The Hindu Literature

The Vedas
Rig Veda

10 books or Mandals.
1017 hymns (suktas) + 11 others Valakhiyas, i.e., total 1028 hymns.
10,580 Richas.
Only Veda that was created and compiled during early Vedic period.
Duration of compilation 1500BC-1000BC.
The 7th and the 2nd mandals are called the Vansha Mandals are they were created at the very first
composition.
The 10th and 1st mandals are the last to be compiled, hence are called Kshepak Mandals.

Sama Veda

It consists of hymns taken from Rig Veda and sets to tune for the purpose of singing.
The Samaveda is the collection of melodies.
It has 1549 Slokas (richas) but except 78 all the rest were borrowed from Rig Veda for tuning
purposes.
Sama Veda has two parts: Purvachika and Uttarchika.
Purvachika has six divisions, called Apathaka and Uttarchika has nine, called Prapathaka.
The book of chants and is said to be the book of origin for Indian music.

Yajur Veda

Mantras for the purpose of recitation & rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice.
The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two the "black" (Krishna) Yajurveda and the "white"
(Shukla) Yajurveda. The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses in
Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which implies the "well arranged, clear" prose version of
Yajurveda.
It has 40 chapters and 2000 hymns.
Ishopanishad, the last chapter of Yajurveda, is philosophical and metaphysical where as other parts
focus on the subject matter of law and legislation of various yajnas.

Atharva Veda

Compiled by non-Aryan, esp. Atharva Sage.

Veda of formulas, hymns of charm, spells & magic.

A collection of 731 hymns with about 5,987 mantras, divided into 20 books.

About 1200 Mantras has been taken from the Rig Veda. Shaunk and Pippalad are the two available
branches of Atharva Veda.

Also known as Brahm Veda or Atharvagiras Veda.

NOTES

Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda were compiled during later Vedic period (1000BC600BC).
Rig Veda & Sama Veda are complete verse while Yajur Veda has both Verse & Prose type of
mantras.
In Rig Veda, we have 40 rivers and the Saraswati is called the mother of rivers.
Indus/Sindhu is the most mentioned river in Vedas.
The name of four oceans in the Rigveda are Apar, Purva, Saraswat & Sharyajavat.

Upvedas

Vedas
Rig Veda
Sama Veda
Yajur Veda
Atharva Veda

Upavedas
Dhanur Veda
Gandharva Veda
Sthapatya Veda/Silpa Veda
Ayur Veda

Dealing with
Warfare, mostly archery.
Music & Dance
Architecture
Medical

Brahmanas

Ritual matter and prose commentary on the Vedas.

They deal with the science of sacrifices and inform us about theology, philosophy, manners &
customs in later Vedic period.
There are 18 brahmanas to be known.
Each Veda has various Brahmanas attached to it.

Vedas (No. of Brahmanas)

Name of Brahmana

Notes

Rig Veda (2)

Kaushitaki

40 chapters. Also called

Sankhyayana Brahman.
Both Rig Brahmanas deal with
sacrifices.
All three contain a lot of
information about the non-Arya
with the perspective of Aryans.
Brahmana of Krishna Yajur
Brahamana of Shukla Yajur.

Aitareya
Sama Veda (3)

Yajur Veda (2)

Tandya Maha
Khadvinsa
Jaiminiya
Taittriya
Shatapatha

Most Important Brahmana. Gives

precious info from KuruPanchala to Videha.
Atharva Veda (1)

Gopatha

NOTES

Aitareya, Kaushitaki (Shankhyayana), Taittiriya & Jaiminiya are also Aranyakas, as they
also deal with jungle environment of Rig Vedic period and mysticism & philosophy in particular
parts.

Aitareya, Kaushitaki & Taittiriya are again, Upanishads too.

Unlike Brahamanas, Aranyakas do not deal with rituals but mostly the philosophical aspects of
Vedas.

There are seven Aranyakas, remaining three are: Maitrayani, Madhyanandin & Talvakar.

Upanishads or Vedantas

There are 108 Upanishads, of which 12 are known be Shruti or the divine revelation.
The Upanishads are anti-rituals discussing the theories of creations of the universe and defining the
doctrine of action with the goal to attain salvation through meditation and self-control.
The famous doctrine of Adwaitism is ascertained in the Upanishads.
These are assumed to be written around 800-500BC.
Important Upanishads are:
Jesh
Kath or Kathaka Nachiketa & Yama dialogue. Yajnavalkya & his wife dialogue.
Ken
Mandukya
Brihadaranyaka Idea of rebirth.
Mundaka Unity in diversity.

Chhandogya Tat tvam asi (thou art that), initial references of Lord Krishna.

Taittiriya Aitareya
Kaushitaki
Svetasavatara initial references of Lord Shiva.

As usual, Aitareya & Kaushitaki are related to Rig Veda, Taittirya, Kath & Brihanaranyaka are
related to Yajur Veda, Mundaka is related to Atharva Veda.

Vedangas

These are supplementary texts for proper understanding of the Veda Samhitas.
These were created in c. 600-200BC.
There are six Vedangas:
o Shiksha (Phonetics/Pronunciation)
Pratisakhya is the oldest text on phonetics.
o Kalpa Sutras (Sacrificial rituals)
It is divided into three classes:
i.
Shrauta Sutras / Shulva Sutras deal with sacrifices.
ii.
Grihya Sutras deal with the domestic ceremonies and sacrifices meant be performed by
the householders.
iii.
Dharma Sutras deal with the laws, manners and customs of people in general.
o Vyakarana (Grammar)
Ashtadhyayi of Panini is the oldest grammar treatise.
o Nirukta (Etymology)
Based on Nighantu of Kashyap, it is the collection of difficult Vedic words.
o Chhanda (Metrics)
Chhandasutras of Pingal is a famous text for metrics.
o Jyotisha (Astronomy)
Vedanga Jyotisha by Cagadh Muni is the oldest Jyotisha text.

The Smriti

Puranas

There are six famous smrities:

Manu commentators: Vishwarupa, Meghatithi, Gobindraj, Kulluk Bhatt.
It is the oldest smriti, created in Pre-Gupta period.
Yajnvaika commentators: Vishwarupa, Vijnyaneshwar, Aparaka.
Created in Pre-Gupta period.
Narada - commentators: Vishwarupa, Vijnyaneshwar, Aparaka.
Gupta Period
Parashara commentator: Madhavacharya.
Gupta Period
Brihaspati
Gupta Period
Katyayan
Gupta Period

There are 18 Puranas, in which Matsya Purana is the oldest.

Lomharsha & his son Ugrashrava are said to be the compilers of Puranas.

Epics

Ramayana (Valmiki) oldest (probably) as it is called the Adi Kavya.

Original Ramayana had five kands with 6000 verses.
First & Seventh kands, namely Bal & Uttar kand were added later to make the
verses upto 24000.
Now it consists of 7 kands (Bal, Ayodhya, Aranya, Kishkindha, Sundar, Lanka &
Uttar) and 24,000 verses.
Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa)
Worlds largest epic, consisting more than 100,000 shlokas in 18 Parvans or
chapters.
Shanti Parvan is the largest parvan.
The Bhagvad Gita is extracted from Bhishma Parva.
Originally, Jay Samhita it had 8,800 shlokas. Later it was extended to
Chaturvinshati Shahastri Samhita or Bharata, consisting on 24,000 shlokas.
It is also called Panchamveda, or the fifth Veda.

Darshanas

There are six schools of Indian philosophy (darshan) known as Khad-dharshans.

Sankhya (Kapil)
Yoga (Patanjali)
Nyaya (Akshapad Gautam)
Vaishesika (Uluka Kanada)
Purva Mimansa (Jaimini)
Vedanta or Uttar Mimansa (Badarayana)
The four acons (yugas) : Krita, Treta, Dvapara, Kali.

PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

1. Who among the following was a Brahmavadini who composed some hymns of the Vedas?
a. Lopamudra
b. Gargi
Brahmavadinis are Lopamudra,
c. Leelavati
Vishwawara, Sikta, Nivavari & Ghosa.
d. Savitri
2. The term Yavanapriya mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts denoted:
a. A fine variety of Indian Muslim.
b. Ivory
c. Damsels sent to Greek court for dance performance

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

d. Pepper
The river most mentioned in the early Vedic literature?
Allowance of divorce to a wife by her husband, ancient mention?
Ancient scripts to be written from right to left?
The famous dialogue between Nachiketa & Yama.
Which Veda deals with magical charms & spells?