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Sarkanykonyv PDF
2008
ii
Preface
The Weight-Shift Control (WSC) Aircraft Flying Handbook introduces the basic pilot knowledge and skills that are essential
for piloting WSC aircraft. It introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that is needed as they progress in their
pilot training. This handbook is for student pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certicates.
Student pilots learning to y WSC aircraft, certicated pilots preparing for additional WSC ratings or who desire to improve
their ying prociency and aeronautical knowledge, and commercial WSC pilots teaching WSC students how to y should
nd this handbook helpful. This book introduces the prospective pilot to the realm of WSC ight and provides information
and guidance to all WSC pilots in the performance of various maneuvers and procedures.
This handbook conforms to pilot training and certication concepts established by the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA). There are different ways of teaching, as well as performing ight procedures and maneuvers, and many variations
in the explanations of aerodynamic theories and principles. This handbook adopts a selective method and concept to ying
WSC aircraft. The discussions and explanations reect the most commonly used practices and principles. Occasionally,
the word must or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not
intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).
It is essential for persons using this handbook also to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and
the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Performance standards for demonstrating competence required for pilot
certication are prescribed in the appropriate WSC practical test standard.
This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from the FAA website, www.faa.gov.
This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman
Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.
Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:
AFS630comments@faa.gov
iii
iv
Acknowledgments
The Weight-Shift Control Aircraft Flying Handbook was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with
the assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors for
images provided and used throughout the handbook:
Paul Hamilton of Adventure Productions
AirBorne Australia
Matt Liknaitzky of MGL Avionics
Jon P. Thornburgh
Tampa Bay Aerosports
Gerry Charlebois of Birds in Paradise
Wills Wing, Inc.
vi
Table of Contents
Preface ...................................................................iii
Acknowledgments ..................................................v
Table of Contents .................................................vii
Chapter 1
Introduction To Weight-Shift Control ................1-1
Introduction ....................................................................1-1
History............................................................................1-2
Hang Glider ................................................................1-4
Motorized Hang Gliders .............................................1-4
New Challenges..........................................................1-5
Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) ............................................1-6
Weight-Shift Control Aircraft ....................................1-7
Weight-Shift Control LSA Requirements ..................1-8
Flight Operations and Pilot Certicates .........................1-8
Basic Pilot Eligibility .................................................1-9
Flight Safety Practices ...................................................1-9
Collision Avoidance ...................................................1-9
Runway Incursion Avoidance ..................................1-10
Positive Transfer of Controls ...................................1-10
Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) .......................1-10
Avoiding Pilot Errors ...............................................1-11
Scenario-Based Training ..........................................1-12
Resource Management .............................................1-12
Use of Checklists ......................................................1-12
Medical Factors ...........................................................1-13
Fatigue ......................................................................1-13
Hypothermia ............................................................1-13
Medical Summary ....................................................1-14
Chapter Summary ........................................................1-14
Chapter 2
Aerodynamics ......................................................2-1
Introduction ....................................................................2-1
Aerodynamic Terms ...................................................2-1
WSC Wing Flexibility ...................................................2-6
Forces in Flight ..............................................................2-7
Dynamic Pressure (q) .................................................2-7
Lift ..............................................................................2-7
Drag ............................................................................2-8
Thrust .......................................................................2-10
Ground Effect ...........................................................2-11
Center of Gravity (CG) ............................................2-11
Axes of Rotation ..........................................................2-12
Lateral AxisPitch ..................................................2-12
Longitudinal AxisRoll ..........................................2-13
Vertical AxisYaw .................................................2-13
Stability and Moments ................................................2-13
WSC Unique Airfoil and Wing Design....................2-13
TrimNormal Stabilized Flight .............................2-13
High Angles of Attack..............................................2-13
Low Angles of Attack ..............................................2-14
Pitch Pressures..........................................................2-14
Roll Stability and Moments......................................2-16
Yaw Stability and Moments .....................................2-17
Thrust Moments .......................................................2-18
Stalls: Exceeding the Critical AOA .............................2-18
Whip StallTuckTumble ........................................2-19
Weight, Load, and Speed ............................................2-20
Basic Propeller Principles ............................................2-20
Chapter Summary ........................................................2-20
Chapter 3
Components and Systems .................................3-1
Introduction ....................................................................3-1
Wing ..............................................................................3-2
Wing Frame Components ..........................................3-2
Keel ........................................................................3-3
Crossbar .................................................................3-4
Control Frame .........................................................3-4
King Post With Wires-on-Top Wing Design..........3-5
Topless Wings With Struts ....................................3-5
Battens and Leading Edge Stiffener ......................3-7
Sail Material and Panels ........................................3-7
Pockets and Hardware ...........................................3-7
Sail Attachment to Wing Frame ............................3-7
Cables and Hardware ....................................................3-7
Wing Systems .............................................................3-8
Reex Systems .......................................................3-8
vii
viii
Choke .......................................................................4-14
Fuel Bulb Primer ......................................................4-14
Fuel Gauges ..............................................................4-14
Fuel Filter .................................................................4-14
Fuel ...........................................................................4-14
Fuel Contamination ..................................................4-15
Refueling Procedures ...............................................4-15
Mixing Two-Stroke Oil and Fuel .............................4-16
Starting System ............................................................4-16
Oil Systems ..................................................................4-17
Engine Cooling Systems ..............................................4-17
Chapter Summary ........................................................4-18
Chapter 5
Preight and Ground Operations.......................5-1
Introduction ....................................................................5-1
Where To Fly .................................................................5-2
Preight Actions ............................................................5-3
Weather ..........................................................................5-3
Regional Weather .......................................................5-3
Local Conditions ........................................................5-3
Weight and Loading .......................................................5-5
Transporting ...................................................................5-7
Setting Up the WSC Aircraft ....................................5-8
Taking Down the WSC Aircraft ..............................5-12
Wing Tuning ................................................................5-14
Tuning the Wing To Fly Straight ............................5-14
Preight Inspection ......................................................5-15
Certicates and Documents ......................................5-15
Routine Preight Inspection .....................................5-16
Wing Inspection ....................................................5-17
Carriage Inspection ...............................................5-18
Powerplant Inspection ..........................................5-19
Cooling Systems ..................................................5-20
Exhaust Systems ...................................................5-20
Propeller Gearbox .................................................5-20
Throttle System .....................................................5-20
Flight Deck Inspection .............................................5-20
Fuel ...........................................................................5-20
Oil .............................................................................5-21
Ready Aircraft To Enter Flight Deck .......................5-22
Occupant Preight Brief...........................................5-22
Flight Deck Management .........................................5-23
Checklist After Entering Flight Deck ...................5-23
Engine Start ..............................................................5-23
Taxiing .........................................................................5-24
Checklist for Taxi .................................................5-25
Before Takeoff Check ..............................................5-26
After Landing ...........................................................5-26
Chapter Summary ........................................................5-28
Chapter 6
Flight Manuevers .................................................6-1
Introduction ...................................................................6-1
Effects and the Use of the Controls ...............................6-2
Attitude Flying ..............................................................6-4
Straight-and-Level Flying ..............................................6-4
Trim Control .................................................................6-7
Level Turns ...................................................................6-7
Coordinating the Controls ..........................................6-8
Climbs and Climbing Turns .........................................6-12
Descents and Descending Turns ..................................6-14
Gliding Turns ..........................................................6-16
Pitch and Power ..........................................................6-16
Steep Turn Performance Maneuver .............................6-16
Energy Management ....................................................6-19
Slow Flight and Stalls ..................................................6-20
Slow Flight ...............................................................6-20
Stalls .........................................................................6-21
Power-Off Stall Manuever .......................................6-23
Whip Stall and Tumble Awareness..............................6-24
A Scenario ................................................................6-24
Chapter Summary ........................................................6-26
Chapter 7
Takeoff and Departure Climbs ...........................7-1
Introduction ...................................................................7-1
Terms and Denitions ................................................7-2
Prior to Takeoff ..............................................................7-2
Normal Takeoff ..............................................................7-2
Takeoff Roll ...............................................................7-3
Lift-Off .......................................................................7-3
Initial Climb ...............................................................7-4
Crosswind Takeoff .........................................................7-6
Takeoff Roll ...............................................................7-6
Rotation and Lift-Off .................................................7-6
Initial Climb ...............................................................7-6
Ground Effect on Takeoff ..............................................7-7
Short Field Takeoff and Steepest Angle Climb .............7-8
Takeoff Roll ...............................................................7-9
Lift-Off and Climb Out ..............................................7-9
Soft/Rough Field Takeoff and Climb ..........................7-10
Takeoff Roll .............................................................7-12
Lift-Off and Initial Climb .........................................7-12
Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure .................................7-12
Noise Abatement..........................................................7-13
Chapter Summary ........................................................7-13
Chapter 8
The National Airspace System ...........................8-1
Introduction ....................................................................8-1
Uncontrolled Airspace ...................................................8-2
Class G Airspace ........................................................8-2
Controlled Airspace .......................................................8-4
Class E Airspace.........................................................8-4
Towered Airport Operations ......................................8-6
Class D Airspace ........................................................8-6
Class C Airspace ........................................................8-6
Class B Airspace ........................................................8-7
Airspace Above 10,000' MSL and Below 18,000' .....8-8
Class A Airspace ........................................................8-8
Special Use Airspace .....................................................8-8
Prohibited Areas .........................................................8-8
Restricted Areas .........................................................8-9
Warning Areas............................................................8-9
Military Operations Areas (MOAs) ...........................8-9
Alert Areas ...............................................................8-10
Controlled Firing Areas ............................................8-10
Parachute Jump Areas ..............................................8-11
Other Airspace Areas ...................................................8-11
Local Airport Advisory ............................................8-11
Military Training Routes (MTRs) ............................8-11
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) .....................8-11
Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSA) ...................8-12
National Security Areas (NSAs) ..............................8-12
Published VFR Routes .................................................8-12
Flight Over Charted U.S. Wildlife Refuges,
Parks, and Forest Service Areas...................................8-12
WSC Operations ..........................................................8-12
WSC and Air Trafc Control ...................................8-12
Navigating the Airspace ...........................................8-13
Chapter Summary ........................................................8-13
Chapter 9
Ground Reference Maneuvers ...........................9-1
Introduction ....................................................................9-1
Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects .............9-2
Drift and Ground Track Control ....................................9-2
Rectangular Course ........................................................9-4
S-Turns Across a Road ..................................................9-7
Turns Around a Point .....................................................9-9
Chapter Summary ........................................................9-12
ix
Chapter 10
Airport Trafc Patterns .....................................10-1
Introduction .................................................................10-1
Airport Operations .......................................................10-2
Standard Airport Trafc Patterns .................................10-2
Chapter Summary ........................................................10-8
Chapter 11
Approaches and Landings ...............................11-1
Introduction ..................................................................11-1
Normal (Calm Wind) Approaches and Landings ........11-2
Throttle Use ..............................................................11-2
Base Leg ...................................................................11-2
Estimating Height and Movement............................11-5
Roundout (Flare) ......................................................11-6
Touchdown ...............................................................11-7
After-Landing Roll ...................................................11-7
Effect of Headwinds During Final Approach ..............11-8
Stabilized Approach Concept ....................................11-10
Go-Around (Rejected Landings)................................11-13
Power ......................................................................11-13
Short and Soft Field Landing Techniques .................11-14
Short-Field Approaches and Landings ...................11-14
Soft and Rough Field Approaches and Landings ...11-15
Power-on Approach and Landing for
Turbulant Air ....................................................11-16
Crosswind Approaches and Landings ........................11-17
Crosswind Pattern Procedures ...............................11-17
Effects and Hazards of High Crosswinds
for Approaches and Landings ................................11-17
Crosswind Landings ...............................................11-19
Maximum Crosswind Velocities ............................11-19
Steep Approaches.......................................................11-20
Steep Angle ............................................................11-21
Alternating Turns ...................................................11-21
Power-Off Accuracy Approaches ..............................11-21
90 Power-Off Approach .......................................11-22
180 Power-Off Approach .....................................11-23
360 Power-Off Approach .....................................11-25
Emergency Approaches and Landings
(Simulated Engine Out) .............................................11-26
Faulty Approaches and Landings...............................11-27
Low Final Approach...............................................11-27
High Final Approach ..............................................11-27
Slow Final Approach ..............................................11-27
Use of Power ..........................................................11-28
High Roundout .......................................................11-28
Late or Rapid Roundout .........................................11-28
Floating During Roundout .....................................11-28
Ballooning During Roundout .................................11-29
Bouncing During Touchdown ................................11-29
Porpoising...............................................................11-29
Wing Rising After Touchdown ..............................11-30
Hard Landing..........................................................11-30
Chapter Summary ......................................................11-30
Chapter 12
Night Operations ...............................................12-1
Introduction ..................................................................12-1
Pilot Requirements .......................................................12-2
Equipment and Lighting ..............................................12-2
Pilot Equipment ........................................................12-3
Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids .....................12-4
Night Vision .................................................................12-5
Unique WSC Flight Characteristics .............................12-7
Night Illusions..............................................................12-7
Preparation and Preight..............................................12-8
Starting, Taxiing, and Runup .......................................12-8
Takeoff and Climb .......................................................12-9
Orientation and Navigation ........................................12-10
Approaches and Landings ..........................................12-11
Night Emergencies .....................................................12-12
Chapter Summary ......................................................12-13
Chapter 13
Abnormal and Emergency Procedures ...........13-1
Introduction ..................................................................13-1
Ballistic Parachute System (BPS) ................................13-2
Procedures for Using a BPS .....................................13-3
Emergency Landings ...................................................13-3
Types of Emergency Landings .................................13-3
Psychological Hazards .............................................13-3
Basic Safety Concepts ..............................................13-4
Attitude and Sink Rate Control ................................13-5
Terrain Selection ......................................................13-6
Approach ..................................................................13-6
Terrain Types ...........................................................13-7
Water Landings (Ditching).......................................13-8
Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear ...............13-8
Engine Failure After Takeoff ...................................13-9
Emergency Descents ..................................................13-10
Inight Fire ................................................................13-10
Engine Fire .............................................................13-10
Electrical Fires........................................................13-12
System Malfunctions .................................................13-12
Electrical System ....................................................13-12
Pitot-Static System .................................................13-12
Landing Gear Malfunction .....................................13-13
Inadvertant Propeller Strike ...................................13-13
Stuck or Runaway Throttle ....................................13-13
Abnormal Engine Instrument Indications ..............13-13
Weather Related Emergencies ...................................13-15
xi
xii
Chapter 1
Introduction To
Weight-Shift Control
Introduction
Weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft means a powered aircraft
with a framed pivoting wing and a fuselage controllable only
in pitch and roll by the pilots ability to change the aircrafts
center of gravity (CG) with respect to the wing. Flight control
of the aircraft depends on the wings ability to deform exibly
rather than on the use of control surfaces.
This chapter provides background on the development of the
WSC aircraft, its unique characteristics, the requirements for
obtaining a WSC license (airman certicate), aeronautical
decision-making (ADM), and the unique medical factors
required to operate WSC aircraft safely. Further, it is highly
recommended that all pilots develop a general understanding
of aviation by becoming familiar with the Pilots Handbook
of Aeronautical Knowledge and the Aeronautical Information
Manual (AIM). Listings of other available handbooks can be
found on the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website
at www.faa.gov.
1-1
History
From the beginning of mankind, we have looked to the skies
where legends and myths have entertained and provided us
the dream to y. Through the middle ages, the idea of ight
evolved across Europe, with Leonardo Da Vinci well known
for designing ying machines to carry humans. In 1874, Otto
Lilienthal, a German mechanical engineer, started designing,
building, and flying bird-like wings. [Figure 1-1] He
published his work in 1889, and by 1891 made ights of
over 100 feet in distance. Otto was the rst successful hang
glider pilot to design, build, and y a number of wing designs.
[Figure 1-2]
In 1903, the Wright brothers gliders became powered and
the airplane was born as the Wright Flyer. In the early 1900s,
aircraft congurations evolved as faster speeds and heavier
loads were placed on aircraft in ight. As a result of the new
demands, the simple exible wing was no longer sufcient
and aircraft designers began to incorporate rigid wings with
mechanical aerodynamic controls. These new ideas in wing
design eventually resulted in the familiar aileron and rudder
congurations found on the modern airplane.
Commercial applications were driving the need for faster and
heavier aircraft; however, the dream of achieving manned
powered ight in its most bird-like form was evolving along
a different path. As rigid wing design enjoyed development
for military and commercial applications, the exible wing
concept lay largely dormant for decades. In 1948, a exible
wing design was created by Francis Melvin Rogallo as a ying
toy kit for which he obtained a patent in 1951. [Figure 1-3]
Figure 1-2. Various models of Otto Lilienthals glider, the forerunner of weight-shift control aircraft today.
1-2
Figure 1-3. Rogallos flexible wing for a kite, submitted for patent
in 1948.
1961.
Figure 1-4. NASA testing the Rogallo wing, which led to the modern
1-3
Ground Wires
Flying Wires
Control Bar
Figure 1-6. Simple structure added to the Rogallo wing allows wires to hold up the wings on the ground and support the wing in flight.
Hang Glider
The WSC system and the good ying qualities of the Rogallo
wing and Dickenson wing, combined with its easy set-up
and portability, started the hang gliding craze in the early
1970s. [Figure 1-7] In 1967, the rst powered aircraft based
on the exible wing concept of Dr. Rogallo was registered
as amateur-built experimental. Flexible wing development
continued, and by the early 1970s several adventurous
entrepreneurs were manufacturing Rogallo wings for sport
use.
A Maturing Industry
Figure 1-7. An original Rogallo wing, 1975.
1-4
Enclosed crossbar
New Challenges
By the 1980s, individuals were rapidly developing and
operating small powered trikes. This development failed
to address the sport nature and unique challenges these
new aircraft presented to the aviation community. In an
attempt to include these ying machines in its regulatory
framework, the FAA issued Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) part 103, Ultralight Vehicles, in 1982.
Aircraft falling within the ultralight vehicle specications
are lightweight (less than 254 pounds if powered, or 155
pounds if unpowered), are intended for manned operation
Propeller shaft
Engine
Propeller
ing
t at w
Thrus
Propeller guard
Figure 1-10. First motorized system design sold as an add-on kit for a hang glider.
1-5
modified undercarriage.
Wing
1-7
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1-8
Figure 1-17. Sport Pilot Practical Test Standards for Weight Shift
1-9
Communications,
1-10
High
Reinforcement
Pilot analysis
of
weather indica
tes it
might be turbu
lent.
Hearing
Low
Visual
Experience by
Touch, Smell
Figure 1-18. Awareness of human factors and how it affects the decision-making process.
Multiple engines
Faster airspeeds
1-11
Use of Checklists
Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization
and ight deck safety for many years and the rst defense
against the error chain that leads to accidents. [Figure 1-20] The
checklist is an aid to the fallible human memory and helps
to ensure that critical safety items are not overlooked or
forgotten. However, checklists are of no value if the pilot is not
committed to their use. Without discipline and dedication in
using a checklist, the odds favor the possibility of an error.
Preight preparation
2.
3.
4.
Engine start/taxi
5.
Preight check
Medical Factors
A number of physiological effects can be linked to ying.
Some are minor, while others are important enough to
require special attention to ensure safety of ight. In some
cases, physiological factors can lead to inight emergencies.
Some important medical factors that a WSC pilot should
be aware of include hypoxia, hyperventilation, middle ear
and sinus problems, spatial disorientation, motion sickness,
carbon monoxide poisoning, stress and fatigue, dehydration,
heatstroke, and hypothermia. Other factors include the effects
of alcohol and drugs, and excess nitrogen in the blood after
scuba diving.
A prerequisite to this chapter is the aeromedical factors
portion of the Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
(FAA-H-8083-25)
which provides detailed
information a pilot must
consider in all flight
operations. All of the
aeromedical factors
described in that book
are applicable to WSC.
However, the following
are additional topics
applicable to WSC not
specically covered.
Electric gloves
Fatigue
Because the WSC
aircraft moves weight
through pilot input, there
is significant arm and
upper body strength
required to y a WSC
Wire running to WSC
12-volt electrical system
aircraft, especially in
turbulence. If flying
a cross-country flight
midday in moderate
turbulence for more than Figure 1-21. Motorcycle gloves and socks hooked to the 12-volt WSC electrical system keep the pilot and
an hour, a pilot would passenger warm.
1-13
A Alcohol
F Fatigue
E Eating
Am I adequately nourished?
1-14
Chapter Summary
This chapter provides basic knowledge that is essential for
WSC pilots and should serve as a starting point for them.
However, there are many other handbooks, advisories, and
regulations with which all WSC pilots should become familiar
as their maturity within the aeronautical realm increases
and/or the need for greater depth of understanding becomes
necessary due to location, temperature, altitude, etc.
Chapter 2
Aerodynamics
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the aerodynamic fundamentals unique
to weight-shift control (WSC) operations. The portions of the
Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-808325) on principles of ight and aerodynamics apply to WSC
and are a prerequisite to reading this chapter.
Aerodynamic Terms
Airfoil is the term used for a surface on an aircraft that
produces lift, typically the wing itself. Although many
different airfoil designs exist, all airfoils produce lift in a
similar manner. Camber refers to the curvature of a wing
2-1
Airplane Airfoil
WSC Airfoil
Single Surface Wing
Chord Lin
Upper C
ambe
r
Lower C
amber
Relative Wind
Leading Edge
Flightpath
Trailing Edge
Chord Lin
Upper C
Farther forward
for stable airfoil
Typical A
Chord Line
ambe
r
irplane
Airfoil
WSC Airfoil
Lower Camber
Figure 2-2. Airplane airfoil compared to WSC airfoil.
Top View
Nose Angle
Flightpath
Wing Chords
Sweep Angle
CG
Tip Chord
Quarter Chord
Leading Edge
2-2
Trailing Edge
Wing Tip
Side View
Wing Root
CG
Tip Chord
CG
Wing Root
Flightpath
Rear View
Leading Edge
Wing Root
Trailing Edge
Tip Chord
Anhedral Angle
(Dihedral would be the
wing angled up)
Wing Span
Wing Tip
2-3
ne
d
or
Li
Ch
Cho
ne
d Li
ot
t
ha
A
AO
Ro
hig
ive
lat
e
R ind
W
e
tiv
a
l
Reind
W
A
AO
r
we
lo
i
tm
n
oi
dp
Ch
in
dL
or
A
AO
w
lo
at
tip
tiv
la
e
R ind
W
Control Bar
CG
Longitudinal Axis
Relative Wind
Flightpath
Pitch angle is the angle the WSC wing root chord (center
of wing) makes with the Earths horizontal plane. Many
pilots confuse the pitch angle, which is easily seen and felt,
with the angle of attack (AOA) which is not as perceptible.
For example, if ying in a glide with the engine idle and
the nose lowered, the pitch angle can be below the horizon.
Another example would be ying at full power climb with
the nose raised, resulting in the pitch angle being well above
the horizon. [Figure 2-8] Pitch angles are covered in greater
detail in chapter 6.
Control Bar
CG
Longitudinal Axis
Relative Wind
2-4
Flightpath
Deck angle is the angle of the carts wheel axles to the landing
surfaces, as in the powered parachute (PPC) deck angle.
Relative wind is the direction of the airow with respect to
the wing; it is parallel to and opposite the WSC ightpath.
Relative wind may be affected by movement of the WSC
through the air, as well as by all forms of unstable, disturbed
air such as wind shear, thermals, and turbulence. When a
Figure 2-8. Pitch angle examples of nose high (top) and nose low
(bottom).
High Speed
18
10
3
Angle of Attack
Angle of Attack
Flightpath
Relative Wind
Angle of Attack
Flightpath
Relative Wind
Flightpath
Relative Wind
Figure 2-9. Angle of attack effect on speeds, relative wind, and flightpath for level flight.
2-5
mission for the aircraft. For the same wing area and similar
design, the lower aspect ratio wings produce less lift and
more drag; higher aspect ratio wings produce more lift, less
drag, and may require more pilot effort to y, depending on
the design. [Figure 2-10]
root to the tip along the span of the wing (similar to ribs
for an airplane wing) and a piece of foam or mylar running
along the top side of the leading edge to the high point, which
maintains its front part of the airfoil shape in between the
battens. [Figure 2-11]
Rigid ribs called battens
maintain the airfoil shape.
Figure 2-11. Rigid airfoil preformed ribs called battens and leading
edge stiffener maintain the rigid airfoil shape.
aspect ratio and the fast cross-country with a high aspect ratio.
2-6
Even though the airfoil sections are rigid, the WSC aircraft is
called a ex wing for two reasons. First, it is designed so
the outboard leading edges ex up and back when loaded. The
exing of the outboard section of the wing also allows load
relief because the tips increase twist and decrease AOAthe
greater the weight, the greater the ex and wing twist. This
exing allows the WSC aircraft to automatically reduce loads
in unstable air, providing a smoother ride than a rigid wing.
Since the wing exes and reduces the load for a given angle
of attack at the root chord, WSC aircraft cannot obtain loads
as high as those obtained by a rigid wing. This exing of the
outboard leading edges also assists in initiating a turn.
Second, the wing is designed to ex as it changes twist from
side to side for turning, historically known as wing warping.
WSC wing warping is similar to what the Wright Brothers
did on their early aircraft, but they did it with wires warping
the wing. The WSC aircraft uses no wires and warps the
wing by shifting the weight, which is covered in Chapter 3,
Components and Systems.
This exibility is designed into the wing primarily for turning
the aircraft without any movable control surfaces like the
ailerons and rudder on an airplane.
Forces in Flight
The four forces that affect WSC ight are thrust, drag, lift,
and weight. [Figure 2-12] In level, steady WSC ight:
1.
2.
3.
Note that the lift and weight forces are much greater than
the thrust and drag forces. A typical example for many
WSC aircraft is that the lift/weight forces are ve times the
thrust/drag forces.
During level ight, these forces are all horizontal and vertical.
During descents or climbing, these forces must be broken
down into components for analysis.
Dynamic Pressure (q)
Both lift and drag are a direct result of the dynamic pressure
of the air. Dynamic pressure (q) is created from the velocity
of the air and the air density. An increase in velocity has a
dramatic effect on dynamic pressure (q) because it increases
with the square of the velocity. Doubling the velocity means
q increases by four times. Increasing the velocity by a
factor of three means that the dynamic pressure (q) increases
by a factor of nine. This is a very important concept in
understanding the aerodynamics of WSC.
Formula for dynamic pressure: q = V2 x /2
V = velocity
Lift
= density factor
CG
Weight
Thrust
Drag
Lift
Lift opposes the downward force of weight and is produced
by the dynamic effects of the surrounding airstream acting
on the wing. Lift acts perpendicular to the ightpath through
the wings center of lift. There is a mathematical relationship
for lift which varies with dynamic pressure (q), AOA, and the
size of the wing. In the lift equation, these factors correspond
to the terms q, coefcient of lift (CL), and wing surface area.
The relationship is expressed in Figure 2-13.
Flightpath
Relative Wind
L = C LV 2 2 S
L = Lift (pounds)
CL= Coefficient of lift
(This dimensionless number is the ratio of lift
pressure to dynamic pressure and area. It is
specific to a particular airfoil shape and, above
the stall, it is proportional to angle of attack.)
V = Velocity (feet per second)
= Air density (slugs per cubic foot)
S = Wing surface area (square feet)
Figure 2-13. The lift equation.
2-7
Drag
Drag is the resistance to forward motion through the air and
is parallel to the relative wind. Aerodynamic drag comes in
two forms:
1.
2.
2.
Weight-shift control
lift distribution
Eliptical
lift distribution
drag.
Figure 2-17. Fast WSC aircraft with complete streamlining (top) and
slow WSC aircraft with minimum streamlining (bottom).
2-9
Drag
Drag
LD-MAX
Stall
Parasite Drag
Resultant force
Total Drag
Resultant force
of lift and drag
components
that support the
weight during
flight
Lift
ord
Root Wing Ch
Induced Drag
Angle of Attack
Weight
Weight is a measure of the force of gravity acting upon the
mass of the WSC aircraft. Weight consists of everything
directly associated with the WSC aircraft in flight: the
combined load of the total WSC aircraft (wing, wires, engine,
carriage, fuel, oil, people, clothing, helmets, baggage, charts,
books, checklists, pencils, handheld global positioning
system (GPS), spare clothes, suitcase, etc.).
1
Component
of weight
that
opposes
lift (WL)
WL
Weight
Glides
lope
Relativ
e Wind
Flightp
ath
WD
2-10
Drag
ltant
Resu
Lift
ord
g Ch
force
in
oot W
ck
Angle of Atta
Thrust
CG
Flightpath
force
ltant
Resu
Relative Wind
Weight
Thrust
Lift
ot
Ro
Excess Thrust
(Total thrust
minus Drag)
used to climb
rust
Total th
to climb
ord
Resultant force
required to lift weight
CG
ng
Wi
Ch
ack
f Att
le o
Ang
ve Win
Relati
ath
Thrust required
to overcome
component
of weight
Weight
Flightp
Component of weight
to oppose lift
Ground Effect
Ground effect is when the wing is ying close to the ground
and there is interference of the ground with the airow
patterns created by the wing. At the same angle of attack,
lift increases slightly and the drag decreases signicantly.
The most apparent indication from ground effect is the
unexpected lift given to an aircraft as it ies close to the
groundnormally during takeoffs and landings. More details
for ground effect aerodynamics are found in the Pilots
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Flight characteristics
for ground effect are covered in the takeoff and landing
chapters.
Center of Gravity (CG)
The CG is the theoretical point of concentrated weight of
the aircraft. It is the point within the WSC aircraft about
which all the moments trying to rotate it during ight are
balanced. The most obvious difference in the CG for a WSC
aircraft is the vertical position compared to an airplane, as
it is always lower than the wing. The Pilots Handbook of
Aeronautical Knowledge accurately states the CG is generally
in the vertical center of the fuselage. The same is true for the
WSC aircraft. However, the WSC wing is higher above the
fuselage/carriage and, since most of the weight is centered
in the carriage, the CG is well below the wing.
In a two-seat WSC aircraft, the second seat is typically behind
the pilots seat and the CG is usually located close to the rear
passenger seat. Therefore, the CG location does not change
signicantly with a passenger. Fuel tanks are typically located
near the vertical CG so any difference in fuel quantity does
not signicantly change the CG fore and aft with different
fuel quantities.
For level ight, the CG is directly below the wing/carriage
attachment point known as the hang point, and the propeller
thrust line is typically designed to be near the vertical position
of the CG. [Figure 2-22]
2-11
CG
Fuel tank
Axes of Rotation
The three axes of rotation intersect at the CG.
[Figure 2-23]
Lateral AxisPitch
Motion about the lateral axis, or pitch, is controlled by AOA/
speed and the throttle. Lowering the AOA (increasing speed)
Pitching
Lateral Axis
2-12
Rolling
Longitudinal Axis
Yawing
Vertical Axis
Longitudinal AxisRoll
Turning is initiated by rolling about the longitudinal axis, into
a bank similar to an airplane using aileron and rudder control.
To turn, shift the weight to the side in the direction of the turn,
increasing the weight on that side. This increases the twist on
that side while decreasing the twist on the other side, similar
to actuating the ailerons on an airplane. The increased twist
on the side with the increased weight reduces the AOA on the
tip, reducing the lift on that side and dropping the wing into a
bank. The other wing, away from which the weight has been
shifted, decreases twist. The AOA increases, increasing the
lift on that wing and thereby raising it.
Thus, shifting the weight to one side warps the wing (changes
the twist) to drop one wing and raise the other, rolling the
WSC aircraft about the longitudinal axis. [Figure 2-24] More
details on the controls that assist wing warping are covered
in chapter 3, which should be considered with use of the
controls in the takeoff, landing, and ight maneuvers sections
of this handbook.
More lift
Less lift
ft
right
ht
Weig
sh
ifte
A i rcr a
t
gh
d to ri
increasing the twist on the loaded side and decreasing the twist on
the unloaded side.
Vertical AxisYaw
The WSC wing is designed to y directly into the relative
wind because it does not provide for direct control of rotation
about the vertical axis.
2-13
Top View
Side View
Nose
A Trim
LW
CLW
LR
CLW
CG
LT
Center of lift at
same longitudinal
position as center
of gravity.
AT
AR
CG
Nose
B Minimum
LW
Controlled
Airspeed
CLW
b
CG
CLW
LR
LT
High AOA
CG
Nose
C High Speed
LW
CLW
CLW
CG
LR
Low AOA
CG
Figure 2-25. Trim, minimum controlled airspeed, and high speed pitching moments.
2-14
Pitch Pressures
As the pilot pushes out on the control bar, this creates a pilot
input force that has a moment arm from the control bar up to
the wing hang point. [Figure 2-27]
From this pilot-induced pitch moment, the control bar is
pushed out, the nose raised, and the AOA increases an equal
amount for both the root and the tip chords. However, as
shown in Figures 2-26 and 2-28, the average CL change is
greater at the low AOA at the tip chords, while the amount
1.5
1.5
.12
Root
at minimum
controlled
airspeed
Tips
1.0
at minimum
controlled
airspeed
1.0
CL
CL
0.5
Root
0.5
.3
Example of
Increasing AOA
3 degrees above trim
Tip
10
15
20
25
10
15
20
25
Angle of Attack
Angle of Attack
controlled airspeed.
Ar
CG
Arm
CG
2-15
Reflex in
airfoil creates
force near
trailing edge
of root area
Reflex
arm
Relative Wind
-LR
lex
f
orc
em
om
ent
Positive moment
caused by
aerodynamic
force at tips
plus reflex in
airfoil at root
R ef
Flightpath
Relative Wind
Carriage Moments
The wing design is the main contributing factor for pitch
stability and moments, but the carriage design can also
inuence the pitching moment of the WSC aircraft. For
example, at very high speeds in a dive, a streamlined carriage
would have less drag and, therefore, a greater nose-up moment
because of less drag. The design of the carriage parts can have
an effect on aerodynamic forces on the carriage, resulting in
different moments for different carriage designs.
The drag of the wing in combination with the drag of the
carriage at various airspeeds provides a number of pitching
moments, which are tested by the manufacturera reason
the carriage is matched to the wing for compatibility. Each
manufacturer designs the carriage to match the wing and takes
into account these unique factors.
Smaller area
creating loss of drag
Flightpath
Larger area
creating more drag
Arm
CG
Carriage Moments
Carriage weight and resultant CG are the main factors that
contribute toward increasing the roll moment for the carriage.
Carriage aerodynamic forces are not typically a factor for
rolling moments.
Carriage Moments
The wing is a signicant factor in the design of yaw stability,
but the carriage can be a large factor also. If the area in front
of the CG is greater than the area in back of the CG, and
the wing yaws to the side, then the front would have more
2-17
Thrus
t line
CG
CG
ust
Thr
line
2-18
Turbulence
Phase 2
No
se
ro t
ates
down
Whip Stall
Wing comletely
stalled and very
high pitch angle
Phase 1
Laminar airflow
Vertical dive
Phase 4
Phase 3
Tumble
Whip StallTuckTumble
A WSC aircraft can get to a high pitch attitude by ying
outside the its limitations or flying in extreme/severe
turbulence. If the wing gets to such a high pitch attitude and
the AOA is high enough that the tips stall, a whip stall occurs.
[Figure 2-37]
2-20
Chapter Summary
Basic principles of aerodynamics apply to all aircraft;
however, the unique design of the wing and the separate
fuselage/carriage provide a simplistic and efcient aircraft.
The following provide a summary of the unique aerodynamics
for the WSC wing:
Chapter 3
Components
and Systems
Introduction
Weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft come in an array of shapes
and sizes, but the basic design features are fundamentally the
same. All WSC consist of a exible wing made with a sail
tted over a rigid airframe. A separate carriage is the fuselage
which consists of the ight deck, propulsion system, and
landing gear. [Figure 3-1]
3-1
WING
CARRIAGE
Propulsion System
Flight Deck
Landing Gear
Wing
The wing has a structural frame that the sail fits over.
Although the wing structure is rigid, it is designed to move
and allow the sail to ex and the wing to deform or warp,
to provide a simple control system with no pulleys, push
rods, hinges, control cables, or separate control surfaces. This
simplies maintenance and reduces the cost and weight of
the wing. Each wing is built from high quality aircraft parts
including alloyed aluminum tubes, stainless steel cables,
hardware, and specially designed sail cloth.
Wing Frame Components
The structural frame of the wing is composed of the leading
edges, keel, crossbar, pilot control frame, king post and wires/
struts. The wing frame is a number of structural triangles
formed by the wing components. These triangles, braced by
wires and struts, provide a strong and lightweight frame to
support the exible sail. [Figure 3-2]
Leading Edges
Leading edges are tube assemblies that are at the front of the
wing, the leading edges of the wing airfoil. These are swept
back to form the front shape of the wing and attached to each
3-2
other with nose plates. The leading edges support the airfoil
and are designed to ex as part of the wing structure.
The leading edges are each made up of two main
sections, an inboard and an outboard section, as shown in
Figures 3-2 and 3-3. Additional tubing sleeves are typically
used for added strength where the leading edge attaches to
the nose plates, and where the inboard and outboard tubes
join at the crossbar attachment. This sleeving can be internal
or external depending on the specic manufacturers design.
Typically, additional sleeving is used throughout the leading
edges at various locations to strengthen and vary the ex for
the particular design of the wing. Each manufacturer and
make/model uses different internal and external sleeving
to accomplish specic strength and ex characteristics.
Generally, the inboard sections are stiffer and the outboard
leading edge section exes as part of the exible wing
design. Sleeving is commonly added throughout the aircraft
where bolt holes are drilled through the tubing to reinforce
it around the bolt hole.
The outboard leading edge sections can be removed to pack
up the wing into a short pack which is commonly used for
shipping. [Figure 3-3]
King Post
Nose Plates
Crossbar
Crossbar Tensioning Cables
Crossbar Tensioning
Cables Attachment
Keel
Downtubes
Control Bar
Control Frame
Crossbar
Keel
The wing keel is like that of a boat keel, the center of the
wing, fore and aft. It attaches to the leading edges at the nose
plate and performs a number of important functions. It is the
structure where the carriage attaches to the wing, and it is the
wing structure that connects the center section of the sail at
the keel pocket (discussed later in this chapter in the sail
section). The control frame and king post (if so equipped) also
attaches to the keel. It also provides structure for the upper
and lower wires (if so equipped) and a reference or anchor
Inboard
Wing Tip
External Sleeve
Outboard
3-3
Crossbar
Control Frame
Crossbar
Leading Edge
Downtube
Control Bar
Notice the thick structural -inch flying wires that support the
wing and smaller -inch cables holding the control frame in
place fore and aft.
Figure 3-4. View looking inside left hand wing from the tip showing
crossbar tensioned and pushing the leading edges into the sail.
Notice the slight bending of the leading edges to fit into the sail
(top). Crossbar tensioning cables attached to rear of keel in flying
position detail. See specific location on airframe with figure 3-2.
(bottom).
3-4
Figure 3-6. Control frame with downtubes, control bar, and corner
bracket with flying wing wires, and control frame fore and aft
wires.
Training bars are added for dual controls so the person in back
can y the aircraft. These are typically used by an instructor
for training but can be used by a passenger in the back also.
[Figure 3-7]
Figure 3-7. Passenger using training bars which are also used by the instructor during training.
3-5
Leading Edge
Leading Edge
Figure 3-9. A strutted wing folded back so it can fit into a trailer for
storage and easy transport (top). Strutted wing with wings folded
back for easy storage (bottom).
Sail Components
The sail is a highly rened design that integrates with its
wing frame. Each sail and wing frame are designed for each
other and are not interchangeable with other sails or wings.
3-6
3-7
Figure 3-15. View inside wing showing top wire coming though
sail that is reinforced, being attached to the crossbar by a tang, an
aircraft bolt, washers, and lock nut.
Wing Systems
Reex Systems
Washout Strut
Washout strutstubes near the tips that keep the tip trailing
edge up during very low or negative angles of attack. They
can be inside or outside the double surface of a wing. The
reex cables may not go to the wingtip, so washout struts
are used to hold up the trailing edge at the tip at very low
and negative angles of attack. [Figure 3-17]
Sprog
Washout Strut
3-8
Top View
Figure 3-20. Shifting weight to the right pulls the keel to the right
(or lets the crossbar shift to the left) and increases twist on the right
side for roll control.
Trim Systems
There are a number of trim systems to relieve the control
pressures for pilots to y at different hands off trim speeds.
Ground adjustable trim allows the pilot to adjust the trim
speed of the wing on the ground and remain at one speed
during ight, while ight adjustable trim systems can change
the trim speed in ight.
Figure 3-23. Hydraulic inflight trim systems that move the hang
lK
et
ck
Po
l
e
a
Re
Ke
nt
Fro
el
Ke
Elastic pulling
down on keel
raising nose.
Nose
Carriage
Figure 3-22. A crank on the downtube of the control bar that adjusts
the trailing edge reflex during flight.
3-10
Figure 3-25. Simple basic trike (left) and sophisticated trike with adjustments for pilot and passenger (right).
the more complex the trike, the more it costs, weighs, and the
more power it requires for similar wings. [Figure 3-25]
Structure
Similar to the wing, the carriage is designed with a number
of structural triangles for optimum strength and minimum
weight. Each manufacturer and model have specific
details that vary, but
the carriage structure is
typically a mast, keel,
Wing Keel
and front tube that
form the main triangle
components of the
Carriage Wing Attachment Hang Point
carriage structure with
the wing attachment
at the top of the mast.
A seat frame attached
Carriage Mast
to the mast and keel
provides rigidity to the
Engine Mount
main components while
providing structure for
the pilot and passenger.
[Figure 3-26]
Landing struts attached
to the rear wheels
provide structure for the
main landing gear, and
a front fork provides the
landing gear structure
for the front wheel. An
engine mount attaches
to the mast, providing
structure for the
propulsion system to
attach to the carriage.
[Figure 3-26]
Landing Gear
The landing gear provides support to the WSC aircraft on
the ground and absorbs the shock to reduce the stresses on
the pilot and the aircraft during landings.
Front Tube
Seat Frame
Carriage Keel
Front Fork
3-11
Figure 3-27. Large foot rests used for steering the aircraft on the
ground (left hand ground brake shown).
Rear Seat
Foot Steering
Figure 3-28. Foot steering control for instructor in the back seat
3-12
The main landing gear is the two rear wheels of the WSC
aircraft. Since the center of gravity (CG) is much closer to
the rear wheels, most of the weight for the aircraft is carried
on the rear wheels for taxi, takeoff, and landings.
There are a number of different congurations for the main
gear. A conventional conguration has two separate systems
for each rear wheel. Each side is two structural triangles, one
Shock Absorber
Shock Strut
Internal Keel
Vertical
Triangle
Horizontal
Triangle
Drag Strut
Main Strut
Main Strut
The vertical triangle consists of the main landing strut and the
shock strut attached to the wheel and up to the keel structure
[Figure 3-36] or other structure such as the engine mount
shown in Figure 3-33, which houses the compressed nitrogen
and oil oleo shock absorber.
There are a number of other main landing gear congurations
and shock absorbing systems such as wire bracing
with bungee cord shocks [Figure 3-34], fiberglass or
flexible (fiberglass or steel) main gears with no struts
[Figure 3-35], and any variation of these. Carriages designed
for faster speeds may have streamlined landing gear systems.
[Figures 3-36 and 3-37]
3-13
Figure 3-38. WSC aircraft with large tundra tires for soft or rough
field operations.
3-14
The pontoon system is used for calmer water, has less drag
while ying, and therefore can accommodate faster, smaller
wings. [Figure 3-40] Both the ying boat and the pontoon
system need more horsepower than land operations for two
reasons: rst, to provide enough thrust to accelerate to takeoff
speed with the extra drag of the boat or pontoons on the water,
Position lights
Anticollision lights
Instrument lights
Radio equipment
Navigation equipment
Electronic instrumentation
Starting motor
Ballistic Parachute
An additional safety system available is a ballistic parachute
system. In the case of a structural failure because of a mid-air
collision or an engine out over hostile terrain such as a forest,
the ballistic parachute provides an added safety system. The
parachute is sized so that when used, the complete aircraft
comes down under canopy. Details of ballistic parachute
system use are covered in more detail in Chapter 13,
Abnormal and Emergency Operations.
When the system is activated, a rocket shoots out, pulling the
parachute system to full line stretch, and forcing the parachute
out and away from the carriage and wing.
The preferred point of attachment for the parachute is on top
of the wing at the hang point. This allows the WSC aircraft
to descend level and land on the wheels, helping to absorb
the shock. This requires routing from the chute to the top of
the wing with O rings to be able to remove this routing to
easily take the wing off the carriage. Alternate attach points
where there is no routing to the top of the wing are the mast
and engine attachment points; however, this has the WSC
aircraft descending nose down when activated.
The ballistic parachute canister can be mounted in a number
of locations on the WSC, typically on the carriage pointed
sideways to avoid entanglement with the propeller. The
actuation handle is mounted in the ight deck for pilot use
when needed. [Figures 3-41 and 3-42]
3-15
Canister
Rocket
Ballistic Parachute System
Figure 3-43. Cruise throttle control and ignition switches.
Figure 3-41. Located under the pilots legs, the canister will blow
through the break-away panel in the cowling.
Flight Deck
The ight deck is where the pilot and passenger sit. It is
typically a tandem seating with the pilot in front and the
passenger in back. When the WSC aircraft is used for
instruction, the instructor typically sits in back and must have
access to the ight controls.
The pilot in the front has ground and ight controls. The
right foot controls a foot throttle and the left foot controls
the brake. This is similar to throttle and brake controls on an
automobile. The feet also control ground steering by moving
the front fork with the foot pedals. A foot throttle and foot
brake can be added to optional ground steering control for
use by an instructor sitting in back.
A hand cruise throttle is typically used when the pilot can
set it and it stays set. This cruise throttle is usually in a
position where the instructor in the back seat can also operate
it. [Figures 3-43]
The wing ight control bar is in a position at chest height for
the pilot in the front seat. Additional extensions are added
3-16
Flight Instruments
The specic theory of operation and details of instruments is
covered in the Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge,
and is a prerequisite to this section on ight instruments. The
altimeter is the most important ight instrument and should
be on every WSC aircraft. It is used to maintain the proper
altitude at airports, during cruise, and provides other aircraft
position information for the safety of all.
Accessories Plug
Starter
The vertical speed indicator (VSI) is one tool to assist the pilot
with the performance of the aircraft. The airspeed indicator
(ASI) is used to optimize performance of the aircraft, compare
predicted to actual performance, and to operate within the
limitations of the aircraft.
Engine
Hours
Airspeed
Master
Altitude
GPS
Navigation Instruments
A global positioning system (GPS) is typically used as a
navigation and ight aid for most WSC aircraft. A magnetic
compass is commonly used as a primary navigation system
or as a backup when a GPS system is used.
RPM
CHT
Engine Instruments
There is a variety of engine instruments that are used. The
most basic is the engine rpm, which determines the power
of the engine. Specic engine instruments are discussed in
the powerplant section.
Instrument Panel Arrangements
Instrument panels vary greatly from the basic to the complex.
Figure 3-44 depicts a standard instrument panel supplied
EGT
3-17
Airspeed
Strobe
RPM
Flight Radio
Timer
CHT
EGT
Magnetic
Compass
VSI
Altitude
Master
Phone
GPS
Strobe
Airspeed
VSI
Altitude
Master Elec
Volts
EGT
Oil Direction
Temp.
Volts
Fuel
Level
CHT
Oil Pressure
Radio
GPS
Magnetic Compass
Transponder
3-18
Radio Communications
System Electric
Switches
Figure 3-47. Digital instrument panel.
Communications
There are three types of communications systems used in
WSC aircraft:
1.
2.
3.
Hea
dP
hone
s
1
OFF
H
Phoead
ne
2
H
Phoead
ne
1
Head Phone 2
Passenger
Fuse
tery
Bat
Radio
P.T.T. 2 (optional)
used for
instructor
during training
P.T.T. 1Push To Talk
Figure 3-49. Flight deck and aircraft radio communications system example.
3-19
Engine Gearbox
Fuel fill
The Propeller
Figure 3-51. Fuel fill to fuel tank under passengers seat.
Fuel lines exit the fuel tank, and may incorporate a primer
bulb, fuel lters, fuel pump, and/or a primer system, all of
which must be integrated into the carriage. A fuel venting
system is also required, which can be a hole in the fuel ller
or lines running to vent at an appropriate location.
3-20
3-21
Chapter Summary
Components and systems consist of two primary
subassemblies: wing and carriage. The main wing component
is the frame, which is composed of the leading edges, keel,
crossbar, and control frame. The typical wing frame has lower
wires and upper wires with a king post. The strutted version
has wing struts and no upper rigging. The frame is designed
so the outboard leading edges ex, and it also has a control
system that allows the keel to move side to side relative to the
leading edges for roll control. The sail is designed specically
for the frame with battens and leading edge stiffner provide
the rigid airfoil shape of the sail.
The carriage is separate from the wing. Different wings can be
put on the same carriage at separate times for different types
of ying (example: large wing is used for ying low and slow
where a small wing can be used for ying fast and long crosscountry missions). As discussed in Chapter 2, Aerodynamics,
each wing must be approved by the manufacturer to go on
a specic carriage.
Main carriage components are the mast, carriage keel, front
tube, and engine mount. This structure houses the ight deck,
powerplant, and landing gear. The carriage structure also
houses system components such as the electrical system,
ballistic parachute, and fuel tank. The ight deck is the heart
of the carriage providing pilot systems for communications,
navigation, engine/flight/navigation instruments, and
electrical controls.
3-22
Chapter 4
Powerplants
Introduction
This chapter covers the engines found on most weight-shift
control (WSC) aircraft and includes the exhaust, ignition,
lubrication, cooling, propeller, gearbox, induction, charging,
and fuel systems. Reciprocating engine operating theory is
covered for both two-stroke and four-stroke engines. The
WSC engine and propeller, often referred to as a powerplant,
work in combination to produce thrust. The powerplant
propels the aircraft and charges the electrical system that
supports WSC operation.
4-1
Reciprocating Engines
WSC aircraft are designed with reciprocating engines.
[Figures 4-1 through 4-3] Two common means of classifying
reciprocating engines are the:
1.
2.
4-2
4-3
Transfer port
Fuel/Air/Oil Mixture
Reed valve open
Piston porting does not use any valves. The fuel inlet port is
opened and closed by the piston position as it moves up and
down in the cylinder. This is called a piston ported inlet and
is used in the two-stroke process description that follows.
Two-Stroke Process
The two-stroke process begins with the fuel entering the
engine and concludes as it exits as exhaust.
Transfer port
Exhaust port
Reed valve closed
Figure 4-4. Reed valve is open with low pressure and closes when
the pressure increases in a two-stroke engine.
4-4
F Fuel/Oil/Air ignited
Piston is at bottom
H
2
1
Piston is at top
Piston
Crankcase
Crank
A
Transfer port
Connecting Rod
Vacuum created in
crankcase
Fuel/Oil/Air mixture
enters from carburetor
Fuel/Oil/Air mixture
pressurized
Pressurized Fuel/Oil/
Air mixture transferred
As the piston passes the exhaust port, the exhaust exits the
combustion chamber. As the piston continues down, the
transfer port opens and the swirling motion of the fuel/
oil/air mixture pushes the exhaust out of the exhaust port.
[Figures 4-6H]
4-5
Four-Stroke Engines
Four-stroke engines are very common in most aircraft
categories and are becoming more common in WSC
aircraft. [Figure 4-7] Four-stroke engines have a number
of advantages, including reliability, fuel economy, longer
engine life, and higher horsepower ranges.
Intake valve
Exhaust valve
are pushed out of the cylinder and through the exhaust pipe
system to the atmosphere.
Some exhaust systems have an exhaust gas temperature
probe. This probe transmits an electric signal to an instrument
in front of the pilot. This instrument reads the signal and
provides the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) of the gases at
the exhaust manifold. This temperature varies with power and
with the mixture (ratio of fuel to air entering the cylinders),
and is used to make sure the fuel/air mixture is within
specications. When there is a problem with carburetion,
the EGT gauge will normally be the rst notication for a
pilot. [Figure 4-8]
Spark plug
Piston
EGT Probes
Crankshaft
Connecting rod
1. Intake
2. Compression
Exhaust Silencer
3. Power
4. Exhaust
Exhaust Systems
Engine exhaust systems vent the burned combustion gases
overboard, reduce engine noise, and (in the case of twostroke engines) help keep the fresh fuel/oil/air mixture in the
cylinders. An exhaust system has exhaust piping attached
to the cylinders, as well as a mufer. The exhaust gases
4-6
Engine Warming
Two-Stroke Engine Warming
Two-stroke engines must be warmed because different metals
expand at different rates as they are heated. When heating
steel and aluminum, the aluminum parts expand faster than
the steel parts. This becomes a problem in two different
areas of many two-stroke engines. The rst place is in the
cylinders of the engine.
The cylinders have steel walls that expand slowly, compared
to aluminum pistons that expand quickly. If an engine is
revved too quickly during takeoff before warming up, a lot of
heat is generated on top of the piston. This quickly expands
the piston, which can then seize in the cylinder. A piston
seizure will stop the engine abruptly.
The second area of concern is lower in the engine around
the crankshaft. This is an area where parts may get too loose
4-7
Propeller
Four-Stroke Engine Warming
A four-stroke engine must also be warmed up. The fourstroke engine has a pressurized oil system that provides
more uniform engine temperatures to all of its components.
Takeoff power can be applied as soon as the water, cylinder
head temperature (CHT), oil temperatures, and oil pressure
are within the manufacturers recommended tolerances for
takeoff power applications.
Gearboxes
Gearboxes are used on most WSC reciprocating engines to
take the rotational output of an internal combustion engine
which is turning at a high rpm and convert it to a slower (and
more useful) rpm to turn the propeller. Gearboxes come in
different gear ratios depending on the output speed of the
engine and the needed propeller turning speeds.
Some examples are a two-stroke rpm reduction from 6,500
engine rpm with a 3.47 to 1 reduction, resulting in 1,873
propeller rpm. A four-stroke rpm reduction could be from
5,500 engine rpm with a 2.43 to 1 reduction, resulting in
2,263 propeller rpm. A gearbox is a simple device that bolts
directly to the engine and, in turn, has the propeller bolted
directly to it.
A two-cycle engine gearbox is kept lubricated with its own
built-in reservoir of heavy gearbox oil. The reservoir is
actually part of the gearbox case itself. The gearbox oil has
to be changed periodically since the meshing of the gears
will cause them to wear and will deposit steel lings into
the oil. If the oil is not changed, the abrasive lings cause
even more wear.
Some gearboxes have a built-in electric starter motor. When
activated, the motor turns the gearing which cranks the
engine.
Four-stroke propeller reduction gearboxes use oil from the
engine oil system for lubrication.
5
6
8
rpm
x1000
ENGINE RPM
ENGINE HOURS
Shown when engine is shut off
Figure 4-9. Engine rpm is indicated on the analog gauge (top) and
Fixed-Pitch Propeller
The pitch of the fixed-pitch propeller is set by the
manufacturer and cannot be changed. Refer to the Pilots
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge for basic propeller
principles.
100%
Power
Main Jet
Full
Ne
Induction Systems
2.
The fuel injection system injects the fuel into the air
just before entry into each cylinder.
Carburetor Systems
WSC aircraft use oat-type carburetors. The oat-type
carburetor acquires its name from a oat that rests on fuel
within the carburetor oat chamber, commonly known as
the fuel bowls. The oat maintains the fuel level in the
fuel bowls. As fuel is used by the engine, the fuel and oat
levels drop, opening the valve letting more fuel into the
fuel bowls until the proper level of fuel in the fuel bowls
is achieved and the valve is closed. Reference the Pilots
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge for basic information
on oat carburetor operation. Modern two- and four-stroke
carburetors operate with three separate jetting systems
depending on engine power. [Figure 4-10]
When the throttle is closed for engine idling, the throttle
valve is closed and the fuel/air mixture is supplied through
the idle (pilot) jet and idle (pilot) air passage. The fuel/air
mixture is supplied to the cylinders through the bypass hole.
[Figure 4-11]
As the throttle is advanced and the throttle valve is raised,
the fuel is sucked up through the main jet but is controlled
by the opening and taper of the jet needle and needle jet.
This is effective throughout most of the midrange operation.
About half throttle, the main jet size starts to inuence the
amount of fuel mixed with the air and this effect continues
until it is the main inuence at the highest throttle settings.
[Figures 4-10 and 4-12]
50%
Idle Jet
1.
edle Jet
Idle
Throttle Valve
Pilot Hole
Idle Air
Bypass Hole
4-9
Throttle Slide
Cutaway
Jet Needle
Air Inlet
Main Jet
Needle Jet
4-10
Carburetor Icing
One disadvantage of the carburetor system versus the fuel
injected system is its icing tendency. Carburetor ice occurs
due to the effect of fuel vaporization and the decrease in air
pressure in the venturi, which causes a sharp temperature
drop in the carburetor. If water vapor in the air condenses
when the carburetor temperature is at or below freezing, ice
may form on internal surfaces of the carburetor, including
the throttle valve.
Ice generally forms in the vicinity of the venturi throat. This
restricts the ow of the fuel/air mixture (fuel/oil/air mixture
for two stroke) and reduces power. If enough ice builds up,
the engine may cease to operate. Carburetor ice is most likely
to occur when temperatures are below 70 F (21 C) and
the relative humidity is above 80 percent. However, due to
the sudden cooling that takes place in the carburetor, icing
can occur even with temperatures as high as 100 F (38 C)
and humidity as low as 50 percent. This temperature drop
can be as much as 60 to 70 F. Therefore, at an outside air
temperature of 100 F, a temperature drop of 70 F results in
an air temperature in the carburetor of 30 F. [Figure 4-14]
The rst indication of carburetor icing is a decrease in engine
rpm, which may be followed by engine roughness. Although
carburetor ice can occur during any phase of ight, it is
particularly dangerous when using reduced power during a
descent. Under certain conditions, carburetor ice could build
unnoticed until trying to add power. To combat the effects of
carburetor ice, some engines have a carburetor heat option.
Some of the newer four-stroke engines have carburetor heat
turned on all the time to combat icing. Two-stroke engines
are typically less susceptible to icing but specic installations
100%
Relative humidity
90%
High carburetor
icing potential
80%
70%
60%
50%
20 F/7 C
32 F/0 C
70 F/21 C
100 F/38 C
No carburetor icing.
Disadvantages include:
Throttle control
Fuel filter
Fuel manifold valve
Fuel
pressure
regulator
Fu
el t
an
k
4-11
Ignition System
The typical ignition system on WSC aircraft provides the
spark that ignites the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders and
is made up of magneto/generators, control boxes, spark
plugs, high-voltage leads, and the ignition switch. For most
LSA engines designed specically for aircraft, a magneto/
generator uses a permanent magnet to generate an electric
current independent of the aircrafts electrical system, which
might include a battery. The aircraft electrical system can
failthe battery can go dead. However, this has no effect
on the ignition system.
The electricity from the ignition magneto/generator goes into
the ignition control box where the correct voltage is produced
and timed to re the spark plugs at the proper time. Modern
WSC aircraft use an electronic capacitance discharge system
that operates without any moving parts to increase reliability
and efciency. Capacitance Digital Systems (CDI) operate
similarly but they have the ability to change the timing of the
spark for different rpm. Consult the POH for the particular
system for each engine.
The system begins to re when the starter is engaged and the
crankshaft begins to turn. It continues to operate whenever
the crankshaft is rotating. Most WSC aircraft incorporate
a dual ignition system with two individual magneto/
generators, separate sets of wires, separate sets of control
boxes, and separate sets of spark plugs to increase reliability
of the ignition system. Each magneto/generator operates
independently to re one of the two spark plugs in each
cylinder. If one of the systems fails, the other is unaffected.
The engine will continue to operate normally, although a slight
decrease in engine power can be expected.
The operation of the magneto/generator output to the ignition
system is controlled in the ight deck by the ignition switch.
Since there are two individual ignition systems, there are
normally two separate ignition toggle switches or separate
positions on the ignition control, as shown in Figure 4-16.
Identication of a malfunctioning ignition system during
the pretakeoff check is observed by the decrease in rpm that
occurs when rst turning off one ignition switch, turning it
back on, and then turning off the other. A noticeable decrease
in engine rpm is normal during this check. If the engine
stops running when switching to one ignition system or if
the rpm drop exceeds the allowable limit, do not y until
the problem is corrected. The cause could be fouled plugs,
broken or shorted wires between the magneto/generator and
spark plugs, or improperly timed ring of the plugs because
of a defective control box. It should be noted that no drop
in rpm is not normal, and in that instance, the aircraft should
not be own. Following engine shutdown, keep the ignition
4-12
Combustion
During normal combustion, the fuel/air mixture burns in
a very controlled and predictable manner. Although the
process occurs in a fraction of a second, the mixture actually
begins to burn at the point where it is ignited by the spark
plugs, then burns away from the plugs until it is consumed
completely. This type of combustion causes a smooth buildup
of temperature and pressure and ensures that the expanding
gases deliver the maximum force to the piston at exactly the
right time in the power stroke.
Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the
fuel/air mixture within the cylinders combustion chamber.
It causes excessive temperatures and pressures which, if not
Throttle Control
Engine driven
fuel pump
PRIM
ER
k
l tan
Fue
Fuel pickup with screen
Fuel Pumps
WSC aircraft with carburetors have engine-driven fuel pump
systems. A diaphragm pump is the primary pump in the fuel
system for two-stroke engines. Air pulses in the crankcase
actuate a diaphragm and provide fuel under pressure to the
carburetor. Four-stroke engines have a mechanical pump
driven directly off the engine.
Fuel Systems
4-13
Fuel Pump
Choke
A choke or fuel enriching system is an alternate method to
provide additional fuel to the engine for initial cold starting.
Actuating the choke control allows more fuel to ow into
the carburetor.
FUEL F
LOW
Fuel Filter
4-14
Fuel Contamination
Clean fuel is imperative for the safe operation of a WSC
aircraft. Of the accidents attributed to powerplant failure from
fuel contamination, most have been traced to:
Bad Gasoline
Letting fuel sit for weeks without using it will cause it to go
bad. Even if gas does not go bad, it will often lose octane
with time. For premixed gasoline and two-stroke oil, there
is another set of problems. Fuel and oil are normally mixed
at a 50:1 ratio. If premixed gas sits in a plastic container for
a while, the gas will evaporate leaving a richer oil mixture
in the container. In any case, fresh gas should be used when
possible.
Refueling Procedures
Never mix oil and fuel in an enclosed area. Not only are the
fumes irritating, but with the right fuel/air mixture can cause
an explosion. Do all oil and gas mixing outside. Refueling
from fuel cans should also be done outside. Never smoke
while refueling. Be careful when refueling an aircraft that has
just landed. There is danger of spilling fuel on a hot engine
component, particularly an exhaust system component.
Refueling should be done using only safety-approved fuel
containers marked with the type of fuel stored in them.
Confusing premixed fuel and fuel that has no oil in it can
be disastrous.
4-15
Put the cap on the fuel can and shake the gasoline and
oil mixture thoroughly.
the left hand container is just auto fuel and the right hand container
shows the auto fuel is premixed with oil for a two-stroke engine.
4-16
Starting System
Most small aircraft use a direct-cranking electric starter
system. This system consists of a source of electricity, wiring,
switches, and solenoids to operate the starter and a starter
motor. The starter engages the aircraft ywheel or gearbox,
rotating the engine at a speed that allows the engine to start
and maintain operation.
Electrical power for starting is usually supplied by an on-board
battery. When the battery switch is turned ON, electricity is
Oil Systems
In a four-stroke engine, the engine oil system performs
several important functions, including:
Oil Cooler
Water Cooler
cooler is on bottom.
4-17
Chapter Summary
Powerplants are generally classied by:
cowl.
4-18
1.
2.
Chapter 5
Preight and
Ground Operations
Introduction
Preight preparations should include the overall evaluation
of the:
5-1
Where To Fly
The weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft can be transported by
trailer from one ying eld to the next. For as many benets
as this provides, transporting the aircraft into unfamiliar
territory also includes some safety and operational issues.
Contact airport management to inquire about any special
arrangements to be made prior to arriving by trailer
[Figure 5-1] and there may be special considerations for
ying WSC aircraft with other aircraft. With smaller patterns
typically used by WSC aircraft, as covered in Chapter 10,
Airport Trafc Patterns, airport management may want a
pilot to operate over sparsely populated areas rather than
the normal airplane patterns over congested areas because
of the unique noise of the WSC aircraft. [Figure 5-2] Check
the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) all required airport
information per Title 14 of the Code of federal Regulations
(14 CFR) part 91 section 103, Preight information. Some
operation examples are trafc pattern information, noise
abatement procedures , no y zones surrounding the airport,
and special accommodations that may need to be arranged
for WSC aircraft..
Because of the wide range of flying characteristics of
the WSC aircraft, inform local pilots about some of the
incidentals of the specic WSC aircraft (e.g., ying low and
slow for certain congurations). The more non-WSC aircraft
pilots know about WSC ight characteristics and intentions,
the better they understand how to cooperate in ight. Sharing
the same airspace with various aircraft categories requires
pilots to know and understand the rules and understand the
ight characteristics and performance limitations of the
different aircraft.
For operations at nonaircraft elds, special considerations
must be evaluated. Permission is necessary to use private
property as an airstrip. Locate the area on an aeronautical
sectional chart to check for possible airspace violations or
Figure 5-1. Contact the local airport management to find an acceptable location to stay at the airport.
5-2
Figure 5-3. Fields that look like good landing areas from the air
Preight Actions
A pilot must become familiar with all available information
concerning the ight, including runway lengths at airport of
intended use, takeoff and landing distance accounting for
airport elevation and runway slope, aircraft gross weight,
wind, and temperature. For a cross-country ight not in the
vicinity of the takeoff/departure airport, information must
include weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements,
and alternatives available if the planned ight cannot be
completed.
Weather
Weather is a determining factor for all ight operations.
Before any ight is considered, pilots should obtain regional
and local information to rst determine if the predicted
weather for the planned ight is safe.
Regional Weather
Understanding the overall weather in the region being
own provides an overview of conditions and how they can
change during ight. Fronts, pressure systems, isobars, and
the jet stream determine the weather. There are a number of
information resources from which to nd the regional view
of weather systems, observed and predicted. Surface analysis
charts show these regional systems, which are common on
weather internet sites and TV broadcasts. [Figure 5-4] Review
the Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge for a
comprehensive understanding of weather theory, reports,
forecasts, and charts for weather concepts covered throughout
this weather section.
There are many sources for obtaining a weather brieng,
such as www.aviationweather.gov, www.nws.noaa.gov, 1-
5-3
Turbulence where
the strong winds mix
with the calm air
CALM BELOW
Figure 5-5. Typical morning inversion layercalm cold air is below; high winds are above.
5-4
5-5
Cirrus
High clouds
Cirrocumulus
Cirrostratus
Cumulonimbus
Altostratus
Altocumulus
Middle clouds
20,000 AGL
Stratocumulus
Stratus
Nimbostratus
Low clouds
6,500 AGL
Cumulus
WI N
5-6
Transporting
It is best to keep the WSC aircraft in an enclosed hangar, but
trailers may be used to transport, store, and retrieve the WSC
carriage. If the trailer is large enough, the wing can also t
inside the trailer. If not, then it must t on top of a trailer,
truck, or recreational vehicle (RV). [Figure 5-9]
The wing must have ample padding and should have at least
three support points where it rests for transport. Transporting
the wing properly is of critical importance because the wing
resting on any hard surface can wear a hole in the sail and
cause structural damage to the tubing. The greatest wear and
tear on a wing can occur during transportation. Each support
point should have equal pressureno single point taking
most of the load. The wing should be tied down at each
attachment point to secure it, but not tight enough to damage
the wing. Wide straps are better than thin ropes because the
greater width creates less concentrated pressure on the wing
at each tie-down point.
Once the loading of the carriage and wing is complete
[Figure 5-9], take a short drive, stop, and check for rubbing
or chang of components.
of RV.
Prior to taking the tow vehicle and trailer on the road, inspect
the tires for proper ination and adequate tread. Ensure
all lights are operable, the hitch is free moving and well
lubricated, the tow vehicle attachment is rated for the weight
of the trailer, and the vehicle and trailer brakes are operable.
Avoid towing with too much or too little tongue weight,
which causes the trailer to shtail at certain speeds, possibly
rendering it uncontrollable.
Be extremely cautious when unloading the wing and carriage.
This is best done with two people since the wing usually
weighs more than 100 pounds [Figure 5-10] and the carriage
usually must roll down some incline to get from the trailer
to the ground. Some carriages may be tail heavy without the
wing, and caution must be exercised, especially moving up and
down ramps. Check propeller clearance on the ground when
transitioning onto or off of a ramp and propeller clearance going
into and out of an enclosed trailer. If the carriage is transported
in an open trailer, it should be covered and the propeller secured
so it does not rotate/windmill during transport.
5-7
Figure 5-10. Crane used for one person to lift 110-pound wing on
top of RV for transport.
control frame. [Figure 5-14] Place the front wires near the
control bar so no one walks on them, remove, and roll up
the cover bag. [Figure 5-15] Release the wing tie straps that
are holding the leading edges together. [Figure 5-16] Spread
the wing slightly. Remove the pads from the wing keel and
kingpost. Note the protective pads still on the wing tips
protecting them from the ground during most of the wing
set up procedure. [Figure 5-17] Continually manage the
wing pads and wing tie straps by rolling the pads into the
cover bag so they do not blow away. [Figure 5-18] If the
kingpost is loose, insert it onto the keel to stand upright. If
the kingpost is attached, swing it upright. Topless wings
have no kingpost. Spread the wings as necessary to keep
the kingpost straight up, [Figure 5-19] spreading them out
carefully and evenly. Do not force anything. Ensure the wires
are not wrapped around anything. Separate the right and left
battens. Separate the straight battens (for a double surface
wing) and set them to the side. Lay out the battens, longest
to shortest from the root to the tip next to the pocket they
Figure 5-16. Removing the straps holding the two wings together.
Figure 5-18. Pads and wing tie straps neatly rolled into wing cover
bag.
5-9
Figure 5-19. Raising the kingpost and spreading the wings as needed
to keep the kingpost upright.
elastic, and others use a system that slips into the sail itself.
See the POH for wing details. Insert battens from the root
towards the tip about the way out on each side. Leave
the tip battens for later. Spread the wings as far as possible.
[Figure 5-23] Check to ensure all the wires are straight, not
wrapped around, and clear to tension the wing. Tension the
wing by pulling back on the crossbar tensioning cable and
5-10
Figure 5-24. Attaching the tensioning cables to the back of the wing
attachment.
Figure 5-29. Attaching the mast to the wing after checking the POH
5-11
Lift up the nose and let the carriage roll backward until the
wing is level and the control bar is in front of the front wheel
of the carriage. Engage the parking brake and chock the back
of the carriage wheels. Ensure everything in the ight deck is
free and clear so the wing can be lifted freely into position.
[Figure 5-30] Lift the wing into position and lock the
carriage mast. This position is unique to each manufacturer
as some masts hinge above the ight deck. Refer to the POH
for details on a specic aircraft. [Figure 5-31] Install the
carriage front tube. Secure the control bar to the front tube
with a bungee. [Figure 5-32] Attach any fairing or seats as
required. [Figure 5-33]
wing.
5-12
Figure 5-35. Left hand side rolled up and secured with wing tie.
Rolling right hand sail which will also be secured with wing tie.
Figure 5-37. Control bar folded down along leading edges but
wires not yet organized.
Figure 5-34. Padding the keel and kingpost with the right hand sail
over the top of the leading edge.
5-13
produces less lift, and will drop the wing, which makes it turn
in the direction where more twist was added. For example,
with an unwanted left hand turn, either decrease the twist
on the left hand wing (increase angle of attack at the tip) or
increase the twist on the right hand wing (decrease the angle
of attack at the tip).
Wing Tuning
Wings are designed to fly straight with a range of trim speeds
determined by the manufacturer. If the wing does not fly
straight or trim to the manufacturers specifications, it must
be tuned to fly properly. Any wing adjustment can change the
handling and stability characteristics of the wing. Each wing
is unique and the tuning procedures are unique for each wing.
It is very important to follow the specific tuning procedures
in the POH/AFM for the specific wing. The following are
general guidelines to understand the tuning process.
Tuning the Wing To Fly Straight
Wings may turn to the right or left (depending on which way
the propeller turns) at high power settings because of the
turning effect described earlier in the aerodynamics section.
If it does not fly straight for cruising flight, visually examine
for any asymmetric right and left features on the wing
before making any adjustments. Look for symmetry in the
twist angle. Inspect the leading edge for any discontinuities,
bumps, or an irregular leading edge stiffener. Ensure the
pockets are zippered and symmetrical on both sides. Ensure
the reflex lines are clear, straight, and routed properly. Check
the battens to ensure the right and left match (do not make
any adjustments in the battens initially because reflex may
have been added at the factory initially for tuning), and
ensure the battens match the manufacturers batten pattern.
Check the batten tension on both sides and the leading edge
tension to ensure it is symmetrical. If it is a used wing just
acquired, research the history of the wing to see what might
have happened which would cause it to not fly straight. For
new wings, contact the manufacturer for advice.
If these checks do not make the wing fly straight, then
adjust the twist in the wing according to the manufacturers
instructions. More twist on one side decreases angle of attack,
5-14
UP
DOW
sail.
Airworthiness certicate
Registration certicate
Preight Inspection
Each aircraft must have a routine preight inspection before
ight. Use a written checklist during preight and ground
operations to maintain an established procedure. [Figure 5-40]
A written checklist is required so nothing is forgotten. Ground
checklists include preight preparation, preight inspection,
occupant preight brief, ight deck management, startup, taxi,
before takeoff, and aircraft shutdown. Be smart and follow the
regulationsuse a written checklist. All checklists should be
secured so they do not y out of the ight deck in ight and
Figure 5-41. Registration and airworthiness certificates are required
to be in plain view.
Figure 5-40. Laminated index cards are handy for checklists, and
sized to fit into the flight suit zippered pocket.
5-15
5-16
Wing inspection
2.
Carriage inspection
3.
Powerplant inspection
4.
Equipment check
Wing Inspection
Start with the nose. Inspect the nose plates and the attachment
to the leading edges and keel. Ensure the nose plates are not
cracked and the bolts are fastened securely. Check the wire
attachments, top and bottom.
Inspect the control frame, down tubes and control bar for
dents and ensure they are straight. Inspect the control frame
attachment to the keel. Inspect the control bar to down tube
brackets and bolts. [Figure 5-43] Inspect fore and aft ying
wire condition, attachment to the keel, and the lower control
bar corner brackets.
edge and crossbar along with all the hardware at this junction.
Figure 5-45. Examining inside the tip of the wing to inspect all the
Figure 5-43. Inspecting the control frame brackets and flying wire
components.
attachments.
Inspect the tip area, including the washout strut and general
condition of the tip. If it is a double surface wing, look inside
the tip and examine the inside of the wing and its components.
[Figure 5-45]
From the tip, inspect the surface condition of the fabric.
Generally, if the fabric has not been exposed to sunlight for
long periods and stored properly, the wing fabric should stay
in good shape.
5-17
Carriage Inspection
Inspect the mast from the top to the bottom and the carriage
keel from the back to the front. [Figure 5-49] Check the front
tube attachment and top and bottom security attachments.
Check the seat security and seat attachments from the keel
to the mast.
Figure 5-49. Inspecting the front keel and seat attachments to the
keel.
Check the front nose wheel for proper play, tire ination,
and secure axle bolt. Test the ground steering bar and ensure
there is smooth steering range of motion. Check the front
shocks, if installed, the brakes for rust and corrosion, loose
nuts/bolts, alignment, cracks, signs of hydraulic uid leakage,
and hydraulic line security and abrasion, if so equipped.
[Figure 5-50] Check the foot throttle for smooth operation
and assure the parking brake is secured.
Figure 5-50. Checking the front wheel, tire, and front fork
assembly.
5-18
cracks.
Powerplant Inspection
Inspect engine attachment to the carriage for security and
cracks. In addition to looking at the bolts and mounts,
shake the propeller, as shown in Figure 5-53, to provide a
secure check of the propeller, gearbox, engine, and engine
attachment to the carriage.
Fuel System
Figure 5-54. Checking the security and condition of the fuel lines
and fuel filter condition.
Induction System
5-19
Figure 5-55. Checking the security of the air inlet filter and the
Ignition System
Figure 5-57. Inspecting the exhaust system by jiggling the outlet
Propeller Gearbox
Throttle System
Check all throttle controls for smooth operation and proper
travel and locking. Also check choke and/or primer system
for proper operation and travel.
Figure 5-56. Checking spark plug cap security to the spark plugs.
Cooling Systems
Ensure there is clear airow for any cooling system fan or
radiator. Ensure no insects or birds created an obstruction to
the airow for the engine cooling system.
Air cooledrotate the propeller and ensure that the cooling
fan rotates also.
Water cooledcheck the coolant level to ensure there is
cooling uid in the system.
Four stroke with additional oil coolersensure the oil cooler
has clear airow and that nothing is blocking it.
Exhaust Systems
Inspect exhaust attachment to engine, and EGT senders.
Slightly jiggle the exhaust system to inspect the springs
holding it together. All springs must be secure. Inspect
5-20
Fuel
Overall, particular attention should be paid to the fuel quantity,
type/grade, and quality. Modern WSC two- and four-stroke
engines are designed to use auto gas with various octane ratings
as specied by the manufacturer for different models. If auto
gas is stored for more than 3 weeks, octane value may fall
below the recommended rating. In this situation, it is best to
drain the gas and use fresh gas. For engines designed for auto
gas, aviation gasoline (AVGAS) 100LL can be mixed and used
on a limited basis but the lead in this is not good for the engine
and additional precautions/procedures should be researched for
the particular make/model of engine for primary use.
Always use a higher grade/octane of fuel rather than a lower
grade, or detonation will severely damage the engine in a very
short period of time. Check the aircraft operation manual and
the engine manual for the type of fuel to use.
When attempting to fuel for maximum capacity, remember
that many fuel tanks are very sensitive to attitude. Fill the
aircraft on a level surface and check to ensure the amount
of fuel in the tanks is adequate for the planned ight plus 30
minutes of reserve. Check the level in the fuel tank plus the
panel-mounted gauge, if so equipped.
5-21
check to see if the oil injection system lines from the tank
to the carburetors are clean and secure. Some two-stroke
engines have a separate lubrication system for the inlet rotary
valve; this system should be checked for proper level and
leaks. [Figure 5-61] When adding fuel and oil, ensure that
the caps has been securely replaced.
and level, rotary inlet valve reservoir and level, and liquid cooled
reservoir for checking coolant levels.
unfasten helmet.
5-22
flight deck.
Throttle closed
Brakes on
Stop
Come ahead
Emergency stop
Taxiing
Cut engines
Left turn
Start engine
Pull chocks
Insert Chocks
NIGHT OPERATION
Slow down
Right turn
Same hand
movements as
day operational
5-24
Release brake.
Figure 5-66. Taxi on the airport yellow taxi line, but stop at the
hold short line to get clearance before taxiing across or onto an
active airport runway.
5-25
5-26
Figure 5-68. After landing, the pilot slows to the appropriate taxi
speed before following the yellow taxi lines to exit the runway.
Figure 5-69. Typical tie down for light wind. Left hand WSC control
bar pulled back to lower nose for possible headwind, right hand
control bar fastened to front tube.
Figure 5-70. Pilots view of the left hand wing lowered into the wind,
allowing the pilot to exit the aircraft in higher winds with the wind
pushing down on the wing from the side.
Figure 5-71. Wing tied down with tip on ground into wind.
5-27
Figure 5-72. Group of WSC aircraft tied down with wing tips lowered
Figure 5-73. Wing lowered and four point tie-down with carriage
Chapter Summary
Preight preparations should include the overall evaluation
of the:
5-28
Chapter 6
Flight Manuevers
Introduction
Flying a weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft is not like
driving an automobile on the highway. It is also different
from operating the controls of an airplane. A WSC pilot
holds the control bar, which is a structural component
of the wing, in his or her hands. This wing is attached to
the carriage and freely rotates laterally and longitudinally
about the hang point. Therefore, the feel of the WSC is
completely different from other aircraft because there are no
movable control surfaces actuated through push/pull rods
or cables connected to a separate control actuator, such as
a stick or yoke.
The pilot feels forces on the wing through the control bar,
which is part of the wing structure with no mechanical
advantage. Simply, the feel of the WSC is different from other
aircraft but the basic ight maneuvers are similar.
6-1
Straight-and-level ight
Turns
Climbs
Descents
Normal Flight
Bar at trim
Increased Pitch
Bar outSlow Flight
Decreased Pitch
Bar inFast Flight
Nose down
Nose up
6-2
Figure 6-4. Wind shield blocks the wind from hitting the pilot.
Figure 6-3. Hold the control bar with a light touch to feel every
movement in the wing.
6-3
2.
3.
Attitude Flying
Flying by attitude means visually establishing the aircrafts
attitude with reference to the natural horizon. Attitude
is the angular difference measured between an aircrafts
2.
3.
Straight-and-Level Flying
Flying straight and level is the most important flight
maneuver to master. It is impossible to emphasize too
Figure 6-5. Pilots view of 45 bank angle can be measured with the front tube or the control bars angle with the horizon.
6-4
principles of attitude ying, that position should be crosschecked occasionally against the altimeter to determine
whether or not the throttle setting and pitch attitude are
correct. If altitude is being gained or lost, the pitch attitude
should be readjusted with the throttle in relation to the
horizon. Then, recheck the altimeter to determine if altitude
is being maintained and adjust the throttle accordingly. The
throttle setting for this condition should be noted and all
future changes in weight, trim speed, and density altitude
referenced to this known throttle setting.
After level ight is mastered in calm air, it can be practiced
in air that is moving, minor turbulence or active air. The
throttle settings for similar weight, trim, and density altitude
are the same, but more pilot input is required to maintain a
constant altitude. The throttle is used to maintain a selected
distance above the reference point for local air movement, but
the pitch pressure (nose up or nose down) is used to control
this attitude for shorter duration air disturbances.
Typically, updrafts or thermals raise the nose of the aircraft
and downdrafts at the edge of thermals lower the nose of the
aircraft. For minor updrafts the nose is lowered by pitch control
input by the pilot slightly increasing the speed of the aircraft
to keep the pitch at a constant level. In moderate to severe
updrafts, the throttle can be reduced to assist in maintaining
a reasonably constant pitch angle with the horizon.
Similarly for minor downdrafts that lower the nose, the nose
is raised by pitch control input by the pilot slightly decreasing
the speed of the aircraft to keep the pitch at a constant level.
An additional caution for raising the nose and decreasing the
speed is that raising the nose too high could stall the aircraft.
Therefore, caution must be exercised in moderate downdrafts
not to reduce the speed too much to approach a stall speed/
critical angle of attack. Similar to reducing the throttle in
updrafts to reduce pitch angle, increasing the throttle typically
increases the pitch angle. [Figure 6-8]
WSC aircraft can use the front tube as a reference to align
perpendicular with the horizon and the wings leveled. It
should be noted that any time the wings are banked even
slightly, the aircraft will turn.
The front tube can be used as an indicator to determine turn
rate. If the bar is moving side to side to any established
reference point, the aircraft is banked and should be corrected
to eliminate any turn. The objective of straight-and-level
ight is to detect small deviations from level ight as soon
as they occur, necessitating only small corrections.
Straight-and-level ight requires almost no application of
control pressures if the aircraft is properly trimmed and the
6-5
Figure 6-7. Pilots view of a reference point on the front tube chosen for level flight and lined up with the reference point on the horizon
6-6
Bar at trim
B
B Updraft
Updraft
C Downdraft
Bar at trim
air is smooth. For that reason, pilots must not form the habit
of constant, unnecessary control movement. Pilots should
learn to recognize when corrections are necessary, and then
make a measured response easily and naturally.
Common errors in the performance of straight-and-level
ight are:
Level Turns
A turn is made by banking the wings in the direction of
the desired turn. A specic angle of bank is selected by the
pilot, control pressures are applied to achieve the desired
bank angle, and appropriate control pressures are exerted to
maintain the desired bank angle once it is established.
Trim Control
The use of trim systems relieves the pilot of the requirement to
exert pressures for the desired ight condition. An improperly
trimmed aircraft requires constant control pressures, produces
pilot tension and fatigue, distracts the pilot from scanning,
and contributes to abrupt and erratic aircraft control.
6-7
Entering a Turn
A. Straight ight
B. Pilot applies sideways pressure to the control bar
shifting the weight towards the direction of the desired
turn initiating the bank.
Exiting a Turn
D. Pilot is maintaining stabilized bank and a resultant
turn.
E. Pilot shifts weight to opposite side to initiate exit out
of the turn.
Entering
Entering
Aa
Turn
Turn
Exiting a Turn
6-8
During the turn, roll, pitch, and throttle controls are adjusted
to maintain the desired bank angle, speed, and level altitude.
Coordinated ight is the coordination of the three controls
to achieve a smooth turn to the desired bank angle while
maintaining a constant speed and altitude.
The roll-out from a turn is similar to the roll-in, except ight
controls are applied in the opposite direction. As the angle
of bank decreases, the pitch pressure should be relaxed as
necessary to maintain speed and the throttle decreased to
maintain altitude.
Since the aircraft continues turning as long as there is any
bank, the rollout must be started before reaching the desired
heading. The amount of lead required to roll-out of the
desired heading depends on the degree of bank used in the
turn. Normally, the lead is one-half the degrees of bank.
For example, if the bank is 30, lead the rollout by 15. As
the wings become level, the control pressures should be
smoothly relaxed so that the controls are neutralized as the
aircraft returns to straight-and-level ight. As the rollout is
being completed, attention should be given to outside visual
references to determine that the wings are being leveled and
the turn stopped.
Vertical component
Lift
lL
ift
To
ta
Horizontal component
ta
nt
ul
R
es
Weight
Weight
Lo
ad
Centrifugal force
Figure 6-10. WSC aircraft flying straight (left) and turning with the same lift and weight (right).
6-9
6-10
Constant Airspeed
10 angle of bank
When airspeed is held constant,
a larger angle of bank will result
in a smaller turn radius and a
greater turn rate.
20 angle of bank
30 angle of bank
60 knots
When angle of bank is held
constant, a lower airspeed will
result in a smaller turn radius
and greater turn rate.
50 knots
40 knots
Figure 6-12. Angle of airspeed and bank regulate rate and radius of turn.
6-11
Descending
Ascending
Dec
lined
Plan
Flig
e
ht P
ath
lane
ed P
Inclin
h
t Pat
Fligh
Figure 6-13. When a WSC aircraft stabilizes in a descent or a climb, the flightpath is a declined or inclined plane.
6-12
25
Figure 6-14. Best angle of climb (VX) versus best rate of climb (VY).
6-13
Des
cen
Ste
ep
t at
Ap
pro
Min
imu
ach
25
Figure 6-15. Descent speeds and glide angles.
6-14
mS
afe
Although glides are directly related to the practice of poweroff accuracy landings, they have a specic operational purpose
in normal landing approaches and forced landings after engine
failure. Therefore, it is necessary that they be performed more
subconsciously than other maneuvers because most of the
time during their execution, the pilot gives full attention to
details other than the mechanics of performing the maneuver.
Since glides are usually performed relatively close to the
ground, accuracy of their execution, the formation of proper
technique, and habits are of special importance.
The glide ratio of a WSC aircraft is the distance the aircraft,
with power off, travels forward in relation to the altitude
it loses. For instance, if it travels 5,000 feet forward while
descending 1,000 feet, its glide ratio is said to be 5 to 1.
The glide ratio is affected by all four fundamental forces that
act on an aircraft (weight, lift, drag, and thrust). If all factors
affecting the aircraft are constant, the glide ratio is constant.
Airs
pee
Best
Glide
Partial
Power
Desce
nt
LD-MAX
Increasing Lift-to-Drag Ratio
Stall
VNE
Increasing Speed
Figure 6-16.
LDMAX.
6-15
1.
2.
3.
Figure 6-17. Pilots visual reference of pitch and rolldescending in a shallow bank.
Figure 6-18. Pilots visual reference of pitch and rollcontinuing the shallow bank turn but raising the nose slightly with power application.
Notice the how the front tube has moved across the horizon and the nose has raised slightly with additional power application to level
flight.
6-17
6-18
Energy Management
The WSC aircraft has very little momentum because of its
relative light weight as compared to airplanes. Therefore, it
is important that pilots learn to manage the kinetic energy of
the WSC. Higher speed and higher power is higher energy.
Lower speed and lower power is lower energy. The ability
for a pilot to maintain high energy levels in turbulent air and
while near the ground is the basis for energy management
for WSC.
6-19
Relative Wind
Relative Wind
Flightpath
Flightpath
Figure 6-20. Energy management: low and high kinetic energy for level flight.
2.
6-20
Trim flight
Stalls
A stall occurs when the smooth airow over the aircrafts
wing root is disrupted and the lift degenerates rapidly. This
is caused when the wing root exceeds its critical angle of
attack. This can occur at any airspeed in any attitude with
any power setting.
The practice of stall recovery and the development of
awareness of stalls are of primary importance in pilot
training. The objectives in performing intentional stalls are to
familiarize the pilot with the conditions that produce stalls, to
assist in recognizing an approaching stall, and to develop the
habit of taking prompt preventive or corrective action.
Pilots must recognize the ight conditions that are conducive
to stalls and know how to apply the necessary corrective
action. They should learn to recognize an approaching stall
by sight, sound, and feel. The following cues may be useful
in recognizing the approaching stall:
6-21
6-22
Establish normal
approach
Raise nose
maintain heading
Resume
normal flight
Increase power as
required to minimize
altitude loss
6-23
6-24
rot
a
tes
down
Wing completely
stalled and very
high pitch angle
No
se
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Whip Stall
Vertical dive
pilot continues
to hold control
bar full forward
and full throttle
Phase 4
What went wrong? What were the errors? How could this
near catastrophe have been avoided?
Tumblewith complete
loss of control of aircraft, it
will most likely have
structural failure.
Use ballistic parachute
system (if so equipped).
6-25
6-26
Chapter Summary
Straight-and-level ight.
Level turns.
Once the basic maneuvers are mastered, the steep turn allows
the pilot to achieve maximum performance from the aircraft.
Energy management techniques provide the basis for ying in
different atmospheric conditions and introduce the student to
precise pitch and power control. Slow ight and stall provide
the pilot an awareness of the ability of the WSC to y at the
lower end of the WSC performance.
Whip stalls and tumbles are unique to WSC ight, and pilot
awareness and avoidance is an important concept for WSC
pilots to understand.
Chapter 7
Takeoff and
Departure Climbs
Introduction
This chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs in
weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft with tricycle landing
gear under normal conditions, crosswinds, and under
conditions which require maximum performance. A thorough
knowledge of takeoff principles, both in theory and practice,
is extremely valuable throughout a pilots career. It often
prevents an attempted takeoff that would result in an accident,
or during an emergency, makes a takeoff possible under
critical conditions in which a pilot with less knowledge and
lesser technique would normally fail.
7-1
TAKEOFF POWER
ROTATION
Prior to Takeoff
Before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area, the pilot
should ensure that the engine is operating properly and that
all controls, including trim (if equipped), are set in accordance
with the before takeoff checklist. In addition, the pilot must
make certain that the approach and takeoff paths are clear
of other aircraft. At uncontrolled airports, pilots should
announce their intentions on the common trafc advisory
frequency (CTAF) assigned to that airport. When operating
from an airport with an operating control tower, pilots must
contact the tower operator and receive a takeoff clearance
before taxiing onto the active runway.
It is not recommended to take off immediately behind
another aircraft, particularly large, heavily loaded transport
airplanes because of the wake turbulence that is generated.
Even smaller aircraft can generate vortices that can cause the
WSC aircraft to lose control during takeoff. Always wait for
aircraft vortices to clear before taking off.
While taxiing onto the runway, the pilot can select ground
reference points that are aligned with the runway direction
as aids to maintaining directional control during the takeoff.
These may be runway centerline markings, runway lighting,
distant trees, towers, buildings, or mountain peaks.
Normal Takeoff
A normal takeoff is one in which the aircraft is headed into
the wind, or the wind is very light. Also, the takeoff surface is
rm and of sufcient length to permit the aircraft to gradually
accelerate to normal lift-off and climb-out speed, and there
are no obstructions along the takeoff path.
SAFE MANEUVERING
ALTITUDE CLIMB POWER
25
TAKEOFF ROLL
7-2
LIFT-OFF
CLIMB
EN ROUTE
Figure 7-2. Lined up in the middle of the runway and ready to apply
Initial Roll
Takeoff Attitude
7-4
Initial Climb
Upon lift-off, the WSC aircraft should be ying at the
approximate pitch attitude that allows it to accelerate to at
least the manufacturers takeoff safety speed. This is usually
close to the best climb rate speed VY providing the greatest
altitude gain in a period of time. Higher speeds should be
used if the air is turbulent to assure the WSC does not stall
from a strong wind gust. This speed should be maintained
during the initial climb out in case of an engine failure. This
is especially important with higher power engines and larger
wings to avoid a high pitch attitude during this critical phase
of the takeoff. With a lower pitch attitude and a faster speed,
the WSC aircraft can recover easier from an engine failure on
takeoff. This is discussed in greater detail in the emergency
procedures chapter of this handbook. For example, from
liftoff to 200 feet it is a good practice to keep a low pitch
angle to anticipate an engine failure; above 200 feet, VY can
be used as a climb speed. [Figures 7-4 and 7-5]
After liftoff and throughout the climb, the engine instruments
should be checked for proper cooling and oil pressure (if so
equipped) since this is the critical time when temperature
rises and should stabilize within the manufacturers
specications.
The manufacturers recommended takeoff power should be
maintained until reaching an altitude of at least 500 feet above
the surrounding terrain or obstacles. The combination of VY
and takeoff power assures the maximum altitude gained in
the time during takeoff. This provides the pilot the greatest
altitude from which the aircraft can be safely maneuvered in
case of an engine failure or other emergency.
Figure 7-4. Initial takeoff grass strip with control bar pulled in
Figure 7-6. Pilots view showing WSC centered in the middle of the
Figure 7-5. Best climb speed control bar position for this WSC is
shown after initial climb where there is sufficient altitude for easy
recovery in case of engine failure.
When the student pilot nears the solo stage of ight training,
it should be explained that the aircrafts takeoff performance
is much different when the instructor is out of the aircraft.
Due to decreased load, the WSC aircraft becomes airborne
sooner and climbs more rapidly. The pitch attitude that the
student has learned to associate with initial climb differs
signicantly due to decreased weight. This can be a dramatic
effect since a 250 pound instructor could reduce the total
weight of the WSC aircraft by 30 percent. This gives the
student the sensation of lying on his or her back during initial
takeoff and the reaction is to let off the throttle with serious
consequences if the student is using the foot throttle. It must
be emphasized by the instructor that the student will seem
to be rotated and going straight up, but not to let up on the
throttle. The reaction of the student is to pull in the control
bar to lower the high pitch attitude. This is where the cruise
throttle should be used to eliminate this common problem.
The increase in performance is signicant when the student
rst solos in the same aircraft, which must be explained
and understood. If the situation is unexpected, it may result
in increased tension that may remain throughout the ight.
Frequently, the existence of this tension and the uncertainty
that develops due to the perception of an abnormal takeoff
results in poor performance on the subsequent landing.
7-5
Crosswind Takeoff
While it is usually preferable to take off directly into the
wind whenever possible or practical, there are many instances
when circumstances or judgment indicate otherwise.
Therefore, the pilot must be familiar with the principles and
techniques involved in crosswind takeoffs, as well as those
for normal takeoffs.
The manufacturers maximum wind and crosswind component
in the POH should not be exceeded. The following procedures
are for operation within these limitations.
Takeoff Roll
The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a crosswind
is generally the same as used in a normal takeoff, except that
the pilot must control the wings tendency to weathervane
into the wind during the takeoff roll. Additionally, the pilot
should keep the WSC aircraft on the ground and accelerate
to a higher speed before rotation.
As the aircraft is taxied into takeoff position, it is essential that
the windsock and other wind direction indicators be checked
so that the presence of a crosswind may be recognized and
anticipated. During taxi and takeoff, the windward side of
the wing needs to be slightly lowered so as to not let the
7-6
wind get under it and lift it off; but not too low or additional
pilot effort is required and unnecessary stress is placed on
the carriage.
The crosswind takeoff is performed similar to the normal
takeoff except two different techniques are utilized. First, as
the WSC aircraft accelerates and the pilot steers the carriage
straight down the runway, the wing will want to weathervane
into the wind. This creates stress on the wing attachment to
the carriage, the carriage mast, and the keel of the carriage.
Therefore, the pilot must hold the wing control bar straight
to the carriage which requires signicant force and muscle.
Second, the pilot must accelerate to a higher speed before
rotating to account for the crosswind component. This requires
the nose to be held down to prevent the WSC from popping
off the ground before the higher airspeed is obtained.
Since this technique requires the pilot to muscle the wing
rather than using a light touch, it requires a mastery of
the normal takeoff before crosswind takeoffs should be
attempted. As the WSC aircraft accelerates down the runway,
the forces of the wing try to weathervane it into the wind and
the nose raises up to trim. The wing should be held straight
with the nose down until rotation where the wing is held
straight and the nose raised.
Rotation and Lift-Off
When a faster rotation speed than normal takeoff is achieved,
a smooth but quicker push out to rotate is desired to get
the front and rear wheels into the air quickly, avoiding any
tendency to remain on the rear wheels. After lift-off, the WSC
automatically rotates into the relative wind since momentum
is straight down the runway and the characteristics of the wing
point it directly into the relative wind. The WSC sets up the
wind correction angle (or crab angle as it is also called) as it
lifts off. [Figure 7-7]
Initial Climb
After lift-off, the WSC aircraft is pointed toward the wind
and the ground track is headed straight down the runway
centerline. Maintain this ground track aligned directly
down the centerline of the runway crabbing into the
wind. Crabbing is a term used to adjust ight controls into
the crosswind to maintain a straight ground track while the
WSC is pointed towards the wind, as seen in Figure 7-8.
To maintain the ground track it is important to look straight
down the runway centerline and steer to stay on that ground
track even though the WSC is pointed towards the wind
and not directly down the runway. Because the force of a
crosswind may vary markedly within a few hundred feet of
the ground, frequent checks of actual ground track should be
made [Figure 7-7] or the WSC could drift to the side if the
wind correction angle is not maintained. The remainder of
CLIMB
Wind
ROTATIONLIFT-OFF
called).
Wind
the climb technique is the same used for normal takeoffs and
climbs maintaining the proper ground track with the proper
wing correction angle/crab angle. [Figure 7-8]
In addition to normal takeoffs, additional common errors in
the performance of crosswind takeoffs are:
25
TAKEOFF ROLL
ding
Hea
Wind
ion
Correct
Angle
b
ra
(C
Angle)
7-7
7-9
use of ground effect and requires a feel for the WSC aircraft
and ne control touch. These same techniques are also useful
on a rough eld where it is advisable to get the aircraft off
the ground as soon as possible to avoid damaging the landing
gear.
Soft surfaces or long, wet grass usually reduce the aircrafts
acceleration during the takeoff roll so much that adequate
takeoff speed might not be attained if normal takeoff
techniques were employed.
It should be emphasized that the WSC aircraft is different
from most aircraft. The high wing creates a high center of
gravity in which the front wheel can bog down in soft elds
and ip the WSC aircraft forward. The propeller in the
back pushing down on the front wheel also contributes to
this unique situation. This is a limitation for WSC aircraft
that should not be ignored. WSC aircraft that land in soft
elds or sand may not be able to take off. There is a wide
variation of manufacturer designs with the least preferable
being a skinny, high pressure, highly loaded front tire. WSC
aircraft with large wide tires that can be operated at low
pressure are designed for operation in soft and rough elds.
[Figures 7-11 through 7-13]
Correct takeoff procedure for soft elds and rough elds is
quite different from that appropriate for short elds with rm,
smooth surfaces. To minimize the hazards associated with
takeoffs from soft or rough elds, support of the aircrafts
weight must be transferred as rapidly as possible from the
wheels to the wings as the takeoff roll proceeds. Establishing
and maintaining a relatively high angle of attack with a nosehigh pitch attitude as early as possible achieves this.
Figure 7-11. Soft field takeoff limitation for WSC aircraft: front wheel digs in and WSC aircraft rolls forward.
7-10
Figure 7-12. Example of a WSC aircraft designed with a wide low-pressure front wheel for soft field operation.
Figure 7-13. Grass fields are commonly used for WSC operations but require a longer time to accelerate to takeoff speed.
7-11
7-12
CLIMB AT V Y
Noise Abatement
Aircraft noise problems have become a major concern at many
airports throughout the country. Many local communities
have pressured airports into developing specic operational
procedures that help limit aircraft noise while operating
over nearby areas. For years now, the Federal Aviation
Chapter Summary
Normal Takeoff is straight down runway centerline with
rotation at proper airspeed and initial climb at safe airspeed
and moderate pitch angle to account for engine failure.
Once to safe maneuvering altitude en route climb speed
is maintained. Cross wind takeoffs are similar to normal
takeoffs except wing must be held straight to ground path
during acceleration and greater speed is obtained before
rotation. Short eld takeoffs are performed by ensuring that
sufcient runway is available for takeoff and utilizing bestangle-of-climb speed (VX) until obstacle is cleared. Rough
or soft eld takeoffs are performed by keeping the weight
off the nosewheel, and lifting off into the ground effect to
gain speed as soon as possible.
Precautions should always be taken by climbing at faster
airspeeds and lower pitch angles in case of an engine failure/
rejected landing.
7-13
7-14
Chapter 8
The National
Airspace System
Introduction
The National Airspace System (NAS) is the network of
all components regarding airspace in the United States.
This comprehensive label includes air navigation facilities,
equipment, services, airports or landing areas, sectional charts,
information/services, rules, regulations, procedures, technical
information, manpower, and material. Many of these system
components are shared jointly with the military. To conform
to international aviation standards, the United States adopted
the primary elements of the classication system developed
by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
This chapter provides a general discussion of airspace
classication. Detailed information on the classication of
airspace, operating procedures, and restrictions is found in
the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).
8-1
Uncontrolled Airspace
Class G Airspace
Class G or uncontrolled airspace is the
portion of the airspace that has not been
designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E. Class
G airspace extends from the surface to the
base of controlled airspace (Class B, C, D,
and E) above it as shown in Figures 8-2
and 8-3.
Most Class G airspace is overlaid with
Class E airspace, beginning at either 700
or 1,200 feet above ground level (AGL).
In remote areas of the United States, Class
G airspace extends above 700 and 1,200
AGL to as high as 14,500 feet before the
Class E airspace begins. [Figure 8-2] The
pilot is advised to consult the appropriate
sectional chart to ensure that he or she is
aware of the airspace limits prior to ight
in an unfamiliar area. [Figure 8-4]
There are no communications, entry,
equipment, or minimum pilot certicate
8-2
Figure 8-1. Each student, pilot, and instructor should have a current sectional chart
for the flight area.
Class A
18,000 MSL (FL 180)
Class G
above
1,200 feet
AGL in
some
areas
1,2
00
'A
G
ev
yw
he
re
Class E
drops to ground
around some
airports
Class E
drops to 700 feet
AGL over many airports
er
FLflight level
Class A
18,000 MSL (FL 180)
Class E
10,000 MSL Sport Pilot Limit
Class B
Class E
1,200' AGL
4,000' AGL
Class C
700' AGL
Class G
AGLabove ground level
1,200'
AGL
700'
AGL
2,500' AGL
Class D
Class G
FLflight level
Class G
1,200' AGL
Class G
Figure 8-3. Class G airspace extends from the surface to the base of controlled airspace (Class B, C, D, and E).
8-3
above, 500 feet below, and 2,000 feet horizontally from any
cloud(s). A popular mnemonic tool used to remember basic
cloud clearances is C152, a popular xed-wing training
aircraft. In this case, the mnemonic recalls, Clouds 1,000,
500, and 2,000.
Visibility in Class G airspace below 10,000 MSL day ight
is one statute mile (SM) for private pilots and three SM for
sport pilots. See Figure 8-6 for specic Class G weather
minimums for WSC pilots.
Controlled Airspace
fro
ms
et
AG
L.
S
CLA
0
urface to 70
fe
8-4
Class E
Class D
Class C
Class B
Class A
Class E Airspace
Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, B, C, or D, and
is controlled airspace, then it is Class E airspace. Class
E airspace extends upward from either the surface or a
designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent controlled
Airspace*
Class A
Not applicable
Not applicable
Class B
3 statute miles
Clear of clouds
Class C
3 statute miles
Class D
3 statute miles
3 statute miles
5 statute miles
1 statute mile
clear of clouds
3 statute miles
Class E
Class G
More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less than 10,000 feet MSL
Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 statute mile
Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 statute miles
More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or above 10,000 feet MSL*
5 statute miles
Figure 8-6. Basic weather minimums for WSC operations in the different classes of airspace.
8-5
AIR
WA
Y
FE
DE
RA
L
CLASS G surface
to 1,200 AGL.
CLASS E above
CLASS E above 1,200 AGL
su
r fa
CLASS G
L
AIR
WA
Y
FE
DE
RA
L
Restricted
ve
CLASS D
Airspace
0A
bove 70
Class E
to surface
Surface to
6,400 MSL
to
AG
CL
AS
SEa
GL. CLASS E
0A
ab
70
o
0
70
CLASS E
to surface
Military
Operations
Area
Restricted
Unless otherwise authorized, each aircraft must establish twoway radio communications with the ATC facility providing
air trafc services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter
maintain those communications while in the airspace. Radio
contact should be initiated far enough from the Class D
airspace boundary to preclude entering the Class D airspace
before two-way radio communications are established. It is
important to understand that if the controller responds to the
initial radio call without using the WSC aircrafts call sign,
radio communications have not been established, and the
WSC aircraft may not enter the Class D airspace.
Many airports associated with Class D airspace do not
operate a control tower on a 24-hour-a-day basis. When not
in operation, the airspace will normally revert to Class E or
G airspace, with no communications requirements. Refer to
the AF/D for specic hours of operation airports.
The minimum visibility requirements for Class D airspace
are three statute miles; cloud clearances are the 1,000 above,
500 below and 2,000 vertical. [Figure 8-6]
Class C Airspace
Class C airspace normally extends from the surface to 4,000
feet above the airport elevation surrounding those airports
having an operational control tower, that are serviced by a
radar approach control, and with a certain number of IFR
8-7
Prohibited areas
Restricted areas
Warning areas
Alert areas
8-8
Figure 8-12. Example of the additional information provided on sectional charts for special use airspace.
2.
chart.
Restricted Areas
Restricted areas are areas where operations are hazardous to
nonparticipating aircraft and contain airspace within which
the ight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject
to restrictions. Activities within these areas must be conned
because of their nature, or limitations may be imposed upon
aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities, or
both. Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual, often
invisible, hazards to aircraft (e.g., artillery ring, aerial
gunnery, or guided missiles). Penetration of restricted areas
is illegal without authorization from the using or controlling
Warning Areas
Warning areas consist of airspace which may contain hazards
to nonparticipating aircraft in international airspace. The
activities may be much the same as those for a restricted
area. Warning areas are established beyond the three mile
limit and are depicted on sectional charts.
Military Operations Areas (MOAs)
MOAs consist of airspace of dened vertical and lateral limits
established for the purpose of separating certain military
training activity from IFR trafc. There is no restriction
against a pilot operating VFR in these areas; however, a
pilot should be alert since training activities may include
acrobatic and abrupt maneuvers. MOAs are depicted by
name and with dened boundaries on sectional, VFR terminal
area, and en route low altitude charts and are not numbered
(e.g., CHURCHILL HIGH MOA, CHURCHILL LOW
8-9
Alert Areas
Alert areas are depicted on sectional charts with an A
followed by a number (e.g., A-211 as in Figure 8-16) to
inform nonparticipating pilots of areas that may contain a
high volume of pilot training or an unusual type of aerial
activity. Pilots should be particularly alert when ying in
these areas. All activity within an alert area shall be conducted
in accordance with regulations, without waiver. Pilots of
participating aircraft, as well as pilots transiting the area,
shall be equally responsible for collision avoidance.
Figure 8-15. MOA is further defined on sectional charts with times of operation, altitudes
8-10
8-11
8-12
1.
2.
3.
WSC Operations
WSC preight planning should include a review of the
airspace that is own. A local ight may be close to the eld
and include only Class G and Class E airspace. Minimum
visibility and cloud clearance may be the only requirements
to be met. However, a radio to communicate to the airport
trafc and an altimeter to y at the proper airport pattern
altitude is recommended.
If ying to control tower airports or through Class B, C, or
D airspace, determine if the WSC meets all of the equipment
requirements of that airspace. [Figure 8-5] Also review
qualications to determine if the minimum pilot requirements
of the airspace are met. If the minimum aircraft and/or pilot
requirements of the airspace are not met, then the preight
planning should include a course around the airspace. Extra
time and fuel is required for the circumnavigation and should
be taken into consideration prior to departure.
WSC and Air Trafc Control
In nontowered airspace, airspace separation from other aircraft
is the responsibility of the pilot. Separation from higher speed
trafc may require ightpaths different than faster trafc.
For ight and communicating with a control tower, the WSC
pilot may be asked to expedite or deviate from a traditional
course. The WSC pilot must work with ATC in advising of
Chapter Summary
At rst glance, the NAS appears to be a complex arena
in which to operate such a simple aircraft. This chapter
simplies the airspace for the reader, and makes it readily
apparent that it is possible to operate a WSC aircraft safely,
without causing conict.
Simple courtesy and common sense go a long way in airspace
operations. A complete and thorough understanding of the
airspace, combined with good decision-making, will allow
the pilot to do what he or she wishes, with recognition of the
needs of other users of the sky.
8-13
8-14
Chapter 9
Ground Reference
Maneuvers
Introduction
Ground reference maneuvers and their related factors are
used in developing a high degree of pilot skill. Although
most of these maneuvers are not performed in normal
everyday ying, the elements and principles involved are
applicable to performance of the customary pilot operations.
The maneuvers aid the pilot in analyzing the effect of wind
and other forces acting on the aircraft and in developing
a fine control touch, coordination, and the division of
attention necessary for accurate and safe maneuvering of
the aircraft.
9-1
The radius of the turn and the path of the aircraft over
the ground should be easily noted and changes planned
and effected as circumstances require.
9-2
Current
Current
Wind
Wind
Figure 9-1. Wind drift and wind correction angle (crab angle).
There are times when the pilot needs to correct for drift
while in a turn. [Figure 9-2] Throughout the turn, the wind
is acting on the aircraft from constantly changing angles. The
relative wind angle and speed govern the time it takes for the
aircraft to progress through any part of a turn. This is due to
the constantly changing groundspeed. When the aircraft is
headed into the wind, the groundspeed is decreased; when
9-3
20 knot wind
No wind
If the turn were made with a constant angle of bank and a wind
blowing directly across the road, it would result in a constant
radius turn through the air. However, the wind effects would
cause the ground track to be distorted from a constant radius
turn or semicircular path. The greater the wind velocity, the
greater the difference between the desired ground track and
the ightpath. To counteract this drift, the ightpath can be
controlled by the pilot in such a manner as to neutralize the
effect of the wind and cause the ground track to be a constant
radius semicircle.
Rectangular Course
Normally, the rst ground reference maneuver introduced
to the pilot is the rectangular course. Reference Figure 9-4
throughout this rectangular course section. The rectangular
course is a training maneuver in which the ground track
of the aircraft is equidistant from all sides of a selected
rectangular area on the ground. The maneuver simulates the
conditions encountered in an airport trafc pattern. While
performing the maneuver, the altitude and airspeed should
be held constant.
The maneuver assists the student pilot in perfecting:
No wind
Wind
Wind
Wind
Exit
Enter 45 to downwind
Downwind
No wind correction
ecti
corr
ind
no w
Wind
Start turn
at boundary
Crosswind
Turn into wind
ction
orre
with
nd c
Trac
k
o wi
Base
Start turn
at boundary
th n
on
k wi
Trac
Upwind
No wind correction
9-5
Figure 9-5. Pilots view coming out of a left turn to straighten out for the rectangular leg on the lower left. The next left turn of the
rectangular course is shown by the red line for reference.
9-7
Moderate Bank
3
Steepest Bank
Shallowest Bank
6
1
Wings Level
4
Wings Level to
Start Maneuver
Steepest Bank
Shallowest Bank
Moderate Bank
Wind
Entry
9-8
Reference Line
Reference Line
9-9
are usually suitable. Right and left hand turns about a point
should be practiced to develop technique in both directions.
The example used here is right hand turns.
To enter turns around a point, the aircraft should be own
on a downwind heading to one side of the selected point
at a distance equal to the desired radius of turn. When any
signicant wind exists, it will be necessary to roll into the
initial bank at a rapid rate so that the steepest bank is attained
abeam of the point when the aircraft is headed directly
downwind. By entering the maneuver while heading directly
downwind, the steepest bank can be attained immediately.
Thus, if a maximum bank of 45 is desired, the initial bank
is 45 if the aircraft is at the correct distance from the point.
Thereafter, the bank is shallowed gradually until the point is
reached at which the aircraft is headed directly upwind. At
this point, the bank should be gradually steepened until the
steepest bank is again attained when heading downwind at
the initial point of entry.
Just as S-turns require that the aircraft be turned into the wind
in addition to varying the bank, so do turns around a point.
During the downwind half of the circle, the aircrafts nose is
progressively turned toward the inside of the circle; during
the upwind half, the nose is progressively turned toward the
outside. The downwind half of the turn around the point may
be compared to the downwind side of the S-turn across a road;
the upwind half of the turn around a point may be compared
to the upwind side of the S-turn across a road.
Wind
Entry
d Half of Ci
rcl
win
e
Up
Shallowest Bank
Steepest Bank
Do
wn
9-10
le
wind H lf of Circ
a
Figure 9-11. Downwind portion of turn about a point, which is the gazebo jutting out into the lake. Notice the wing is low on the downwind
portion where the angle of bank is greatest.
Figure 9-12. Upwind portion of the turn about a point. Notice the wing is higher because bank angle is not at as steep during the upwind
9-11
Chapter Summary
9-12
Rectangular course,
Chapter 10
10-1
Airport Operations
Airports vary in complexity from small grass or sod
strips to major terminals having multiple paved runways
and taxiways. Regardless of the type of airport, the pilot
must know and abide by the rules and general operating
procedures applicable to the airport being used. These rules
and procedures are based not only on logic or common sense
but also on courtesy, and their objective is to keep air trafc
moving with maximum safety and efciency. The use of
any trafc pattern, service, or procedure does not alter the
responsibility of pilots to see and avoid other aircraft.
Generally, there are two types of airport operations:
IN
Crosswind
Entry
18
Downwind
Departure
36
Final
Base
Crosswind
Entry
18
36
Final
Base
Figure 10-1. Left and right hand traffic patterns. The WSC pattern altitude shown is the same as the airplane but the slower WSC aircraft
10-3
Takeoff
Departure Climb
Downwind
Crosswind
Figure 10-2. After takeoff and departure, turning from the crosswind to the downwind leg while climbing to pattern altitude.
10-4
Takeoff
Departure Climb
Downwind
Crosswind
Figure 10-3. Weight-shift control on the downwind leg of an airport inside pattern.
Traffic Pattern
Indicators Show
Base Leg of
Traffic Pattern
Segmented Circle
Runway
Wind Cone
Showing Best
Pattern Direction
10-5
Figure 10-5. Left hand pattern for one direction and right hand
showing right hand pattern for runway 9. See Figure 10-5 for
segmented circle for this airport.
10-6
LEGEND
ry
En
Downwind
Base
Crosswind
Segmented Circle
Final
Departure
RUNWAY
re
tu
r
pa
Departure
Base Leg
Traffic Pattern Indicators
No Patterns Here
Because of Hazard or
Populated Area
Wind Cone
Figure 10-7. An airport with two runways and a hazard, noise sensitive, or populated area to the lower right where the segmented circle
Figure 10-9. After hearing other aircraft using the normal pattern as
described in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), pilot descended
and entered the downwind leg (landing runway highlighted in
red) midfield within gliding distance of the runway in case of an
engine failure.
10-7
10-8
Crosswind Leg
Base Leg
Downwind Leg
Direction of Landing
RUNWAY
Final Approach
Departure
Upwind Leg
Chapter Summary
Airport patterns provide organized air trafc ows into and
out of an airport. An airport trafc pattern is established
appropriate to the local conditions, including the direction and
placement of the pattern, altitude to be own, and procedures
for entering and leaving the pattern.
The legs of an airport pattern from takeoff are:
10-9
10-10
Chapter 11
11-1
Base leg
Final approach
Roundout
Touchdown
After-landing roll
18
36
11-3
Runway
Final Approach
After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the
aircraft should be aligned directly in the extension of the
centerline of the runway. The objective of a good nal
approach is to approach the runway with sufcient energy
(manufacturers recommended airspeed) to land at or
beyond some predetermined point. The landing area should
provide sufcient runway behind for variations in approach
conditions and runway ahead to allow either a full stop or a
go-around if needed.
If there is a crosswind of any kind, the aircraft should be
pointed into the wind slightly (see the Crosswind Approaches
and Landings section). Focus should be to keep the ground
track aligned with the centerline of the runway or landing
surface, so that drift (if any) is recognized immediately. On
a normal approach, with no crosswind drift, the longitudinal
axis should be kept aligned with the runway centerline
throughout the approach and landing.
After aligning the aircraft with the runway centerline, speed
is adjusted as required for the desired rate of descent. Slight
increases in power, if lower than expected, may be necessary
11-4
position.
the runway.
11-5
Start to Increase
Angle of Attack
Continue to Increase
Angle of Attack
Approach Speed
Start moving control
bar forward to
decrease speed
Continue to move
control bar forward
to decrease speed
Continue to Increase
Angle of Attack
Continue to move
control bar forward
to decrease speed
Continue to Increase
Angle of Attack
Continue to move
control bar forward
to decrease speed
until touchdown
34
1 inch
Touchdown
Figure 11-9. Changing angle of attack during roundout by slowly and continuously pushing forward on the control bar until
touchdown.
11-6
25
10 to 15
Figure 11-10. To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle.
11-7
Figure 11-14. Completing the roundout with the control bar full
Figure 11-15. WSC aircraft follows the taxi line to exit the runway
Figure 11-13. Continuing the roundout as speed bleeds off and the
11-8
Norm
al Gli
depa
Idle
th No
Pow
Head
er
w
ind
34
Intended Landing
High Wind
Gl
Id
le
ide
pa
th
Po
we
wi
th
ind
34
Intended Landing
Gli
de
pa
th
eP
wit
ow
hw
er
ind
High Wind
Idl
Set up a base closer to runway
In high winds because glidepath is steeper
34
Intended Landing
Pow
er Ap
plica
in cre
tion
H
a
Main
Id ig se
tains
le h
d
Glide
Po W G
path
we ind lide
to Ru
pa
r
nway
th
in Hig
De
h Win
ds
34
Intended Landing
Naturally, the pilot does not have control over the wind but
may correct for its effect on the aircrafts descent by adjusting
the base leg of the pattern. The wind can vary signicantly
at different attitudes and locations in the pattern. If the pilot
does not notice the headwind until the base leg, the base
11-9
leg should be cut short and the pilot should head towards
the runway sooner. This would provide the best possibility
of making the runway if there is an engine failure in this
situation. [Figure 11-17]
Additionally, during strong headwinds, more energy (power
and airspeed) should be used since the wind gradient (slowing
of the wind near the ground because of the friction of the
ground) could reduce the airspeed and cause a stall on
approach near the ground in higher winds.
D
IN
APPROACH
NORMAL CAL
the ground ahead. This point is not the point on which the
aircraft touches down because some oat inevitably occurs
during the roundout.
If crosswind encountered
on base leg
modify base leg
If tailwind encountered
on downwind leg
modify base leg
34
Intended Touchdown Point
Figure 11-17. Modified base leg if winds higher than intended are encountered during the base leg of the pattern.
11-10
Fin
al A
pp
roa
ch
Roundout starts
34
Aiming point is
where descent angle
intersects ground
Touchdown
Too High
Too Low
narrow or steep.
11-12
Unstabilized approach
1.
2.
Power
Power is the pilots rst concern. The instant the pilot decides
to go around, full or maximum allowable takeoff power must
be applied smoothly and without hesitation and held until
ying speed and controllability are restored. Applying only
partial power in a go-around is never appropriate unless the
WSC aircraft is at an unusually high pitch angle. The pilot
must be aware of the degree of inertia that must be overcome
before an aircraft that is settling toward the ground can regain
sufcient airspeed to become fully controllable and capable
of turning safely or climbing. The application of power
should be smooth as well as positive. Abrupt movements of
the throttle in some aircrafts causes the engine to falter.
Speed
Speed is always critical when close to the ground. When
power is added, a deliberate effort on the part of the pilot
is required to keep the nose from pitching up prematurely.
The aircraft executing a go-around must be maintained well
beyond the stall point before any effort is made to gain
altitude or to execute a turn. Raising the nose too early may
produce a stall from which the aircraft could not recover if the
go-around is performed at a low altitude. The manufacturers
recommended climb speed should be established and
maintained during the initial phase of the go around.
A concern for quickly regaining altitude during a go-around
produces a natural tendency to push the nose up. The pilot
executing a go-around must accept the fact that an aircraft
will not climb until it can y, and it will not y below stall
speed. In some circumstances, it may be desirable to lower
the nose briey to gain airspeed. [Figure 11-21]
During the initial part of an extremely low go-around, the
aircraft may settle onto the runway and bounce. This situation
is not particularly dangerous if the aircraft is kept straight and
a constant, safe speed is maintained. The aircraft is rapidly
approaching safe ying speed and the advanced power will
cushion any secondary touchdown.
11-13
Final Approach
Normal Climbout
(at Vy after climb speed is reached)
34
Indecision,
Improper speed,
11-14
Roundout and
Touchdown
11-15
Touch down
as late as possible
NORMAL APPROACH
PARKING
AREA
11-16
11-17
WIT
H
ST
RO
NG
Wind
HA
DO
ZAR
US DESCENT
TYPICAL PATTERN FOR CALM WIND
High Groundspeed
RUNWAY
Y
Wind
Strong Wind
GO-AROUND
34
Figure 11-24. Crosswind procedures and effects/hazards of high crosswinds.
11-18
TAXI
TOUCH
DOWN
ROUND OUT
The procedure for the wing during the roundout is the same
as that for normal and turbulent roundout and touchdowns.
The exception is that after touchdown the windward wing
should be lowered slightly so the wind cannot get under it to
ip the WSC aircraft during later landing roll and taxi.
Wind
25
FINAL APPROACH
Crosswind Landings
When in nal approach, the wind correction angle (crab
angle) is established by heading toward the wind with the
wings level so that the aircrafts ground track remains aligned
with the centerline of the runway. [Figure 11-25] This crab
angle is maintained all the way to touchdown, when the rear
wheels hit rst and rotate the carriage and wing around so
the front wheel touches the ground with the carriage going
straight. However, if in turbulent air or pitched forward
during the touchdown, with the front wheel touching the
ground rst, the pilot should lightly control the steering of
the front wheel to be headed in the direction the carriage is
going. WSC carriage front landing gear typically has camber
that tends to steer the front wheel naturally in the direction
of travel, so a light touch on the front wheel as it touches
the ground allows it to nd its own direction of travel. Once
the front wheel is on the ground, lower the nose to keep the
WSC on the ground and steer as required down the center
of the runway.
11-19
Unstabilized approach;
Excessive braking.
30
Wind VelocityMPH
DANGER ZONE
20
Direct Headwind
10
Direct Crosswind
0
20
40
60
80
100
110
Wind AngleDegrees
10
20
40
ITY
OC
50
15
W
IN
60
10
5
D1
70
80
30
Steep Approaches
W
IN
D
L
VE
20
Direct Headwind
25
EE
SP
30
10 12
15
Direct Crosswind
20
25
90
30
15
ot
ot
kn
kn
50
nd
wi
nd
wi
10 knots
12 knots
15
15-knot wind at
50 to runway is
12-knot crosswind
component and
10-knot headwind
component
11-20
be required.
Steep Angle
For situations in which an increase in the descent angle is
needed for the intended landing spot, the normal procedure
is to increase speed above the best LD speed in order to
descend. The greater the speed is, the greater the parasitic
drag and descent angle.
Each design has different descent rates based on the parasitic
drag of the wing and carriage. For example, a single surface
with an exposed crossbar wing and a stick carriage (no
streamlined cowling) increases the descent angle quickly
because of the dramatic increases in drag with increased
speed. A double surface wing with a streamlined carriage
does not develop parasitic drag as fast with increased speed
and is less able to achieve a steep angle with increased speed.
The pilot should understand that this characteristic is unique
to the make/model being own. This steep angle technique is
the optimum steep approach procedure because the aircraft
is lined up on the runway and the pilot can easily judge the
glideslope using the stabilized approach method covered
earlier. [Figure 11-29]
Increase speed as required to obtain the descent angle for
the intended touchdown point. Use the stabilized approach
technique to obtain the increased angle for the aiming
point. At the higher speeds and greater descent, slow to the
normal approach speed, intersect the normal nal approach
path, and perform the landing required for that particular
situation (calm air/crosswinds/turbulent air). As the student
gains prociency at steep approach techniques, the altitude
to transition from the high speed steep angle to the normal
approach speed can be lowered and eventually combined
into one continuous roundout for landing started at a higher
altitude than the normal approach and roundout. For this
situation, note that with the increased speed the roundout
Norma
l Appro
Norma
l Final
Appro
ach
ach Sp
eed
Ste
ep
Appro
ach
34
Touchdown
11-21
Alternating Turns
to Lose Altitude
Alternating Turns
on Runway Centerline
Minimum
400 feet AGL
34
Runway
Centerline
17
Top View
Norm
Angle al or S
Appr teepoach
Figure 11-30. Alternating turns used if too high to lose enough altitude to position for a normal or steep-angle approach.
90 Power-Off Approach
The 90 power-off approach is made from a base leg and
requires only a 90 turn onto the nal approach. The approach
path may be varied by positioning the base leg closer to or
farther away from the approach end of the runway according
to wind conditions. [Figure 11-31] The glide from the key
1
2
3
36
1. Strong Wind
Set up closest base for
steeper glideslope on final
2. Medium Wind
Set up closer base for
steeper glideslope on final
3. Light Wind
Set up normal base for
normal final
11-23
45
6
3
Reference Position
18
90
36
Reference Position
11-24
The turn from the downwind leg to the base leg should be
a uniform turn with a medium or slightly steeper bank. The
degree of bank and amount of this initial turn depends upon
the glide angle of the aircraft and the velocity of the wind.
Again, the base leg should be positioned as needed for the
altitude or wind condition. Position the base leg to conserve
or dissipate altitude to reach the desired landing spot. The
turn onto the base leg should be made at an altitude high
enough and close enough to permit the aircraft to glide
to what would normally be the base key position in a 90
power-off approach.
Although the key position is important, it must not be
overemphasized or considered as a xed point on the ground.
Many inexperienced pilots have the false understanding of it
as a particular landmark, such as a tree, crossroad, or other
visual reference to be reached at a certain altitude. This leaves
the pilot at a total loss any time such objects are not present.
Both altitude and geographical location should be varied as
much as practical to eliminate any such conception. After
reaching the base key position, the approach and landing are
the same as in the 90 power-off approach.
360 Power-Off Approach
The 360 power-off approach is one in which the aircraft
glides through a 360 change of direction to the preselected
landing spot. The entire pattern is designed to be circular
but the turn may be shallowed, steepened, or discontinued at
Close Throttle
18
Reference Position
36
Reference Position
11-25
ND
WI
Figure 11-35. If high enough over the intended landing area, remain over intended landing area with large low-banked circles to establish
11-26
11-27
W
ro
n
1
g
Add power
Hold altitude
(A
pp
ro
a
ch
To
o
N
or
m
al
Ap
2
pr
o
ac
h
Pa
th
Lo
w
)
34
Figure 11-36. Right and wrong methods of correction for low final approach.
Use of Power
Power can be used if required during the approach and
roundout to compensate for errors in judgment. The pilot
should be ready to use the foot throttle while managing the
energy throughout the landing, utilizing energy management
procedures for the current landing conditions. Power can be
added to reduce the descent rate if needed; thus, the descent
can be slowed to an acceptable rate. After the aircraft has
touched down, it is necessary to close the throttle to remove
additional thrust and lift allowing the aircraft to stay on the
ground.
High Roundout
Sometimes when the aircraft appears to stop moving downward
temporarily, the roundout has been made too rapidly and the
aircraft is ying level, too high and too slow above the runway.
Continuing the roundout would further reduce the airspeed,
resulting in an increase in AOA to the critical angle. This
would result in the aircraft stalling and dropping hard onto
the runway. To prevent the hard drop, pitch attitude should
be reduced slightly to increase speed to approach speed while
throttle is added to maintain altitude. After speed has been
increased and altitude maintained, the throttle and speed can
both be reduced smoothly and gradually for a gradual descent
with a normal roundout and touchdown.
Although speed is needed after the high roundout is noticed in
order to be corrected, the power application must be enough to
remain level and not initially descend as the speed is increased.
Energy management prociency is critical. If too little throttle
11-28
11-29
11-30
Chapter Summary
All landings should consist of evaluating the wind and
conditions so a proper base and nal are planned to land at
or beyond the intended point. After the nal approach to the
runway, the roundout is started about 10 to 15 feet high and
is a gradual descent until the rear wheels are inches above
the surface. The rotation is continued as the speed bleeds off
to maintain the wheels one to two inches above the runway
until minimum controlled airspeed at which the WSC aircraft
settles to the ground. A roundout that is too fast, or ballooning
where altitude is gained during the landing, is a common
mistake and should be avoided.
The best landing technique for light wind conditions is with
power brought to idle during the downwind leg of the pattern
before the turn to base. Prociency in power-off accuracy
landings with 90 turns, 180 turns, 360 turns, and circling
from above are all important safety procedures.
Crosswinds or landing in turbulence requires more energy,
including power-on approaches with higher airspeeds.
In these conditions, the WSC aircraft can be own into
the ground above the stall speed. Go-arounds are normal
procedures and should be performed if there is any question
as to the successful outcome of any landing.
Chapter 12
Night Operations
Introduction
It must be understood that ying at night presents a number
of new challenges for the pilot and additional equipment for
the aircraft. Flying at night in a weight-shift control (WSC)
aircraft should be done only with some visual reference
to the ground such as city lights or a full moon. Flying
with no consistent visual reference to the surface results in
disorientation, a likely loss of control, and an accident. New
WSC aircraft can be tted with instruments similar to those
in airplanes in order to y at night without visual reference
to the horizon, but this is not recommended. However, ying
with instruments is covered in this chapter.
12-1
Pilot Requirements
Flying at night requires additional pilot skills and a private
pilot certicate. It is possible to have a private pilot certicate
with a Night Flight Prohibited limitation if the pilot did
not complete night ight training and is restricted from night
ight, similar to that for Sport Pilots. This is an option for
pilots who want a private pilot certicate but do not plan to
y at night. If the pilot rst obtains the private certicate
with the night limitation, the limitation can be removed after
completing the private pilot WSC night training. The training
that must be accomplished at night for WSC private pilot
night ying privileges is:
1.
2.
Sport pilots or private pilots with the night limitation are not
allowed to y at night; however, they can y after sunset
during civil twilight until night if the aircraft is properly
equipped with position lights. Civil twilight is when the sun
is less than 6 below the horizon, about 30 minutes before
sunrise or after sunset, and varies by latitude throughout
the year. It is the time when there is enough light outdoors
for activities to be conducted without additional lighting.
[Figure 12-1] If it is overcast and visibility is inadequate,
good pilot judgment would dictate not to y after sunset.
Sport pilots and private pilots with night restriction can fly
Day
12-2
Sunset/Sunrise
Civil Twlight
Night
Pilot Equipment
Before beginning a night ight, carefully consider personal
equipment that should be readily available during the ight.
12-3
Figure 12-5. WSC aircraft equipped for night cross-country flight with flashlight and aeronautical charts on kneeboards.
12-4
Night Vision
12-5
Rods and
Cones
Fovea
(All Cones)
Rod concentration
Lens
Iris
Optic nerve
Retina
Pupil
Cornea
Area of best
night vision
Cones active
Rods active
After the eyes have adapted to the dark, the entire process
is reversed when entering a lighted room. The eyes are rst
dazzled by the brightness, but become completely adjusted
in a few seconds, thereby losing their adaptation to the dark.
Now, if the dark room is reentered, the eyes again go through
the long process of adapting to the darkness.
Before and during night ight, the pilot must consider the
adaptation process of the eyes. First, the eyes should be
allowed to adapt to the low level of light. Then, the pilot
should avoid exposing them to any bright white light that
would cause temporary blindness and possibly result in
serious consequences.
Temporary blindness, caused by an unusually bright light,
may result in illusions or afterimages until the eyes recover
12-6
Night Illusions
In addition to night vision limitations, pilots should be aware
that night illusions could cause confusion and concerns
during night ying. The following discussion covers some
of the common situations that cause illusions associated with
night ying.
A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured
or not readily apparent. It can be generated by confusing
bright stars and city lights. It can also occur while ying
toward the shore of an ocean or a large lake. Because of the
relative darkness of the water, the lights along the shoreline
can be mistaken for stars in the sky. [Figure 12-7]
Figure 12-7. At night, the horizon may be hard to discern due to dark
terrain and misleading light patterns on the ground.
12-7
12-8
12-9
30
90
80
40
50
70
60
29.8
29.9
30.0
12-10
Figure 12-11. A properly lit instrument panel and city lights provide
On Aircraft Glidepath
12-12
Night Emergencies
Perhaps the pilots greatest concern about ying a singleengine aircraft at night is the possibility of a complete
engine failure and the subsequent emergency landing. This
is a legitimate concern, even though continuing ight into
adverse weather and poor pilot judgment account for most
serious accidents.
If the engine fails at night, several important procedures and
considerations to keep in mind are:
Chapter Summary
Night ight requires additional training, a private pilot
certicate, and should be performed only when there is
adequate reference with the Earth, such as city lights or
a full moon. Night ight should never be performed over
open water.
Night illusions require reference to flight instruments.
WSC pilots can determine pitch control by feel but cannot
determine roll and heading by feel so instrumentation such
as a heading indicator, magnetic compass, or GPS is needed
for directional reference.
12-13
12-14
Chapter 13
Abnormal and
Emergency Procedures
Introduction
This chapter contains information on dealing with abnormal
and emergency situations that may occur in flight.
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM), a systematic approach
to determine the best course of action in response to a
given set of circumstances, should always be used rather
than making a quick decision without determining the best
outcome. Most emergencies can be prevented by making the
proper decisions. This may be the rst go/no-go decision of
whether to y, when to y, or where to y. All safe ights
start with proper preight planning.
13-1
Advantages of a BPS:
system.
13-2
Emergency Landings
This section contains information on emergency landing
techniques in WSC aircraft. The guidelines that are presented
apply to the more adverse terrain conditions for which no
practical training is possible. The objective is to instill in the
pilot the knowledge that almost any terrain can be considered
suitable for a survivable crash landing if the pilot knows how
to slow and secure the WSC aircraft while using the WSC
structure for protection of the pilot and passenger.
Types of Emergency Landings
The different types of emergency landings are:
Slow down and lift the wing on the side where the
chute will deploy (if a side deployment and above
500 feet AGL).
13-3
Dispensable aircraft structure is not the only available energyabsorbing medium in an emergency situation. Vegetation,
trees, and even manmade structures may be used for this
purpose. Cultivated elds with dense crops, such as mature
corn and grain, are almost as effective in bringing an aircraft
to a stop with repairable damage as an emergency arresting
device on a runway. [Figure 13-2] Brush and small trees
provide considerable cushioning and braking effect without
destroying the aircraft. When dealing with natural and manmade obstacles with greater strength than the dispensable
aircraft structure, the pilot must plan the touchdown in such
a manner that only nonessential structure is used up in the
principal slowing down process.
2.
13-4
40
30
Headwind
10.5 feet
Groundspeed
25 mph
20
Tailwind
42 feet
2 G deceleration
10
Groundspeed
50 mph
13-5
Terrain Selection
A pilots choice of emergency landing sites is governed by
the:
The only time the pilot has a very limited choice is during low
and slow ying or during takeoff if the landing approach is
always within gliding distance of the runway.
It should be understood that the amount of area for available
landing sites increases at a rapid rate with increased altitude.
[Figure 13-4] As an example, a WSC aircraft with a 5 to 1
glide ratio ying at 500 feet AGL has 500 feet multiplied
by ve feet horizontal (or 2,500 feet) radius on the ground
to select a suitable landing area. For example, use a
mile radius. The area of available landing spots is x r2,
approximately 0.8 square miles. At 1,000 feet AGL, this
area would be 3.1 square miles; at 2,000 feet AGL, this is
about 12.5 square miles; and at 5,000 AGL, this is almost
80 square miles.
Additionally, ying in a downwind direction provides more
area to be covered while ying upwind reduces the amount
of area that can be covered while looking for a suitable
landing area.
2.
3.
5,000' AGL
2,000' AGL
1,000' AGL
500' AGL
Ground
13-6
Terrain Types
Since an emergency landing on suitable terrain resembles
a situation with which the pilot should be familiar through
training, only the more unusual situation is discussed.
Conned Areas
The natural preference to set the aircraft down on the ground
should not lead to the selection of an open spot between trees
or obstacles where the ground cannot be reached. Once the
intended touchdown point is reached, and the remaining open
and unobstructed space is very limited, it may be better to
force the aircraft down on the ground than to delay touchdown
until it stalls (settles). An aircraft decelerates faster after it is
on the ground than while airborne.
A river or creek can be an inviting alternative in otherwise
rugged terrain. The pilot should ensure that the water or creek
bed can be reached without snagging the wings. The same
concept applies to road landings with one additional reason
for caution: manmade obstacles on either side of a road may
not be visible until the nal portion of the approach.
When planning the approach across a road, it should be
remembered that most highways and even rural dirt roads
are paralleled by power or telephone lines. Only a sharp
lookout for the supporting structures or poles may provide
timely warning.
If the only possible landing alternative is a small clearing and
it is not possible to land the WSC aircraft, the BPS should
be deployed, if equipped, as discussed earlier.
emergency landing.
Trees
Although a tree landing is not an attractive prospect, the
following general guidelines help to make the experience
survivable.
For example, if the trees are taller than 15 feet and not dense
enough to assure the wing could be set on top of them, use the
BPS if so equipped. This provides two possible chances of
hanging up in the trees and a slower descent rate if the WSC
aircraft does not become lodged in the trees and continues a
descent to the ground.
13-7
13-8
airspeed, abruptly push the control bar out to enter the water
at the slowest speed possible. Take a deep breath and hold it
before hitting the water.
5 Turn
22
C
A
45
Tu
rn
runway.
13-9
Emergency Descents
An emergency descent is a maneuver for descending as
rapidly as possible to a lower altitude or to the ground for an
emergency landing. The need for this maneuver may result
from an uncontrollable re, avoidance of other aircraft,
weather, or any other situation demanding an immediate
and rapid descent. The objective is to descend the aircraft
as quickly as possible within the structural limitations of
the aircraft. Simulated emergency descents should be made
in a turn to check for other air trafc below and to look
around for a possible emergency landing area. A radio call
announcing descent intentions may be appropriate to alert
other aircraft in the area. When initiating the descent, a bank
angle of approximately 45 to 60 should be established to
maintain positive load factors (G forces) on the aircraft.
13-10
Generally, the steeper the bank angle is, the quicker the
descent is. But caution should be exercised with steep bank
angles for extended periods because the high G forces and
rotation can cause disorientation or motion sickness, which
might make matters worse. The manufacturers bank and
speed limitations should not be exceeded.
Emergency descent training should be performed as
recommended by the manufacturer, including the conguration
and airspeeds. The power should be reduced to idle. The
pilot should never allow the aircrafts airspeed to surpass
the never-exceed speed (VNE) or go above the maximum
maneuvering (VA) speed, as applicable. In the case of an
engine re, a high airspeed descent could extinguish the
re. The descent should be made at the maximum allowable
bank angle and airspeed consistent with the procedure used.
This provides increased loads and drag and therefore the
loss of altitude as quickly as possible. The recovery from
an emergency descent should be initiated at an altitude high
enough to ensure a safe recovery back to level ight or a
precautionary landing.
When the descent procedure is established and stabilized
during training and practice, the descent should be terminated.
For longer descents, alternating turn directions should be
used so the pilot does not become disorientated. Prolonged
practice of emergency descents should be avoided to prevent
excessive cooling of the engine cylinders. [Figure 13-7]
Inight Fire
A re in ight demands immediate and decisive action.
The pilot must be familiar with the procedures to meet this
emergency as contained in the AFM/POH for the particular
aircraft. For the purposes of this handbook, inight res
are classied as: engine res and electrical res. If a re
extinguisher is installed on the WSC aircraft, the passenger
should be briefed on its use and the pin should be connected
to the extinguisher by a lanyard so it cannot be dropped into
the propeller, creating a worse situation.
Engine Fire
An inight engine re is usually caused by a failure that
allows a ammable substance such as fuel, oil, or hydraulic
uid to come in contact with a hot surface. This may be
caused by a mechanical failure of the engine itself, an enginedriven accessory, a defective induction or exhaust system, or
a broken line. Engine res may also result from maintenance
errors, such as improperly installed/fastened lines and/or
ttings, resulting in leaks.
Engine fires can be indicated by smoke and/or flames
coming from the engine area. They can also be indicated by
discoloration, bubbling, and/or melting of the engine cowling
Figure 13-7. Emergency descent showing alternate right and left hand steep descending turns.
13-11
Electrical Fires
The initial indication of an electrical re is usually a slight
amount of smoke and the distinct odor of burning insulation,
which may not be noticeable in a WSC open ight deck.
Once an electrical re is detected, the pilot should attempt
to identify the faulty circuit by checking circuit breakers,
instruments, avionics, and lights. If the faulty circuit cannot
be readily detected and isolated, and ight conditions permit,
the battery master switch should be turned off to remove the
13-12
2.
3.
4.
System Malfunctions
Electrical System
The loss of electrical power can deprive the pilot of
communications and navigation systems, but for day/VFR
conditions this is not a life threatening situation because most
engines ignition systems are on a separate electrical system
and not dependent on the battery for keeping the engine
running. However, losing communications does present some
challenges especially if operating at a controlled tower airport
in which procedures in the Airmans Information Manual
(AIM) would be followed.
Pitot-Static System
The source of the pressure for operating the airspeed indicator,
the vertical speed indicator, and the altimeter is the pitot-static
system. Most WSC aircraft have pressure for the airspeed
indicator. If this becomes plugged, the airspeed indicator may
not read properly. If it is suspected that the airspeed indicator
is not reading properly, use the feel of the aircraft and the
trim position to determine speed. It is perfectly safe to y a
WSC aircraft without an airspeed indicator if the pilot has
developed a feel of the aircraft since the trim position speed
is known and all other speeds can be determined based on the
feel of the air and the pressure on the control bar.
13-13
MALFUNCTION
PROBABLE CAUSE
CORRECTIVE ACTION
Detonation or preignition
Reduce altitude.
Magneto/generator failure
Improper mixture
Detonation or preignition
Detonation or preignition
Cold oil
Insufcient oil
Figure 13-8. Common inflight abnormal engine instrument indications, causes, and corrective inflight actions.
13-14
13-15
Figure 13-9. Optional analog gauges for instrument flying: attitude indicator (top middle) and direction indicator (lower left) not typically
13-16
Figure 13-10. Digital panel with attitude indicator and direction indicator used on some WSC aircraft.
Recognition
A VFR pilot is in IMC conditions anytime he or she is unable
to maintain aircraft attitude control by visual reference to
the natural horizon, regardless of the circumstances or the
prevailing weather conditions. Additionally, the VFR pilot
is in IMC any time he or she is inadvertently or intentionally
and for an indeterminate period of time unable to navigate
or establish geographical position by visual reference to
landmarks on the surface. These situations must be accepted
by the pilot involved as a genuine emergency requiring
immediate action.
As discussed earlier, when entering conditions in which
visibility is decreasing or IMC, the pilot should turn around,
climb, or descend immediately and return to where ground
visibility is known. Do not continue assuming that conditions
will clear and visibility will be regained.
13-17
Attitude Control
Attitude is defined as The position of an aircraft as
determined by the relationship of its axes and a reference,
usually the earths horizon. For WSC, the pitch and the roll
are the relevant attitudes.
Most aircraft are generally, by design, inherently stable
platforms and, except in turbulent air, maintain approximately
straight-and-level ight if properly trimmed and left alone.
They are designed to maintain a state of equilibrium in
pitch, roll, and yaw. The pilot must be aware, however, that
a change about one axis affects the other axes. The WSC
aircraft is stable in the yaw and pitch axes, but less stable in
the roll axis. The yaw and pitch axes of the WSC are easy
to control, but the roll axis is the challenge for WSC aircraft
control in IMC. The key to emergency aircraft attitude and
directional control, therefore, is to:
13-18
Turns
Turns are perhaps the most potentially dangerous maneuver
for the untrained instrument pilot for two reasons:
30
90
80
40
29.8
29.9
30.0
50
70
60
13-19
Chapter Summary
Most emergency situations can be avoided through proper
maintenance and preight planning. The following summarizes
emergency procedures when they are warranted.
13-20
Glossary
100-hour inspection. An inspection required by 14 CFR
section 91.409 for FAA-certificated aircraft that are operated
for hire, or are used for flight instruction for hire. A 100hour inspection is similar in content to an annual inspection,
but it can be conducted by an aircraft mechanic who holds
an Airframe and Powerplant rating, but does not have an
Inspection Authorization. A list of the items that must be
included in an annual or 100-hour inspection is included in
14 CFR part 43, Appendix D.
G-1
G-2
G-3
Carriage keel. The lower center tube in the carriage that runs
fore and aft which connects the mast to the front tube.
CAS. See calibrated airspeed.
Cavitation. A condition that exists in a fluid pump when
there is not enough pressure in the reservoir to force fluid
to the inlet of the pump. The pump picks up air instead of
fluid.
Center of gravity (CG). The point at which an aircraft would
balance if it were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the
mass center of the aircraft, or the theoretical point at which
the entire weight of the WSC is assumed to be concentrated.
It may be expressed in inches from the reference datum, or
in percent of mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). The location
depends on the distribution of weight in the aircraft.
G-4
G-6
G-7
G-8
G-9
G-10
G-11
G-12
G-13
G-14
G-15
G-16
G-17
This decreases the lift the wing produces at the tip to improve
the stall characteristics of the wing. Also called washout.
Two-stroke engine. A simple form of reciprocating engine
that completes its operating cycle in two strokes of its
piston, one down and one up. Two-stroke-cycle engines are
inefficient in their use of fuel, but their simplicity makes
them popular for powering light-sport aircraft and ultralight
vehicles where light weight and low cost are paramount.
Ultralight. A single person only vehicle as defined by 14
CFR section 103.1.
Uncontrolled airspace. Class G airspace that has not been
designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E. It is airspace in which
air traffic control has no authority or responsibility to control
air traffic; however, pilots should remember there are VFR
minimums which apply to this airspace.
Unicom. A nongovernment air/ground radio communication
station which may provide airport information at public use
airports where there is no tower or automated flight service
station.
Unusable fuel. Fuel that cannot be consumed by the engine.
This fuel is considered part of the empty weight of the
aircraft.
Useful load. The weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers,
baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is the basic empty
weight subtracted from the maximum allowable gross weight.
This term applies to general aviation aircraft only.
Unstabilized approach. The final approach of an aircraft that
has not achieved a stable rate of descent or controlled flight
track by a predetermined altitude, usually 500 feet AGL.
Unusual attitude. An unintentional, unanticipated, or
extreme aircraft attitude.
Useful load. The weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers,
baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is the basic empty
weight subtracted from the maximum allowable gross weight.
This term applies to general aviation aircraft only.
User-defined waypoints. Waypoint location and other data
which may be input by the user, this is the only GPS database
information that may be altered (edited) by the user.
Upwind Leg. A flight path parallel to the landing runway in
the direction of landing.
G-18
G-19
G-20
Index
A
abnormal engine instrument indications ....................13-13
aeronautical decision-making ............................ 1-10, 13-1
after landing .................................................................5-26
after landing roll ...........................................................11-7
airfoil ..............................................................................2-1
airport and navigation lighting aids .............................12-4
airport operations .........................................................10-2
airspace ..........................................................................8-2
Class A Airspace ........................................................8-8
Class B Airspace ........................................................8-7
Class C Airspace ........................................................8-6
Class D Airspace ........................................................8-6
Class E Airspace.........................................................8-4
Class G Airspace ........................................................8-2
alert areas .....................................................................8-10
alternating turns .........................................................11-21
angle of attack ................................................................2-4
approach .......................................................................13-6
approaches and landings ............................................12-11
AROW .........................................................................5-15
aspect ratio .....................................................................2-5
attitude and sink rate control ........................................13-5
attitude control ...........................................................13-18
attitude ying .................................................................6-4
avoiding pilot errors .....................................................1-11
axes of rotation.............................................................2-12
C
cables and hardware .......................................................3-7
camber ............................................................................2-1
carriage .........................................................................3-10
carriage inspection .......................................................5-18
carriage moments ............................................... 2-16, 2-17
center of gravity ...........................................................2-11
certicates and documents ...........................................5-15
checklist after entering ight deck ...............................5-23
checklist for taxi ...........................................................5-25
climbs and climbing turns ............................................6-12
collision avoidance.........................................................1-9
communications ...........................................................3-19
conned areas...............................................................13-7
control frame ..................................................................3-4
controlled airports ........................................................10-2
controlled airspace .........................................................8-4
controlled ring areas ..................................................8-10
cooling systems ............................................................5-20
coordinating the controls................................................6-8
crosswind approaches and landings ...........................11-17
landings ..................................................................11-19
leg .............................................................................10-2
takeoff.........................................................................7-6
crosswind pattern procedures .....................................11-17
B
ballistic parachute system .................................. 3-15, 13-2
ballooning during roundout........................................11-29
bank control ...................................................................6-4
base leg............................................................... 10-2, 11-2
basic pilot eligibility ......................................................1-9
basic propeller principles .............................................2-20
basic safety concepts ....................................................13-4
battens and leading edge stiffener ..................................3-7
before takeoff check .....................................................5-26
best angle of climb speed .............................................6-13
best rate of climb speed................................................6-12
D
dashboards and instrument panels ...............................3-16
deck angle ......................................................................2-4
departure leg.................................................................10-2
descents and descending turns .....................................6-14
descent at minimum safe airspeed ...............................6-14
ditching ........................................................................13-8
downwind leg ...............................................................10-2
drag ........................................................................ 2-7, 2-8
drift and ground track control ........................................9-2
dynamic pressure ...........................................................2-7
I-1
fatigue ..........................................................................1-13
faulty approaches and landings ..................................11-27
feel of the aircraft ...........................................................6-3
nal approach ..................................................... 10-2, 11-4
are ..............................................................................11-6
ex wing.........................................................................2-6
ight deck.....................................................................3-16
inspection .................................................................5-20
ight deck management ...........................................5-23
ight instruments .........................................................3-17
ight operations and pilot certicates ............................1-8
ight over charted u.s. wildlife refuges, parks, and
forest service areas .......................................................8-12
oating during roundout ............................................11-28
forced landing ..............................................................13-3
forces in ight ................................................................2-7
fuel ...............................................................................5-20
fuel system components ...............................................3-20
keel .................................................................................3-3
kinesthesia ......................................................................6-4
king post with wires-on-top wing design .......................3-5
G
glide..............................................................................6-14
ight ...........................................................................2-6
turns ..........................................................................6-16
go-around ...................................................................11-13
ground adjustable trim systems......................................3-9
ground effect ................................................................2-11
on takeoff....................................................................7-7
ground roll......................................................................7-2
I-2
I
inadvertant propeller strike ........................................13-13
inadvertent ight into instrument meteorological
conditions ...................................................................13-16
induced drag ...................................................................2-8
inight adjustable trim systems ...................................3-10
inight re..................................................................13-10
initial climb ..................................................... 7-2, 7-4, 7-6
instrument panel arrangements ....................................3-17
L
landing gear..................................................................3-11
for water and snow ...................................................3-14
malfunction.............................................................13-13
lateral axis ....................................................................2-12
pitch ..........................................................................2-12
late or rapid roundout .................................................11-28
leading edges..................................................................3-2
level turns .......................................................................6-7
lift ...................................................................................2-7
lift-off ..................................................................... 7-2, 7-3
and climb out ..............................................................7-9
and initial climb ........................................................7-12
light sport aircraft ...........................................................1-6
Lilienthal, Otto ...............................................................1-2
local airport advisory ...................................................8-11
local conditions ..............................................................5-3
longitudinal axis ................................................... 2-3, 2-13
low angles of attack .....................................................2-14
low nal approach ......................................................11-27
M
maintaining aircraft control........................................13-17
N
national security areas ..................................................8-12
navigating the airspace .................................................8-13
navigation instruments .................................................3-17
night ying ...................................................................12-9
emergencies ............................................................12-12
illusions ....................................................................12-7
takeoff.......................................................................12-9
vision ........................................................................12-5
noise abatement ............................................................7-13
normal (calm wind) approaches and landings .............11-2
normal climb ................................................................6-12
normal takeoff ................................................................7-2
O
occupant preight brief ................................................5-22
oil .................................................................................5-21
orientation and navigation..........................................12-10
other airspace areas ......................................................8-11
P
parachute jump areas....................................................8-11
parasite drag ...................................................................2-8
partial power descent ...................................................6-14
PAVE .............................................................................5-1
pilot equipment ............................................................12-3
pilot requirements ........................................................12-2
pitch..............................................................................2-12
and power .................................................................6-16
angle ...........................................................................2-4
control.........................................................................6-4
control system ............................................................3-8
moments summary ...................................................2-16
pressures ...................................................................2-14
pitot-static system ......................................................13-12
planform .........................................................................2-5
pockets and hardware .....................................................3-7
porpoising ..................................................................11-29
positive transfer of controls .........................................1-10
postight, parking, and securing ..................................5-27
power..........................................................................11-13
R
ready aircraft to enter ight deck .................................5-22
recognition .................................................................13-17
rectangular course ..........................................................9-4
reex systems .................................................................3-8
regional weather .............................................................5-3
rejected landings ........................................................11-13
rejected takeoff/engine failure .....................................7-12
resource management...................................................1-12
restricted areas ...............................................................8-9
Rogallo, Francis .............................................................1-2
roll ................................................................................2-13
control system ............................................................3-9
stability and moments...............................................2-16
rotation ...........................................................................7-2
rotation and lift-off .........................................................7-6
roundout .......................................................................11-6
routine preight inspection ..........................................5-16
runaway throttle .........................................................13-13
runup ............................................................................12-8
runway incursion avoidance ........................................1-10
S
s-turns across a road .......................................................9-7
sail components..............................................................3-6
attachment to wing frame ...........................................3-7
material and panels .....................................................3-7
scenario-based training ................................................1-12
setting up the WSC aircraft ............................................5-8
shallow turns ..................................................................6-8
short-eld approaches and landings ...........................11-14
short eld takeoff and steepest angle climb ...................7-8
simulated engine out ..................................................11-26
I-3
T
takeoff and climb .........................................................12-9
takeoff roll...................................... 7-2, 7-3, 7-6, 7-9, 7-12
taking down the wsc aircraft ........................................5-12
taxiing ................................................................ 5-24, 12-8
temporary ight restrictions .........................................8-11
terminal radar service areas .........................................8-12
terrain selection ............................................................13-6
terrain types..................................................................13-7
the propeller .................................................................3-20
throttle use....................................................................11-2
thrust .................................................................... 2-7, 2-10
thrust moments .............................................................2-18
thrust required for increases in speed...........................2-11
topless wings with struts ................................................3-5
touchdown ....................................................................11-7
towered airport operations .............................................8-6
transporting ....................................................................5-7
trimnormal stabilized ight ......................................2-13
control.........................................................................6-7
systems .......................................................................3-9
tuning the wing to y slower or faster .........................5-14
tuning the wing to y straight ......................................5-14
turbulent air approaches and landings........................11-16
turns............................................................................13-18
around a point .............................................................9-9
I-4
U
uncontrolled airports ....................................................10-2
uncontrolled airspace .....................................................8-2
unique airfoil and wing design .....................................2-13
unique WSC ight characteristics ................................12-7
upwind leg....................................................................10-2
use of checklists ...........................................................1-12
use of power ...............................................................11-28
V
vertical axis ..................................................................2-13
W
warning areas .................................................................8-9
water landings ..............................................................13-8
weather ...........................................................................5-3
weather related emergencies ......................................13-15
weight................................................................... 2-7, 2-10
weight and loading .........................................................5-5
weight, load, and speed ................................................2-20
weight-shift control aircraft ...........................................1-7
weight-shift control LSA requirements .........................1-8
whip stalltucktumble ................................................2-19
awareness .................................................................6-24
wing................................................................................3-2
chord ...........................................................................2-2
exibility ....................................................................2-6
frame components ......................................................3-2
inspection .................................................................5-17
loading ........................................................................2-6
rising after touchdown ............................................11-30
systems .......................................................................3-8
tuning ........................................................................5-14
twist ............................................................................2-3
Wright Flyer ...................................................................1-2
WSC and air trafc control ..........................................8-12
WSC operations ...........................................................8-12
Y
yaw ...............................................................................2-13
stability and moments...............................................2-17
stability summary .....................................................2-18