tilt may be very difficult.
Generally major tilt and shift occurs to a well prior to
its 50% sinking. So, major rectification to the said tilt
and shift should be done during this 50% sinking only.
Generally rectification of any tilt and shift of a well is
very difficult after the well is sunk 75%.
REFERENCES
1.
IRC:78-2000
Standard Specifications and Code

of Practice for Road Bridges Sec.
vii Foundations and Substructures
(Second Revision)
2.
MoRT&H 2001
Ministry of Road Transport &

Highways. Specifications for Road and
Bridge Works (Fourth Edition 2001).
Conclusion
Tilt is measured at gauge marks at a specific convenient

sectional plane of the well. Change of consideration
32
of this sectional plane visa vis--vis gauge mark

level, does not affect the magnitude of the measured
tilt. So, tilt can be measured on gauge marks at any
convenient sectional plane.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
CAPACITY AUGMENTATiON Of NATiONAL HIGHWAYS

K.B. Lal Singal*
INTRODUCTON
Transportation system is the backbone of economy

of any country. Our country has a vast network of
roads. It is still inadequate to cope with the present
and future requirements on account of increasing
demand of road users. All villages with population
more than 1500 are yet to be connected with black top
roads. Existing road net work is also not being used to
its fullest capacity due to many factors such as poor
maintenance of highways, inadequate shoulder widths,
lane deficiencies, poor geometrics, missing bridges,
inadequate carriageway width, narrow bridges, poorly
designed intersections, speed of vehicles and type of
traffic. The present net work of roads as per MORTH
Annual Report 2012-2013 taken from web site is:
National Highways/Expressways
State Highways
Major District Roads,
Vilage and Other Roads
Total Length
79116 km
1,55,716 km
44,55,010
46,89,842 km
National Highways are less than 2% of total road

network but carry 40% of total traffic. Only 2 to 3% of
National Highway Network is four laned and 15% is
single laned. Balance is either intermediate (5.5meter)
or two lanes. Most of the existing bridges are narrow.
Most of the State Highways are either single lane or
intermediate lane except a few where these are two
lanes. Major district roads are mostly intermediate
lane. Village and other roads are single lane. Major

bridges on rivers are almost missing across these
roads. The fact remains that the existing road network
is not being used to its fullest capacity on account of
many factors being dealt with in subsequent paras.
2
CAPACITY OF HIGHWAY
This paper intends to suggest various measures for

augmenting the capacity of National Highway system.
Before this one must understand the term capacity of
a highway because it depends on many factors such
as volume of traffic, composition of traffic, speed
of various vehicles, size of various vehicles, type of
road and gradient of road. Capacity refers to traffic
volume, which can pass a given point in a day at a
specified speed. The unit of capacity, and traffic
volume is the same. It is measured in number of
vehicles per day and then converted into passenger
car units by multiplying with vehicle damage factors
depending on the type of vehicle: The VDF (Vehicle
Damage Factor) is determined for each road under
improvement by axle load survey. However in general
VDF have been given in IRC:37-2001, which can be
adopted. Capacity of a single lane highway under
ideal conditions is proportional to an average speed of
mixed traffic. Greater the speed lesser the peak hour
factor thus more the capacity lesser the speed more
peak hour factor thus lesser the capacity. For a two
lanes and four lane highway for various peak hour
factors the capacity and designed service volume has
been given in the following table.
Engineer in Chief (Retd.) B&R, Haryana, PWD, Past Vice President, IRC, E-mail: lalsingal41@yahoo.co.in
33
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1
(a) Carriageway capacities in (PCUs/day) for Two Lane Road
PHF
Two Lane Earthen

Shoulder
Two Lane Paved

Shoulder
IRC:64-1990
Suggested*
Capacity
D.S.V.
Capacity
D.S.V.
D.S.V.
Earthen
D.S.V.
Paved
D.S.V.
Earthen
D.S.V.
Paved
10
25000
12500
30000
15000
15000
17250
15000
17250
31250
16000
37500
18750
35700
17850
42840
21420
19000
23000
41650
20825
49980
24990
5. 5
45450
22725
54540
27270
23500
28500
50000
25000
60000
30000
(b) Carriageway Capacities in (PCUs/day) for Four Lane Road

PHF
Four Lane Earthen
Four Lane Paved
IRC:64-1990
Suggested*
Capacity
D.S.V.
Capacity
D.S.V.
D.S.V.
Earthen
D.S.V.
Paved
D.S.V.
Earthen
D.S.V.
Paved
10
80000
40000
93000
46000
35000
40000
35000
40000
100000
50000
116250
62500
114240
57120
142800
71400
60000
75000
133280
66640
166600
83300
5. 5
145440
72720
181800
90900
75000
90000
160000
80000
200000
100000
* RUCS (Road User Cost Study) DSV means Design Service Volume
3 MEASURES FOR AUGMENTING

CAPACITY OF NATIONAL HIGHWAY
No. and type of junctions
No. of missing bridges
Capacity of a highway depends on the following factors

and its augmentation will be required in accordance
with the present traffic and future forecast of traffic.
Width of bridges
Geometric Design of road
Directional traffic.
Peak hour concentration
Number of lanes
Type of shoulders and its width
Speed of vehicle
Type of traffic
Condition of pavement
Condition of shoulders
34
The above factors can be categorized under the

following main heads:
1. Maintenance of existing highway

Under this head condition of pavement and

condition of shoulders fall
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2. Additional modifications

Under this head number of lanes, type of

junctions, missing bridges, narrow bridges,
geometric design of highway fall
3. Miscellaneous

Under this head speed of vehicle, type of traffic,

directional traffic and concentration peak hour
traffic fall.
Experience indicates that the existing highway is not

being used to its fullest capacity at the design speed on
account of factors given under the head maintenance.
As a result of this the speed falls and the capacity of
the highway is reduced. The road user cost study has
indicated that for two lane with unpaved shoulder at
a particular speed if the concentration of traffic is 8%
during peak hour traffic the capacity is 16000PCUS if
the concentration of traffic is 10% during peak hour
traffic the capacity falls to 12500PCUS. This fall in
capacity can be attributed to poor maintenance of
road and shoulders. Thus for maintaining the level of
service on the existing highway, it is essential to give
due importance to the maintenance of the existing
carriageway as follows:
3.1 Shoulders

It has been observed that shoulders are full of

organic weed and are usually not cleared off a
number of times.
above the capacity of two lane gets increased by 2500

PCUs if shoulders are paved.
3.2
Pavement
To maintain the design speed and capacity of the

highway it is required that the highway should be
free from pot holes, have a good riding surface and
geometrics suiting to the design speed. To meet
these parameters routine maintenance, periodical
maintenance and special repairs will be required. In
case these are neglected, there will be an obstruction
to free flow of traffic resulting in low speeds and
concentration of traffic thus reducing the capacity of
the highway at a design speed.
4
AUGMENTATION OF CAPACITY OF N.H.

BY ADDITIONS/ALTERATIONS
In para 3 measures have been explained for maintaining

the design capacity of the highway at a design speed.
Any short fall in those measures will result in the
reduction of existing capacity of highway due to fall
in speed of vehicles. Where the traffic volume and its
forecast indicate increased traffic volume than that of
the existing highway then augmentation in capacity
of the highway is called for. Various measures are
required to be taken depending on the traffic volume.
These are given as follows:
Improvements
Width of shoulders is inadequate.
Improvement of geometrics
Earth work on existing shoulders is inadequate.
Replacement of narrow bridges
Compaction of earth work is not proper
Replacement of junctions with grade separators
Replacement of busy level crossings
Construction of missing bridges
On account of any of the above reasons shoulders

cannot be used by moving vehicles. They travel
towards the center of the pavement. Also when
vehicles in emergency has to park on the shoulder
of insufficient width or on the side of the existing
pavement if the shoulder is totally gone, there will be
reduction in effective lane width resulting in a great
reduction in the capacity of lane. Thus it is essential
to remedy all above deficiencies so as to maintain the
level of service at a design speed. As per table given
New Construction

Paving of shoulders
Providing bye passes
Providing bye pass lanes
Addition of extra lanes
Service Lanes
35
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.1
Improvements
At present a few of the existing State Highway system

has been converted into National Highway System
which is deficient in many ways such as lane width,
inadequate right of way, poor geometrics, missing
bridges, poor junctions, narrow bridges and congested
reaches where it passes through villages and towns
where right of way for expansion is inadequate. On
account of these factors free flow of traffic is interrupted
thus resulting in concentration of traffic which lowers
speed and reduces capacity of a highway at the design
speed. Thus under improvements following measures
should be taken for augmenting the capacity of
national highway.

New Construction
Above measures are not going to augment the capacity

of highway substantially. These will only ensure
uninterrupted flow of traffic thus reducing vehicular
operating cost. The only way to augment the capacity
substantially is:

Paving of shoulders
Providing bye passes
Providing byepass lanes
Addition of extra lanes
Service Lanes
4.2.1 Paving of Shoulders

At present 15% of national highway net work is
single lane which is required to be two laned. The
length will be approximately 8000 km. It is likely
to cost 24000 crores which should be the priority
in a phased manner depending upon economics
and benefits to be accrued on account of making
this net work as two lanes
All missing bridges across major rivers should

be constructed. These missing bridges are a
great impediment to the free flow and continuity
of traffic during monsoons for many times. For
example national highway from Pathankot to
Jammu consisted of so many causeways which
were a great obstruction to the free flow of traffic
and were a cause of accident many times during
rainy season. This is one of the important highways
and is now four laned with the construction of
bridges across these causeways.
Congested reaches should be replaced by

alternative alignments, narrow bridges should
be widened or replaced if unsound, existing
geometrics should be improved to cater to the
design speeds, junctions should be improved
and grade separators provided where needed as
per traffic volume study. Existing level crossings
should be replaced by over bridges.
36
4.2
The width of shoulders is normally 2.5 meter on each

side of the carriage way. It may be earthen, partly
paved or fully paved. The capacity of the highway
can be augmented by changing the type of shoulders.
If the traffic volume indicate that the requirements of
the capacity of a highway can be met with by paving
shoulders then the addition of lanes be deferred and
this should be preferred, if it does not meet with the
requirements then adding of additional lanes/bye
pass lanes be considered along with the pavement
of shoulders. The capacity of a two lane highway is
12500PCU at 10-8 PHF (Peak Hour Factor). It gets
increased to 15000PCU if the shoulders are paved.
If the highway in question carries 8000PCU
augmentation of capacity should be considered by
way of paving the shoulders only. Such a highway
will require four laning after ten years only at a traffic
growth rate of 7-7.5%. If PCU are 12500 or more
augmentation should be considered by other means.
4.2.2 Providing Bye Passes
All highways do not have a uniform capacity of
carrying traffic volume. It varies depending on the
terrain through which it passes. In non inhabited areas
it is the maximum. In towns and villages it falls on
account of the reduction in speed. Such reaches are
TECHNICAL PAPERS
required to be identified and addressed accordingly. In
case right of way is inadequate, alternative alignments
can be considered. If right of way is adequate then
measures like bye pass lanes, service lanes or addition
of lanes only in these reaches can be considered to
maintain the capacity.
The capacity of such a highway can be 22500PCU

The benefits of this measure will be:

Hassals of land acquisition will be saved and the

proposal can be implemented with in the existing
right of way i.e. 30/20 meters
High density corridors can be eased out by this

method
It will be cheaper than adding additional two

lanes where the capacity has increased beyond
two lanes.
Slow moving traffic can form a part of the main

stream and fast moving traffic can bye pass them
at frequent intervals
The cost of this will be approximately 20% of

the cost of four laning
Structures will not be required to do four lanes
By this method, four laning of the existing

highway can be deferred for ten years where
the present volume of traffic is 12000PCU with
earthen shoulders. Bye pass lanes will form
an integral part of future expansion so that the
money spent does not go waste.
4.2.3 Bye Pass Lanes

In our country there is a mixed traffic. Even on
National Highways traffic comprise of pedestrian,
cyclist, bullock carts, rickshaw, two wheeler, motor
car, trucks and long vehicles. Slow traffic occupies
space for a longer time than the faster vehicles and
hence reduces the capacity of the road. This can be
overcome depending on the funds available. If the
funds are scarce bye pass lanes can be considered
as an alternative Bye pass lanes will be constructed
staggered on both sides of the existing two lane
highway. It will be a single lane. This lane will be
exclusively used by the fast moving vehicles to bye
pass slow moving vehicles. Existing structures will
remain two lane only. This will facilitate the faster
vehicles to overtake slow moving vehicles at specified
locations. This has been tried in Canada and even in
USA where there is not an immediate necessity of
adding lanes. The purpose is to maintain the design
speed. Here the purpose will be to get rid of slow
moving vehicles and to reduce PHF and increase the
capacity. These are explained as follows:
The capacity of a two lane with paved shoulder is
15000PCU at 10PHF. For increasing the capacity of
such a highway on account of constraint of funds, it is
desirable to create staggered byepass lanes at suitable
locations to byepass slow moving traffic. The location
can be at 20 km or so. If the design speed is 100 km
per hour and average speed of the vehicle is 60 km
where the stretch consists of mixed traffic after every
20 minutes the fast moving vehicle will have a bye
pass lane so as to maintain its speed close to design
speed thus reducing PHF and increasing its capacity.
4.4.4 Additional Lanes

If the traffic volume consists of a larger % of slow
moving traffic then there is a need to segregate the
slow moving traffic by providing separate lanes on
both sides. There is no need to four lane because by
segregating slow moving traffic PHF will fall down
substantially thus increasing the capacity of the
highway. This can be safely adopted where traffic
forecast is upto 25000PCU for PHF 5. In this proposal
existing two lanes will be used by fast moving vehicles
and service lanes on both sides of the highway will be
used by slow moving vehicles. This proposal is going
to cost less than the conventional four laning. Its cost
is likely to be 40% of the cost of conventional four
37
TECHNICAL PAPERS
lanes. Where it is not possible to meet the requirements
of traffic forecast by augmenting capacity by way of
paving shoulders, bye pass lanes, segregation of traffic,
then additional lanes will have to be added depending
on the traffic volume count and its forecast coupled
with these measures. The capacity of various lanes is
given in the above Table no. 1 depending on the PHF.
The proposal of segregation of traffic will form an
integral part of future expansion so that the expenditure
incurred on service lanes is fully utilized.
5
Recommendations
5.1
The capacity of a two lane highway is 15000pcu

at 10PHF. It gets increased to 25000PCU if
peak hour traffic is 5%. Thus for increasing the
capacity of an existing highway, uninterrupted
flow of traffic for maintaining the design speed
and reducing PHF from 10 to 5% is to be ensured.
Percentage of Peak hour traffic is increased due to
various congested reaches, narrow bridges, poor
geometrics, bad junctions and frequent holdups
on road junctions and busy level crossings.
While fixing DSV of the existing two lanes such
impediments have been taken into account. Thus
for increasing the existing capacity of two lane
from 15000PCU to 25000PCU without paving
shoulders and adding additional lanes, will be
to remove these impediments by ascertaining
hold up of traffic on account of each factor. The
priority should be as follows:
Geometrics of the highway should be

improved
Congested reaches should be bye passed.
Road junctions be improved
Busy level crossings be replaced by over

bridges
Busy road junctions be grade separated
38
Narrow bridges should be replaced by two

lane bridges
Missing bridges should be constructed
5.2. By above measures the capacity of a two lane

highway can be augmented to 25000PCU. It
can be further augmented to 30000PCU by
paving shoulders on both sides of the highway
of the same specifications as that of the main
highway. This can be achieved without any
land acquisition hassals
5.3. The capacity of a highway depends upon peak
hour factor. Greater the peak hour factor lesser
the capacity. Ours is a mixed traffic. Even if
factors mentioned in para 1 above are suitably
addressed capacity of highway will not be
augmented to 30000PCU till segregation of
traffic is addressed. Thus along with above
measures bye pass lanes/service lanes will be
required as discussed in para 4 above
5.4. Separate lanes be provided for slow moving
traffic on either side of highway without
resorting to the addition of additional lanes
5.5. If the traffic volume indicates forecast of traffic
for 20 years beyond 30000PCU only then
adding of additional lanes be considered. If the
present traffic is 7500PCU it does not need any
addition of any lanes for 20 years based on a
growth factor of 7.5% if measures from paras
5.1 to 5.4 are taken in a phased manner. If the
forecast traffic for 5 years indicate a traffic of
30000PCU at a growth rate of 7-7.5% immediate
four laning should be considered. In such a case
the present traffic will be 20000PCU.
5.6. Following table will give the measures to be
taken for augmenting the capacity of a national
highway depending on the present day traffic
and its forecast at a growth rate of 7.5%.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 2
Present
Traffic PCU
7500
Forecast
5 years
10000
Forecast
10 years
15000
Forecast
15 years
22500
Forecast
20 years
30000
10000
14000
20000
30000
40000
12500
17500
25000
37500
50000
15000
21000
30000
45000
60000
17500
25000
35000
50000
70000
20000
30000
60000
60000
80000
Recommendations
Immediate paved shoulders
Bye pass lanes after ten years
Four laning after 15 years
Bye pass lanes after five years
Four laning after 7. 5 years
Four laning after 5 years (speed drop)
Immediate paved shoulders and four
laning
References
The above are exclusively my views. All the measures mentioned by me are based on the experience gained over a period of 48 years
and can be addressed in detail.
39
TECHNICAL of
PAPERS
Behavioural analysis
Pedestrians for
walking on footpath and on carriageway
in space-sharing traffic scenario
Mukti Advani* and Nisha G.**
Abstract
Usage of main carriageway by pedestrians is a common site
on urban Indian roads. While quality of footpath is an obvious
factor, it is found that traffic on the main carriageway also plays
an important role in pedestrians decision to use the carriageway
for walking, especially in the heterogeneous traffic conditions.
Present study focuses on the effect of traffic characteristics on
this decision by pedestrians with a case study of an urban road
located in New Delhi. Heterogeneous traffic conditions on the
sample section have been measured by space-occupancy which
is based on classified traffic volume count data. Data shows an
increased percentage of walking on carriageway during the
medium space-occupancy on carriageway compared to low and
high space-occupancies. The significance of this behavioural
difference has been verified through statistical tests. The reasons
behind this could be the concerns of safety and comfort as safety
is compromised during low space-occupancy while comfort is
reduced during high space-occupancy.
which has been calculated after simulating the traffic

observed on selected road. Interesting inferences have
been observed from this unique study of relationship
between space-occupancy and choice of pedestrians
to use the carriageway for walking which have been
discussed in the subsequent sections.
Section 2 states the objective of this study which
has been followed by the concept and methodology
description in section 3. Data collection and primary
analysis has been carried out in section 4 which has
been followed by space-occupancy related calculations
in section 5. Section 6 shows the results of space
occupancy results and also includes the discussion
on it. Users Perspective has been included in section
7. Finally concluding remarks have been included in
section 8.
Introduction
Much of the work dealing with pedestrians is limited

to pedestrian facilities on sidewalks with a few studies
on pedestrian facility at intersections. Studies done
on sidewalk facilities (Fruin 1971, Lautso & Murole
1974, Dan Burden 1996, Tan Danden 2007) are
mostly focused on quality of footpath, environmental
factors and continuity. It has been observed on
Indian roads that many pedestrians tend to walk on
carriageway even in presence of footpath, which is
usually attributed to the bad quality of footpath. Study
of characteristics of traffic on the main carriageway
will provide useful information to understand this
behaviour of pedestrians in making a choice between
walking on footpath and walking on main carriageway.
Traffic data collected at a selected location separately
for footpath and for carriageway in the present case of
heterogeneous traffic conditions, has been measured
in terms of space-occupancy. This concept is based on
the space occupied by all the vehicles on carriageway
*
2 Objective
Objective of the study is to understand the
interrelationship between traffic on carriageway and
choice of pedestrians whether to use carriageway in
existence of footpath facility.
3
Concept and Methodology
It is an observable phenomenon that pedestrians

prefer to walk on carriageway even in the presence
of footpath under certain conditions influenced by the
availability of space on the carriageway, or in other
terms, space occupied by motorised vehicles on such
carriageways (space occupancy) which varies with the
traffic speed. So far, no relationship between spaceoccupancy and walking decision has been found
to be established by any study. To understand this
relationship, correlation among two parameters viz.
space-occupancy and percentage share of pedestrians
CSIR - Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, E-mail: mukti7@gmail.com
**
40
M.Tech. Student, NIT - Suratkhal, nisha.g.4u@gmail.com
TECHNICAL PAPERS
walking on carriageway has been developed for
selected location of study.
Fig.1 presents the conceptual framework under
which the relationship is established between
space-occupancy and pedestrians choice to use
carriageway. Space-occupancy has been calculated
based on the collected data of classified traffic volume
counts, vehicle size, space mean speed. This spaceoccupancy has been compared with the percentage of
pedestrians walking on the carriageway compared to
the pedestrians walking on the footpath.
Fig.1 Methodology for Pedestrian Choice and Space-Occupancy.
Data Collection
Analysis
&
Primary
Data collection for this study includes the location

of National Highway 2 near Aali intersection which
functions as an urban arterial road junction. This
location has been selected randomly.
Fig.2 presents the location of the study area where
the National Highway (NH) 2 has three lanes in each
direction with road width of 11.80 meter in each
direction. The road perpendicular to NH 2 towards
Aali village is 15.80 meter with no median. However,
for crossing purpose, width of 21.90 meter is available
to the commuters as shown in Fig.2 at connecting
point on NH 2. Sections A and B as shown in Fig.2 are
the locations where classified traffic volume counts
have been collected. Distance between A and B is
1 km and distance between B and the signal/
intersection is 200 meters to reduce any effect of
intersection on pedestrians behaviour. Footpath
width throughout the study area is 1.5 meter with the
height of 40-45 centimetres. Neither hawkers/vendors
have been observed sitting on the selected stretch of
footpath nor have any vehicles been parked. Further,
footpath is continuous however surface quality varies
along the stretch from even to uneven.
Five days (Wednesday to Sunday) traffic data have
been collected through manual counting for 2 hours
duration (8:30 AM to 10:30 AM) during peak hours
and 2 hours duration (2:00 PM to 4:00 PM) during
off-peak hours. Traffic data for classified traffic
volume counts at sections A and B have been collected
separately for footpath traffic and carriageway traffic.
Space mean speed between sections A and B was
collected using floating car method.
Fig. 2: Study Area at Aali Intersection on NH 2
Fig.3 shows mode-wise and day-wise distribution of

traffic volumes at location B during peak and offpeak hours. It may be observed that except trucks and
others (primarily goods carrying vehicles) all type
of vehicles does not show major difference in terms
of absolute counts during peak & off-peak hours. The
reason being the restrictions on movement of these
types of vehicles imposed during peak hours.
41
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The range of percentage of pedestrians walking on
carriageway is from 13% to 56% for morning peak
hours and from 25% to 56% during off-peak hours.
Higher difference has been noticed for the working
days compared to the weekend.
5 Space-occupancy Calculation
Fig. 3: Classified Traffic Volume Count at Location B

During Peak & Off-Peak Hours
Fig.4 shows the ratio of pedestrians walking on

footpath and on carriageway during selected five days
of a week during morning peak hours, i.e., 8:30 AM
to 10:30 AM. It has been observed that on weekend
(Saturday & Sunday); more pedestrians are walking
on carriageway compared to weekdays (Wednesday,
Thursday & Friday). The same is observed for the offpeak period as well, as shown in figure 5.
Considering the scenario of Indian roads which is

primarily a space sharing traffic scenario, space
occupied by the vehicles during peak and off-peak
hours has been calculated based on traffic volume
count at section A and B which are exactly at 1
kilometre apart.
Using the inputs of traffic volume counts, both of
carriageway and footpath, the vehicle characteristics
and the traffic characteristics as shown in figure 6 in
the software VISSIM, the space-occupancy has been
calculated.
Firstly, inputs regarding network, vehicle class
and type, composition, vehicle design speed and
acceleration and traffic behaviour for Indian traffic
through manoeuvring details have been coded in
VISSIM. Then simulated model has been calibrated
based on classified volume and then validated on
classified vehicular speed.
Table 1: Speed Validation Results for Peak Hour
Speed (km/hr)
Fig. 4: Pedestrians Share on Footpath & on Carriageway

During Morning Peak Hours at Location A
Vehicle type
Observed
Estimated
Difference
Auto
32
30.37
3.90%
Car
46
45.32
1.50%
Truck
20
19.16
4.20%
Bus
30
29.87
0.40%
Bike
35
36.24
3.50%
Cycle
12
11.64
3.00%
Others
28
26.17
6.50%
11.5
11.62
1.10%
Cycle rickshaw
Fig. 5: Pedestrians Share on Footpath & on Carriageway
During Morning Peak Hours at Location A
42
A paired t-test of null hypothesis of no mean

difference has been performed to check for the match
TECHNICAL PAPERS
After running the model on VISSIM five snapshots
have been collected for 1 kilometre stretch traffic at
randomly selected time intervals. These snapshots
have been used for manual counting of different type
of vehicle present on road. Based on vehicle size,
space occupied by these vehicles has been calculated.
Average of five space occupancy counts has been
considered further.
between simulated and observed speed of vehicle.

The calculated value of t (t0) is 0.0789 against the
critical value of 2.144 at 5% level of significance (95%
confidence limit) indicating the statistical validity of
the results.
Observed space mean speeds of different type of

vehicles have been given in Table 2 which shows
speeds of different vehicles collected between sections
A and B. It indicates that vehicle speeds during peak
hours are higher compared to those during off-peak
hours which are due to the presence (counts) of trucks
and other goods carrying vehicles.
Fig. 6: Method of Calculating Space-Occupancy

at Any Point of Time
Table 2: Vehicular Space Mean Speed (km/h) Between Section A and B During Peak & Off-Peak Hours.
Car
MTW
Auto
Bus
Truck
Others
peak
offpeak
peak
offpeak
peak
offpeak
peak
offpeak
peak
offpeak
peak
offpeak
Wed
75
28
45
30
55
23
38
18
45
18
35
17
Thurs
54
33
52
33
39
27
44
25
38
27
25
24
Fri
65
58
63
60
NA
40
51
45
47
47
45
40
Sat
51
23
51
30
33
20
40
15
38
19
NA
NA
Sun
63
26
53
29
44
22
47
27
47
21
NA
NA
85th
Percentile
69
54
57
55
50
36
49
42
47
42
42
35
Fig.7 presents the relationship between the space

occupied by motorised vehicles on carriageway and
the proportion of trucks present in the traffic counts.
Space-occupancy from the data collected during
morning hours ranges between space-occupancy 1%
and 9% when the truck proportion during this time
is less than 3% to 4%. During the afternoon hours
when commercial trucks are permitted on this road,
space-occupancy ranges between 3% and 15% when
the truck traffic is around 15% to 16%.
Fig. 7: Space-Occupancy of Motorized Vehicle Vs Truck

Proportion in Traffic on Carriageway
43
TECHNICAL PAPERS
5 Space-occupancy Results and

discussion
Comparison among the space occupied by vehicles on
road and percentage share of pedestrians walking on
footpath and on carriageway for 1 km stretch between
sections A and B shows that during peak and off-peak
hours, space occupied by vehicles ranges between 1%
to 9% and 3% to 15% respectively. One major reason
identified behind higher space-occupancy during offpeak hours is the presence of trucks.
Fig.8: Space Occupied by Vehicles Vs Pedestrians

Walking on Carriageway
It has been observed that within the space-occupancy

range, pedestrians walking on road vary between 3%
and 38% during peak hours and 3% and 76% during
off-peak hours. If the Sunday traffic is excluded,
range narrows down to 3% to 16% during peak hours
and 3% to 8% during off-peak hours. This highlights
the need for special attention to Sunday vis a vis the
remaining days of the week.
Produced graph (figure 8) indicates that with low (less
than 5%) and high (above 12%) space-occupancy,
share of pedestrians walking on carriageway is less
44
compared to the medium space-occupancy. Spaceoccupancy indirectly shows the level of congestion
and speed. Lower space-occupancy means higher
vehicular speed and this may not be considered safe
by the pedestrians which makes them to choose to
walk on footpath. However, there is less percentage
of pedestrians walking on carriageway during higher
space-occupancy as well. This may be because of
the congestion on carriageway resulted from the
presence of trucks which have been observed to
prefer the left most lane adjacent to footpath. This,
again, makes pedestrians feel unsafe resulting in more
pedestrians preferring to walk on the footpath. During
the medium space-occupancy, more pedestrians have
been observed to use the carriageway for walking.
To understand the interrelationship between the space
occupied by vehicles on carriageway and percentage
share of pedestrians walking on the carriageway, data
have been plotted on a two-dimensional graph and
best fit curve has been estimated. Different curves
have been tried and estimated and the finally observed
best fit is CUBIC relationship curve as shown figure 8
with R square value of 0.56 as shown in Table 2.
Percentage share of Pedestrians walking on carriageway
Fig.7 also highlights that during morning hours

number of vehicle counts are higher compared to the
afternoon counts but the observed space-occupancy
is higher for afternoon hours due to the presence of
trucks in higher proportion space-occupancy. This
provides an interesting information that if peak hours
have to be decided based on the space-occupancy
rather than the volume counts, afternoon hours have
to be considered as peak for study location.
Fig. 9: Cubic Relationship among the Space occupied by

vehicles & pedestrians walking on carriageway
As results produced in Table 3; with the p value of 0,

variable of Space occupied by the vehicles stands
highly significant.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Percentage share of Pedestrians walking on
carriageway = -36.04 + 49.03 (% of occupied space)
5.36 (% of occupied space) ^2 + 0.16(% of occupied

space) ^3
Table 3: Output of Curve estimation in SPSS
7 Users Perspective
Why are you walking on footpath?
To understand the users perspective regarding the

choice made of walking on footpath and carriageway,
a simple survey with single question has been carried
out with the sample size of 206. Based on their
selected path for walking among carriageway and
footpath, a question has been asked them was why
have you preferred to walk on carriageway/footpath?
Reponses to this question have been categorised in
five categories as shown in Table 4 below:
Table 4: Users Perspective for Making Choice Among
Walking on Footpath and on Carriageway
Response to the question asked
Share of users (%)
Why do you walk on carriageway?

1) footpath is at higher level
30
2) uneven surface of footpath
23
3) there is no dust on carriageway
28
4) MTW on footpath
5) do not know
15
1) we should
18
2) trucks are on carriageway
19
3) footpath is more comfortable
18
4) cycles and MTW are on carriageway
11
5) traffic is on high speed so not safe
34
*MTW = Motorised Two Wheelers
It has been extracted that majority pedestrians walking

on carriageway have chosen to walk on carriageway
due to the higher level of footpath (30%), presence
of dust (28%) and uneven surface of footpath (23%).
While major contributing factors for selecting
footpath for walking are higher speed of vehicles on
carriageway (34%) and the presence of vehicles i.e.
cycles, MTW and trucks (30%) on the carriageway.
Since, higher speed represents the lower space
occupancy, it can be stated that 34% pedestrians
have chosen to walk on footpath because of lower
occupancy and similarly, 30% of pedestrians have
45
TECHNICAL PAPERS
chosen carriageway for walking due to the higher
number of vehicles plying on carriageway which
represents the lower space occupancy. This presents
the similar outcome as has been extracted from traffic
volume counts and pedestrians counts through cubic
relationship discussed above.
8
Conclusion
Based on the estimation results it has been concluded

that there exists a CUBIC relationship between the
space occupancy of the vehicles on carriageway and
the percentage share of pedestrians walking on the
carriageway for selected location.
Lower percentage of pedestrians have chosen to
walk on the carriageway during low and high spaceoccupancy owing to safety concerns while higher
percentage of pedestrians have chosen to walk on the
carriageway during the medium space-occupancy. This
shows that the first preference of pedestrians is to walk
on carriageway if found safer at selected location.
46
Since, all the results belongs to the single selected

location, author understands that these cannot be
generalised. For more generic results larger sample
size through stratified sampling method to cover
different roads is required.
References
1.
Fruin J J, 1971, Designing for pedestrians: a level-ofservice concept, in Highway Research Record Number
355: Pedestrians (Highway Research Board,Washington,
DC) pp 1- 15.
2.
Kari Lautso and Penti Murole, A study of pedestrian traffic

in Helsinki: Methods and results. Traffic Engineering and
Control, 1974, pp. 446-449.
3.
Dandan Tan, Wei Wang, Jian Lu and Yang Bian (2007),

Research on Methods of Assessing Pedestrian Level of
Service for Sidewalk, Journal Of Transportation Systems
Engineering and Information Technology, Volume 7, Issue
5, October 2007.
4.
Burden, Dan, (1996), Walkable and Bicycle-Friendly

Communities Florida Dept. Of Transportation.
47
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54
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90
PRESS NOTICE
Haryana State Roads & Bridges Development Corporation Ltd.
No . 1213-1866
Date 03.06.2013
The Governor of Haryana invite the bids from eligible bidders through online bidding on
the website: http://haryanapmgsy.etenders.in / offline (manually) for the work detailed in the table.
Sr.
No.
1.
1.
2.
3.
Name of work
Approximate
value of work
(Rs. in lac)
Bid Security
(Rs. in lac)
Cost of Bid
document
(Rs.)
Time
Limit
Improvement of
Bahadurgarh to
Badli road from
Km 0.000 to
18.100 km in
Jhajjar District.
Rs. 3700.00 lac
Rs. 74.00 lac

for
Contractor
& Society
Rs. 10,000/-
12 Months
Date and time

for bid
preparation to
Hash
Submission.
04.06.2013
from
21:01 Hours to
22.07.2013 up
to 17:00 Hours
Pre bid meeting will be held on 24.06.2013 at 11.00 Hrs. in the office of Superintending Engineer,
Jhajjar Circle, PWD (B&R) Br. Jhajjar. District.
The Bidding Document in English language can be downloaded online from the portal
http://haryanapmgsy.etenders.in on payment of a non-refundable fee of INR Rs.10000 online on
this portal from 21.01 hours on 04.06.2013 to 17:00 hours on 19.07.2013. Bid document can also be
obtained from the office of the Superintending Engineer PWD Jhajjar by making cash payment of
Rs 10000.
For further details and tendering schedule visit website http://haryanapwd-bandr.org/
http://haryanapmgsy.etenders.in and www.hsrdc.in
for & on behalf of Governor of Haryana.
-sdSuperintending Engineer,
Jhajjar Circle, PWD (B&R) Br.
Jhajjar.
91
PRESS NOTICE
Haryana State Roads & Bridges Development Corporation Ltd.
No. HSRDC/NCR/ICB-04
Date 05.06.2013
The Governor of Haryana invite the bids from eligible bidders through online bidding on the
website: http://haryanapmgsy.etenders.in / offline (manually) for the work detailed in the table.
Sr.
No
.
Name of work
Approximate
value of work
(Rs. in lac)
Bid
Security
(Rs. in
lac)
Cost of Bid
document
(Rs.)
Time
Limit
1.
Widening & Strengthening of Gohana

Lakhan majra Meham Bhiwani
Road from Km. 0.00 to 37.700 (SH16A from Km. 16.00 to 53.700) in
Rohtak District.
Rs. 9153.08 lacs
Rs.
183.10 lacs
for
Contractor
& Society
Rs. 10,000/-
12 Months
Date and time

for bid
preparation to
Hash
Submission.
06.06.2013 from
21:01 Hours to
26.07.2013 up to
17:00 Hours
Pre bid meeting will be held on 26.06.2013 at 3.00 PM in the office of Superintending Engineer, Rohtak
Circle, PWD (B&R) Br. Rohtak. District.
The Bidding Document in English language can be downloaded online from the portal
http://haryanapmgsy.etenders.in on payment of a non-refundable fee of INR Rs.10,000 online on this
portal from 21.01 hours on 06.06.2013 to 17:00 hours on 23.07.2013. Bid document can also be obtained from
the office of the Superintending Engineer, Rohtak Circle PWD(B&R) Branch Rohtak by making cash
payment of Rs 10,000.
For further
details and
tendering schedule visit website http://haryanapwd-bandr.org/
http://haryanapmgsy.etenders.in and www.hsrdc.in
For & on behalf of Governor of Haryana.
Superintending Engineer,
Rohtak Circle, PWD (B&R) Branch,
Rohtak
92
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INDIAN HIGHWAYS

A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

From the Editors Desk

The Indian Roads Congress

Founded : December 1934

Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram

From the Editors Desk

ROAD SECTOR ASSET MANAGEMENT

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, July 2013

Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Glimpses of the Release of the

Introduction by Shri C. Kandasamy, Director General (Road

Copy of Release being Presented to Honble Minister by

First copy being received by Shri D.P. Gupta, senior most

Another view of the Event

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, July 2013

Indian Roads Congress (IRC) Welcomes the

Rates for regular

Rates for regular

Annual Charges for

Outside Back Cover

Inside Front/ Inside Back Covers

Applicable ADVERTISEMENT TARIFF FOR printed version of journal of the

Annual Charges for

Inside Front/ Inside Back Covers

Rates per page(b/w)

Rates per page (4-Color)

24 cm x 19 cm for full page & Tender Notice

Release orders may be sent to:

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, July 2013

For efficient road maintenance management and

is done to assess pavements structural ability to

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, July 2013

The overall objective of this study is to test whether

Fig.1 Hardware Module of the Developed RPMS

The Deflection Basin Parameters2 that can be

Fig.2 Depiction of Deflections and the

Max. Deflection = d0

Surface Curvature Index, SCI = d0-d1

Base Curvature Index, BCI = d2-d3

Area, A = 6 [1+ 2(d1/d0) + 2(d2/d0) + d3/d0]

Shape Factors, F1 = (d0-d2)/d1; F2 = (d1-d3)/d2 (6)

Slope of Deflection, SLD = tan-1(d0-d2)/610mm (8)

Hardware Module of the Developed RPMS

The hardware module consists of an assembly

used in the development of the RPMS are shown in

Fig.3 Software Module of the Developed RPMS

To test the performance of the developed system, two

Testing of RPMS in the Laboratory

To evaluate its performance, the developed system

of the LVDTs and a set of brass spacers (plates) of

Based on Table 1, the thickness of each brass spacer

Testing of RPMS in the Field

Field trials were conducted on a flexible pavement

Table 2, the two parameters Radius of Curvature and

Fig.4 A Set-up for Field Testing (Front View)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, July 2013

Based on the test reports, the developed system

software like ELMOD (Evaluation of Layer Moduli

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE

In this paper, an automated system for measuring

MORT&H (2004), Guidelines for Maintenance

Horak E (1987), The use of surface deflection basin

Max. Deflection = d0

Surface Curvature Index, SCI = d0-d1

Base Curvature Index, BCI = d2-d3

Area, A = 6 [1+ 2(d1/d0) + 2(d2/d0) + d3/d0]

Shape Factors, F1 = (d0-d2)/d1; F2 = (d1-d3)/d2 (6)

Slope of Deflection, SLD = tan-1(d0-d2)/610mm (8)