U18MH315 / U18MH415 - ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITION AND KNOWLEDGE Unit - I

U18MH315/U18MH415 ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

Unit – I
Modern Science and Indian Knowledge System:
 Introduction
 Vedas – Origin ,Classification & Structure of Vedas
 Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda
 Upavedas
 Vedang
 Upanga

Unit – I Learning Objective (LO):

This course will develop the student’s knowledge in/on
LO1: basic structure of Indian knowledge system
Unit-I Outcome (CO1):
CO CO code Upon completion of this course, the student will be able to…
CO1 U18MH315.1/ summarize the basic structure of Vedas, Upavedas, Vedanga,
U18MH415.1 Upanga

UNIT-I

1.1 VEDAS
The Vedas(veda, "knowledge") are a large body of religious texts originating in
ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of
Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of India. Indians consider the Vedas to
be apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman" and "impersonal,
authorless".
Vedas are also called śruti ("what is heard") literature, distinguishing them from
other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered").The Veda, for
orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after
intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient
times. In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to
Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skilfully created by
Rishis.

1.1.1 Vedas- Origin:

According to tradition, Vyasa Maharishi is the compiler of the Vedas, who
arranged the four kinds of mantras into four Samhitas(Collections). There are four
Vedas the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. Each Veda
has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and
benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-
sacrifices), the Brahmanas(commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and
the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).

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The Samhitas (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts

("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas. In some contexts, the term Veda is used
to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the
Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially compiled by 1200 BC, dating
between the 12th to 10th centuries BC.

1.1.2 Vedas- Classification:

The hierarchy of Vedic literature as shown in Figure.1 starts from Vedas --
Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda -- are the first four of the
pramanas (authoritative texts) and also the most important. Of the remaining ten, six
are Vedangas (the organs of the Vedas - Siksha, Vyakarana, Chandas, Nirukta,
Jyotisha and Kalpa) and four Upangas (secondary organs of the Vedas - Mimamsa,
Nyaya, Purana and Dharma Sastra). These fourteen texts are glorified as
Vidyasthanas - the abode of true knowledge and wisdom.

Figure.1: Hierarchy of Vedic literature (Vidyasthanas)

The core Vedic texts are the four Vedas:

 Rig-Veda “Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise”, for recitation.

 Sama-Veda “Knowledge of the Melodies”, for chanting.
 Yajur-Veda “Knowledge of the Sacrificial formulas”, for liturgy.
 Atharva-Veda “Knowledge of the Magic formulas”, named after a kind of
group of priests.

1.1.3 Vedas- Structure:

The four Vedas consist of four different classes of literary works. To each of these
classes belongs a greater or a smaller number of separate works of which some have
been preserved in their true form. These four classes are:

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I. Samhita
II. Brahmanas
III. Aranyakas
IV. Upanishads

I. Samhita: This is a collection of all the mantras which are to be used at

various occasions in one’s lifetime. During a man’s lifetime, there are
supposed to be 16 samskaras or rituals. Say for example: jatakarma (as soon as
the child is born, he /she is purified), namakarna (giving a name), investing
the child with a sacred thread (upanayanam ceremony), marriage ceremony,
and ultimately funeral, etc. The various mantras to be chanted at each
occassion are all in this collection called Samhitas. As all these Samhitas came
from Guru to disciple by rote, and no ancient writings are available. They are
known as Shrutis (those that come from generation to generation by hearing
and getting by rote). India being a big country, even though the same Vedas
were repeated in each state, like Maharashtra, Bengal, Orissa, etc., there have
been some minor changes in the versions of the Vedas repeated in various
places and each one of them is called an ascension [sākha]. There were 1000
such ascensions in Samaveda and 100 in Yajurveda, etc., but in due course
many of them have been irretrievably lost to the world. In each Veda, only
two to three sākhas are available currently. The most important of them is
Taittiriyashakha in Krishna Yajurveda. Similarly, in Samaveda, two or three
are available like Rarayanasakha,.Kanva [Madhyandina] sākha, etc.

II. Brahmanas: The second part of the Vedas [for each Veda] is called
Brahmana. And each Veda has its own Brahmana like shatapathabrahmana,
gopathabrahmana, etc. The Brahmanas were considered as a commentary on
the samhitas. These brahmanas specify as to which mantras in the samhita are
to be recited on specific occasions like marriage, funeral, etc. and the various
yagas [fire sacrifices]. There are two different categories of Yajurveda –
1)Krishna Yajurveda and 2)ShuklaYajurveda, i.e. black and white. The
difference is because in Krishna Yajurveda the Brahmana is mixed up in the
samhita itself while in the Shukla Yajurveda, the samhitas and brahmanas are
separated. Further, originally there was only Krishna Yajurveda, but a sage
called Yagnavalkya who was annoyed with his Guru, vomited back the entire
Krishna Yajurveda( this is a literary expression which is to be understood as
discarded) which he had learnt from his uncle, Sage Vaisampayana and did
tapasya for several years and got a new Yajurveda known as
ShuklaYajurveda from the Sun God.

III. Aranyakas: The third part of the Vedas is called “Aranyakas” of which
form a part of Upanishads. The Aranyakas were mainly meant for those who
went to the forest and wanted to conduct yagas and yagnas mentally through
imagination as they never had huge wealth to conduct them physically. The
Upanishads, which are part of it, contain a description of the indescribable
and inconceivable ultimate Supreme Being called the Brahman and the ways
to reach it. In fact, in the non-dualistic philosophy (Advaita), propounded by
AdiShankara, the word Vedas (scriptures) was meant to connote only
Upanishads while certain cults like AryaSamaj, etc. consider the Samhitas
only as the main Vedas. The Upanishads contain conversations between Guru

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and disciples and also contain the knowledge obtained through the direct
experience of the sages.
IV. Upanishads: In the Upanishads and Vedas, the various chronological
creations of the sky, the earth, the fire, the air, etc. are given in different
sequences. In this way, there are certain small variations in the description of
events in various Upanishads. Further, in the six systems of philosophy, like
sankhya, etc., who also believe in the indisputable authority of the Vedas,
they argue that the Upanishad mantras refer only to the primordial nature
called prakrti or pradhan and not to a Supreme entity called Brahman. In
order to reconcile the variations in the Upanishads and also to establish the
real purport of the Upanishads, the Brahmasutra was written by the oldest of
sages known as Veda Vyasa. As the Brahmasutra was in mnemonic formulae,
in due course of time, people were unable to interpret the meanings. Hence,
the great stalwarts like AdiShankara, Ramanuja, etc., have written detailed
commentary on them called Bhashya. In due course people were not able to
understand even those commentaries and certain authors like
VachaspatiMisra, Govindanandaetc wrote commentary on the Bhashyas
known as Bhamati, Ratnaprabha, etc.

1.1.4 Vedas- Rigveda :

The Rig-Veda is the largest and most important text of the Vedic collection; it
includes 1028 hymns and it is divided into ten books called mandalas. It is a difficult
text, written in a very obscure style and filled with metaphors and allusions that are
hard to understand for modern reader. The Sama-Veda has verses that are almost
entirely from the Rig-Veda, but are arranged in a different way since they are meant
to be chanted. The Yajur-Veda is divided into the White and Black Yajur-Veda and
contains explanatory prose commentaries on how to perform religious rituals and
sacrifices. The Atharva-Veda contains charms and magical incantations and has a
more folkloristic style.
Despite the fact that the Rig-Veda deals with many gods, there are some who get a
lot of attention. More than half the hymns invoke just three top-rated gods of the
moment: Indra(250 hymns), Agni (200 hymns), and Soma (just over 100 hymns).
Indra was the head of the ancient Hindu pantheon. He was the Storm-god
(sometimes he is referred to as the Sky-god and also as the god of war). The Vedas
describe Indra as the god “Who wields the thunderbolt”, and his most celebrated
story was the killing of the demon-serpent Vritra. The legend says that Vritra kept all
the waters trapped in his mountain lair, and Indra was the one who slew the demon
in order to release the waters.
Rig veda, one of the oldest texts of the Indo-Aryan Civilization still extant, is an
ancient Indian collection of Vedic hymns. Two Sanskrit words Rig and Veda
constituting it, translates to ‘praise or shine’ and ‘knowledge’ respectively. A
collection of 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten different
Mandalas (or the books; Sanskrit), it is the principal and oldest of the four Vedas.

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The cultural linguistic records; mainly the variation in form of Sanskrit used (from
present day) point out the origin of the Rig Veda to have been around 1600 BCE,
though a wider approximation of 1700–1100 BCE has also been given by experts.
The initial written Rig Veda dates back to 1st millennium BCE although the extant
ones today date back only to somewhere in between 11th and 14th century;
primarily due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript materials which were either
palm leaves or birch barks. Vedas, before the initial codification of which took place
were generationally handed over by the rich oral literary tradition, which was then a
precise and elaborate technique. The earliest texts of the Rig Veda were composed in
the greater Punjab (Northwest India and Pakistan), and the more philosophical later
texts were most likely composed in or around the region of Haryana (Modern-day
State of India).

1.1.5 Vedas- Sama Veda:

The words of Rig Veda put to music, and are to be sung rather than to just be
read or recited. Sama Veda, also the Veda of Melodies and Chants, is the third in the
series of the four principle scriptures of the dharma; the other three being the Rig
Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. The Sama Veda, divided into two major parts,
first to include the four melody collections, or the Saman, the songs and the latter the
Arcika, or the verse books a collection (samhita) of hymns, portions of hymns, and
detached verses. A liturgical text, relating to public worship, all but 75 verses of the
total 1875 is derived from the Rig Veda.
The ancient core scripture, of which only three recensions, the early edited versions
have survived, the research scholars point out its existing compilations to have been
originated in the post Rig-Vedic period, dating approximately around 1200 or 1000
BCE, also the period being contemporary to Atharvaveda as well as Yajur Veda. But
at the same time, other scholars including Michael Witzel, a renowned philologist,
and professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University, are quick to point out that no
specific date of creation can be attributed to the Vedas, which reconciles with the
claim of ardent believers of dharma of the Veda being Apauruṣeya; meaning, not of
a man or impersonal and also not belonging to a particular author.
As it is the words of Rig Veda put to music, no wonder, alike the  Rigveda,
the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with singing the hymns of Rig Vedic
deities, Indra, a heroic diety and the king of the highest heaven called
Saudharmakalpa who slained his enemy Vatra , Agni- the sacrificial fire, Soma, the
sacred potion or the plant which was a fundamental offering of the Vedic sacrifices
and Ishwara, the supreme god-just to mention a few; but in the latter part shifts to
abstract speculations and philosophy, the nature and existence of universe and God
himself are questioned and so are the social and religious duties of a man in the
society. The purpose of Samaveda clearly is liturgical.
Two of the 108 Upanishads still extant are embedded in the Sama Veda,
namely; Chandayoga and Kena Upanishad. Upanishads, in a way the essence of
Vedas, are ancient Sanskrit texts that contain some of the central philosophical

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concepts and ideas of Hinduism and are also shared in some other religion as the
Buddhism and Jainism. The Chandayoga Upanishad speculates about the origin of
the universe and about space and time. Three proficient men in their Udgithas or
chanting put forward some logical speculations even the modern science could not
outrightly reject. The Kena Upanishad tells us about how every man born has an
innate longing for spiritual knowledge and that bliss comes only from spiritual
attainment.

1.1.6 Vedas- Yajur Veda

Yajur Veda, of Sanskrit origin, is composed of Yajus and Veda; the two words
translate to ‘prose mantras dedicated to religious reverence or veneration’ and
knowledge respectively. Third of the fourth canonical texts of the dharma, this
liturgical collection is famous as the ‘book of rituals’. Of the ancient Vedic text, it is a
compilation of ritual offering formulas or the prose mantras to be chanted or
muttered repeatedly by a priest while an individual performs the ascertained ritual
actions before the sacrificial fire or the Yagna.
It has been, since the Vedic times, the primary source of information about sacrifices
and associated rituals, more importantly, it has served as a practical guidebook for
the priest, or the Purohits, as referred to as in Hindu dharma who execute the acts of
ceremonial religion.
The scholarly consensus points out the bulk of Yajur Veda dating to 1200 or
1000 BCE, which when analyzed is younger than Rig Veda, whose origin has been
approximated around 1700 BCE, but is contemporaneous to the hymns of Sama deva
and Artharva Veda.
However, very much like the other Vedic texts, no definite date can be
ascribed to its composition, rather they are believed to be of generational descend
from Vedic periods by literary oral tradition, which was then a precise and elaborate
technique. Also due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript materials; the birch
barks or palm leaves, no certain time period in the history can be ascertained to the
origin of Yajurveda.
The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into Krishna Yajurveda and
ShuklaYajurveda, also referred to as the Black Yajurveda and the latter as the White.
In reference to the verses of the Krishna Yajurveda being un-arranged, unclear and
disparate or dissimilar, the collection is too often referred to as Black Yajurveda. In
contrast, the well-arranged and imparting a particular meaning, the
ShuklaYajurveda is known as theWhiteYajurveda.

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1.1.7 Vedas- Atharva Veda:

The fourth and final of the revered text of the Hindu dharma, the Vedas, the
Atharvaveda, in short, is depicted as “knowledge storehouse of Atharvāṇas”
Atharvāṇas meaning, formulas, and spells intended to counteract diseases and
calamities, or “the procedures for everyday life”. A late addition to the Vedic
Scriptures, the word owes its roots to Sanskrit and the widely used epithet for the
scripture is ‘the Veda of Magic formulas’. As it sides with popular culture and
tradition of the day rather than preaching religious and spiritual teachings, it is more
often viewed not in connection with the three other Vedas, but as a discrete
scripture.
In popular context with being widely popular as the Veda of Magic formulas,
it is a mixture of hymns, chants, spells, and prayers; and involves issues such as
healing of illnesses, prolonging life, and as some claim also the black magic and
rituals for removing maladies and anxieties.
It is a collection of 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20
books, with three Upanishads embedded to it; Mundaka Upanishad, Mandukya
Upanishad, and Prashna Upanishad. Though not all but a considerable part of it is
the adaptation of Rig Veda, the most ancient of all Vedic Scripture. As the tales have
it and alike other three Vedas, the believers of the Hindu dharma regard the
Atharvaveda too as Apauruṣeya; meaning, not of a man or impersonal and also not
belonging to a particular author. The hymns and the verses were written by the
Rishis (or the Sages) and as the ardent believers of the Hindu dharma claim the
revered Lord himself taught the Vedic hymns to the sages, who then handed them
down through generations by word of mouth.

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1.2 UPAVEDAS:

Upavedas mean applied knowledge. Upavedas address various aspects of

health, security, aesthetic culture and literature and civic comforts needed for a
civilization. Each Upaveda is associated with one Veda which is the source of
knowledge for it. .

There are four UpaVedas associated with Vedas:

S.N Upaveda Associated with Content
o
1. Dhanurveda Rig Veda Warfare.

2. Sthapatyaveda Yajur Veda Architecture

3. Gandharvaveda Sama Veda Music and Dance

4. Ayurveda Atharvaveda Medicine

1.2.1 UpaVeda - Dhanurveda

Sanskrit terms for "martial art" include Dhanurveda (from dhanus "bow" and
veda "knowledge"). Literally the "science of archery" in Puranic literature is later
applied to martial arts. Dhanurveda can be called as śastravidyā (from vidyā
"learning , knowledge" and śastra "sword, weapon"). Literally it is "knowledge of the
sword". The term Dhanurveda is generally used by Sanskrit writers to denote the
artillery science. Many Sanskrit texts on epics, Purāṇas and kāvyas have references in
detail about artilleries. A number of weapons like bow and arrow, sword, spear and
mace are discussed in such texts.
The value and importance of the army were realized by ancient scholars very
early in the history of India. This led in course of time to the maintenance of a
permanent armed force to put down dissensions. War or no war, the army was to be
maintained, to meet any unexpected emergency. This gave rise to the Kṣatriya or
warriors. The kṣātriya dharma came to mean the primary duty of war. In
Dhanurveda, the importance of warriors in a society is highlighted. Dhanurveda
narrates that a good soldier can ensure the security of a society. So the soldiers have
an important role for the social security. Hence practicing and training of weapons
are of much important and it is the actual advantage of Dhanurveda. Ancestors were
aware about the importance of weapon and its training. Almost all of our ancient
books, Vasiṣṭha’s Dhanurveda samhita, S̓ukranīti, Agnipurāṇa etc narrate about
weapon manufacturing and its training. Hence ancient writers in Sanskrit wrote not
on spirituality alone but on warfare and the like also. Many of the scholars are
equally known in both the fields of spirituality and warfare. The Indian subcontinent
is home to a variety of fighting styles. The dissertations of Dhanurveda are found in
Agnipurana, Mahabharatha, Akashabhairava tantra etc.

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1.2.2 UpaVeda - Sthapatya Veda

Sthapatya veda is the knowledge of Vedic architecture. This knowledge
comes from a 5,000-year-old text and is thought to predate Chinese feng shui.
Sthapatya (sta-pat-ya) can be translated as “to establish” and veda as “knowledge.”
Sthapatya veda uses the circadian cycle, yet this knowledge expands to include the
universe itself. The five elements — air, earth, fire, water and space — are also
important factors in building design.
Architecture or Sthapatyaveda is linked with the deity  Vishwakarma. The science
materials and constructions, smithy and metallurgy, civil engineering and textiles
are a part of disciplines under this veda.
Homes and buildings are cardinally positioned north, south, east and west.
The orientation of the home is the primary consideration and the entrance is ideally
facing east, which is governed by the rising sun. The only acceptable alternative
would be a north facing entrance. South facing buildings are unacceptable according
to sthapatyaveda. The land should be at least an acre in size and be slightly rounded
or turtle shaped. The home and the surrounding fenced area are called a vastu.
Every detail within the vastu is to be positioned accordingly to specific guidelines.
They include everything from drainage directed to the northeast, to an odd number
of steps on the stairs, to toilets being housed within water closets, located inside the
bathrooms.
Room placement is according to the sun and moon so that daily activity will
be energetic and purposeful. The kitchen should be in the southeast corner of the
home; the dining area should be in the southwest section. This positioning will cause
a natural stimulation of the appetite upon entering these rooms. By positioning the
study or library in the northwest corner of the vastu, the intellect will be stimulated
upon entering that room. Likewise, upon entering the bedroom, the physiology will
begin to settle and prepare for sleep. It is believed that the placement of every room
will put the homeowner's activities in line with the patterns of the sun and moon
and enhance each experience according to natural law. .
The very center point of the home is an area of silence, called the brahmastan.
This area should remain inactive from daily life so that the lively silence of the
universe can be established in the householder's thoughts and awareness.
.
A sthapatyaveda home should be built of all natural materials and products
such as stone, water and wood. This concept should be consistent throughout all
phases of the construction process. In decorating the home, all natural fabrics, woods
and stones should be used as well. Harmony between the home and the
geographical location is also advised. .
Light is another important consideration in the construction of a sthapatya
veda home. Windows should be placed so that the light can penetrate throughout
the home as the sun moves across the sky. This also allows for proper ventilation.

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It is not necessary to take on a lifestyle, belief system or religion in order to

gain the benefits of living in a sthapatyaveda home. The reported advantages range
from better health, deeper rest, more clarity and creativity, more happiness and
peace of mind.

1.2.3 UpaVeda - Gandharva Veda

Gandharva veda is a upaveda of the "Sama Veda". It is a study of all art forms
including music, dance and poetry. Sacredness of art and literature is presented in
relation to Vedas in Gandharvaveda. Naradiyasiksha gives the etymology of the
word Gandharva as ‘ga’ – stands for geya (song), ‘dha’ for the skilful playing on
instruments like veena on which the various dhatus are to be produced by strokes
on the strings, and ‘va’ for the percussion instruments like veena and vamsha.
This Vedic text contains information about the laws and ways to practice
music as well as how music works as a therapy to heal the body and soul. All art and
literature, music and dance is considered sacred and to be used for soul
elevation and emotional refinement. Gandharvaveda is in all the cycles and rhythms
of the physiology like:
 Hormonal balance
 metabolism 
 cardiac rhythms
 Circadian rhythms, etc.
to keep the mind and body in tune with the rhythms of Nature.
Musical Instruments of Gandharvas: There were two main veenas in Gandharva,
like chitra (with seven string) and vipanchi (wich nine strings); the two additional
strings are meant for the two sadharana notes. The dhatus were produced in the
veena by striking the strings skillfully. The charming combination of notes beautified
the melody.
Bharata Muni on Gandharva Music and Veda: Bharata, in his Natyashastra
(3rd century BC), which is also termed as Natyaveda, gives the details of Gandharva.
He defines Gandharva as that music in which the stringed instruments like veena
and vinpanchi are prominent and are supported by various instruments like vamsha
and mrudanga. Its constituents are notes (swara), rhythm (tala) and words (sahitya).
The sacred treatise of music, Gandharva Shastra is its authority. Bharata states that
the yoni (original source) of Gandharva is gana, veena and vamsha.
Music of Gandharvas: As there was no employment of swara instrument in saman
chanting, it was possible that notes were only approximate. Tala also was not
provided. In the Gandharva, the notes Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni were well
fixed.
The ascent and descent of the seven notes in order is called murcchana. The
first murcchana of the sa scale would be sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni. The next one
would be ni, sa, re, ga, ma, padha and so the remaining five murcchanas. In the case
of the ma scale, the murcchana should be understood similarly. Gandharva Veda

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was employed in the preliminaries of dramatic performances to please gods and

repel the negative spirits.
The word sangeeta came into use later, denoting the triple art of vocal music and
instrumental music and dance.

1.2.4 UpaVeda - AYURVEDA

Ayurveda is the science of life. The word Ayurveda is formed by the
combination of two words - "Ayu" meaning life, and "Veda" meaning knowledge.
Life according to Ayurveda is a combination of senses, mind, body and soul.
Ayurvedic medicine is the oldest surviving healing system in the world. It
originated in the early civilizations of India some 3,000-5,000 years ago making. This
system of medication is based on many centuries of experience in medical practice
handed down through generations. The central ideas of Ayurveda are primarily
derived from Vedic philosophy. Healthy body and mind is considered as a need for
total experience of Divinity in a sustainable mode. Health here covers lifelong
wellness of body mind meld.   Balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges
is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.
Ayurveda is not only limited to body or physical symptoms but also gives a
comprehensive knowledge about spiritual, mental and social health. Thus Ayurveda
is a qualitative, holistic science of health and longevity, a philosophy and system of
healing the whole person, body and mind. The most famous are Charaka Samhita
and the Sushruta Samhita which concentrate on internal medicine and surgery
respectively.
The art of Ayurveda had spread around in the 6th century BC to Tibet, China,
Mongolia, Korea and Sri Lanka, carried over by the Buddhist monks travelling to
those lands. Although not much of it survives in original form, its effects can be seen
in the various new age concepts that have originated from there.
According to Ayurveda, all matters are thought to be composed of five basic
elements known as the Panchamahabhuthas - Earth (Prithvi), Water (Jala), Fire
(Tejas), Wind (Vayu) and Space (Akasha). These elements interact and exist in
combination, in which one or more elements dominate. The human body is
composed of derivatives of these five basic elements, in the form of doshas, tissues
(dhatus) and waste products (malas).
"Tridosha" or the “Three Humours” are categorized into Vata, Pitta and Kapha
doshas. Vata governs movement, Pitta is concerned with functions of heat,
metabolism, energy production and Kapha governs physical structure and fluid
balance. Thus in Ayurveda, disease is viewed as a state of imbalance in one or more
of these doshas. The treatment aims to establish the balance in these three
fundamental qualities.
Ayurveda Samhitas:
 Kashyapa Samhita
 Sharngadhara Samhita
 Bhela Samhita

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 Madhav Nidhan Samhita 

 Harita Samhita
 Ashtanga Hridaya Samhita
 Charaka Samhita
 Dhanvantri Samhita
 Sushrutha Samhitha
 Vaydyak Sabdasindhu
 Vagbhatta Samhita
 Ashtanga Sangraha
 Bhava-Prakash Samhita

1.2.4 .1 AYURVEDIC TIPS

A quick Tibetan test: Tibetans use a simple daily test to know when they
have a tendency towards a derangement of Vata, Pitta or Kapha. They collect
their urine in a clear transparent jar first thing in the morning. Then they
check the urine’s appearance to determine if they have an excess of air (Vata),
bile (Pitta) or phlegm (Kapha) in their bodies at that moment.
How can they tell about ‘dosha’ in human body: Simple. If the urine looks
watery, almost transparent, there is an excess of air in their bodies (Vata). If
the urine has a strong yellow or brownish appearance, fire (Pitta) is
predominant in their bodies at that moment. If the urine looks very pale and
foaming, there is a predominance of phlegm (Kapha) in their bodies.
Balancing ‘ Vata, Pitta or Kapha’: Ayurveda offers many ways to heal and
restore your natural balance and energy. A targeted diet to “pacify” your
specific deranged dosha is one of them. Take a look at some generic
principles… (It is highly recommended that you consider a good doctor
whenever you feel something is not right with your body)
To pacify ‘Vata’: Vata is cold and dry. So have hot drinks like ginger tea, or
chamomile tea. Center your diet around broths, cheese (warm, not cold as
long as you are not lactose intolerant), carrots, onions, cooked spinach, garlic
and spices. Avoid cold foods such as salads (because raw salads increase the
air in your body) and ice cream. Generally speaking, avoid cold foods, raw
foods and dry foods. Eat warm, oily, moist foods instead.
To pacify ‘Pitta’: Realize that Pitta is hot. So balance it with cold light foods
such as cool water, salads, yoghurt and cooling herbs. Avoid meat and
alcohol. Also avoid sour, salty, fried and spicy foods.
To balance ‘Kapha’:Realize that Kapha is heavy, cold and humid. So balance
it with dry, light foods, spices, vegetables and salads. Avoid sweet and salty
foods. Also avoid dairy foods because they are heavy and produce mucus in
your body, fried foods and frozen foods. Wheat is not good for Kapha. But
you can enjoy muesli (without wheat) for breakfast and drink apple juice
instead of cold milk. You can also enjoy salads (but with very little oil-based
dressing) for lunch.

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Daily tips for a healthy life: Most of us struggle to maintain a good balance
in life when it comes to family, health, and work. We tend to prioritize one
over the other, creating a rift that leaves us disheveled and unbalanced. While
unhealthy lifestyles can lead to an array of problems like acidity, indigestion,
stress, and other lifestyle-related illnesses, Ayurveda can help create harmony
between the body, mind and spirit. Read some simple tips based on the
Ayurveda principles…
Tip 1: Add cinnamon to tea/coffee
Tip 2: Oil your body
Tip 3: Watch out for negative vibes
Tip 4: Drink hot water
Tip 5: Drink Lemon water first thing morning
Tip 6: Scrape your tongue
Tip 7: Green smoothie for breakfast
Tip 8: Keep your skin dry
Tip 10: Eat hot food!
Tip 11: Good Night’s sleep
Tip 12: The best time to eat is 3hrs before bed
Tip 13: Lassi, the Yogic Drink
Tip 14: Ghee for Good Health

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1.3 VEDANGAS
Vedangas (Veda+Anga= Limbs of Veda) are part of Smriti Literature. Smriti is meant
for memorization and not for Chanting. Vedangas are additional limbs or chapters in
the Vedas. The following are six Vedangas.

S.N VEDANGA DESCRIPTION

O
1. Shiksha- (Phonetics) Deals with Phonetics. Connected with correct
pronunciation of the words of the Vedas.
2. Niruktha- (Etymology) Deals with the origin of meaning of the word.
3. Vyakarana- Deals with making meaningful sentences from
(Grammar) words.
4. Chandas- (Metrics) study of poetic meters and verses
5. Jyothisha- (Astrology) Science of tracking and predicting the movements of
astronomical bodies in order to keep time
6. Kalpa- (Ritual) Deals with rituals.

1.3.1 Vedangas - Shiksha- (Phonetics) 

Shiksha is tongue of Vedas. It Deals with Phonetics. It is connected with correct
pronunciation of the words of the Vedas. Shiksha really means instruction: then in
particular ‘instruction in reciting’ i.e., in correct pronunciation, accentuation etc. of
the Samhita texts. Later, it was a name given to works containing rules regarding the
proper pronunciation of Vedic texts. Thus, the Shiksha-Sutras are treatises on
phonetics. They are related to the Samhita.Shiksha lays down the rules of phonetics
– sounds of syllables or pronunciation. The function of the Shiksha is thus to fix the
parameters of Vedic words. Phonetics is most important in the case of the Vedic
language, because we see that change in sound leads to change in results and effect.
Pratishakhya suthra is the earliest book available on Shiksha.
Some important Pratishakhyas are:
 Rigveda-Pratishakhya of Rigveda
 Taittiriya-Pratishakhya of Krishna Yajurveda
 Vajasaneyi Pratishakhya of Shukla Yajurveda
 Atharvaveda-Pratishakhya of Atharvaveda

1.3.2 Vedangas -Niruktha- (Etymology)

Niruktha deals with the “origin of meaning of the word” which is nothing but
Etymology. Etymology is study of origin of words and the way in which their
meanings have changed throughout the history. Yaksha of 5th C. B.C. was the first
scholar to deal with etymology. The book Niruktha was written by Yaksha. Nirukta
Vedanga is called the ears of the Veda Purusha. ‘Nirukta’ means ‘etymology’ and it
explains the reason why a particular word has been used i.e., the meaning of usage.
The only work which has survived as a specimen of this Vedanga ‘etymology’ is the

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Nirukta of Yaksha. It is a commentary on Nighantu which is ‘list of words’ found in

the Vedas. Tradition ascribes the Nighantu also to Yaska.
Yaksha has mentioned a considerable number of important grammarians as his
predecessors in the Nirukta such as Galava, Shakapuni, Katthakya. Nirukta is very
important for several reasons. First, it represents the type of the earliest classical
style and in this respect stands by itself. Next, it is the oldest known attempt in the
field of Vedic etymology. As regards the importance of the etymology, Yaska himself
says that without it the precise meanings of the Vedic stanzas cannot be understood.

1.3.3 Vedangas -Vyakarana- (Grammar)

The third Vedanga is Vyakarana or grammar, which is necessary for the
understanding of the Veda. It is called the mouth of the Veda Purusha. The old
Vedanga-texts on Vyakarana are entirely lost today. Panini is the 1st known
grammarian of India. He Graduated of Taxila (Taxasila, Takshashila) University. He
Lived in Gandhara region. Gandhara lies in Northe west region (Pakisthan and
Afghanisthan). Its capital was Taxila (Present Rawalpinid and Islamabad).
Taxila University was the most ancient University. Jivaka (5ht Century B.C.), Panini
(6th Century B.C.), Charaka (1st Century A.D.) were the students
of Taxila University.
Panini wrote Ashtadhyay with 8 chapters. Ashtadyayi is the 1st book on
grammar. It is indeed the most celebrated text-book of grammar. It discusses root
(Prakriti) and suffix (Pratyaya) of a word to study its meaning. Panini’s Vyakarana is
in the form of sutras. The fourteen Sutras are referred to here, as Maheswara Sutras.
They are considered the foundation of grammar.

1.3.4 Vedangas - Chandas- (Metrics)

Chandas Vedanga is regarded as the feet of the Veda Purusha. The body of the
Vedas rests on the Chandas which are in the nature of feet. Vedic prosody called
‘Chandas,’ or ‘Chandaśāstra’ is considered as ‘limbs of the Veda’. Prosody means
patterns of rhythm and sounds of poetry. Without this study, it will be impossible to
understand the Vedas properly. Before reciting the Vedic mantras (chants or hymns)
it is obligatory to pay one’s respect to the:
 Ṛuṣhi - sage through whom the mantra was revealed
 Devatā - the deity to whom it is addressed
 Chandas - the meter in which the mantra is composed
Each Mantra of the Veda has a special Chandas. According to Nirukta the term
Chandas is derived from the root Chad (to cover). Meter is called Chandas, because
it covers the sense of the Mantra. The Chandas is designed for the purpose of
securing the proper reading and reciting of Vedic texts.
The texts, dealing with Vedic meters, are as follows:
 Rikpratishakhya 
 Shankhayana Shrauta-sutra 
 Nidana-sutra of Samaveda

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 Chandas-sutras of Pingala.
Pingala was the 1st person in ancient Indian to write on chandas.The earliest of the
extant works on Vedic prosody is the Chandas-sutra by Piṅgala (2nd cent. B.C.)
which is in the form of sutras spread over eight chapters. Eleven major and many
more minor meters have been dealt with in this work. Gāyatrī, uṣṇik, anuṣṭup,
triṣṭup, jagatī, bṛhatī and paṅkti are the common ones among them. Usually each
meter consists of one to five pādas or ‘feet’. Each pāda should consist of a specific
number of letters.

1.3.5 Vedangas -Jyothisha- (Astrology)

Jyóti means light or heavenly body. It is called "science of light." Knowledge of
jyotisha (astrology) is necessary for the proper timing of the rituals and meditations
central to Vedic life. It is the most important of the Vedangas or limbs of the Vedas,
the very eye of the Vedas.
Maharshi Lagadha(6th Century B.C.) was the 1st person to write on
Jyothishya. The object of Jyotisha Vedanga is not to teach astronomy, but to convey
such knowledge of the heavenly bodies as is necessary for fixing the days and hours
of the Vedic sacrifices. It gives some rules for calculating and fixing time for
sacrifices. In the Brahmanas and Aranyakas, we find frequent allusions to
astronomical subjects, and even in the hymns we find traces which indicate a certain
advance in the observation of the moon. It is unfortunate that there is no work
available at present dealing with ancient Vedic astronomy (Jyotisha) in the Sutra
style. This is a very difficult text and, therefore, is not clear on several points to
scholars even today. Later, we find many Sanskrit treatises on astronomy and
mathematical calculations. Bhaskaracharya, Varahamihira and Aryabhatta are
known ancient scholars conversant with these scientific subjects. The principles
established by them are in use in the modern world.

1.3.6 Kalpa- (Ritual)

It Deals with rituals. Kalpa has four sub parts called Kalpasuthras.

S.No Kalpasutra Content

1. Griha Suthra Rituals
2. Shrautha suthra Rituals
3. Sulva suthra Rituals
4. Dharma Sutra Legal rules
1.3.6.1 Grihaya Suthras-
It deals with domestic rituals to be performed by an individual. These are divided as
Purushardhas and Shodasha karmas.
I.Purushardhas:
All the four Purushardhas namely Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha, denote the
way of human living.
 Dharma: This mentions the laws and rules one should follow wherever in the
world he/she is and whatever he/she does. The way a human should think

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and behave were very clearly mentioned which suit even the present day of
life, though written centuries ago. The examples of books that explain the
Dharma are Ramayan, Mahabharata etc.
 Artha: This refers to the economic principles to be implemented starting from
a family to a nation. These principles explain how and in what cases money
should be spend, donated and saved.The book Arthashastra written by
Kautilya, popularly known as Chanakya, is an example of this science. In the
word Arthashastra, Artha means Economy and Shastra means science.
 Kama: This has all the information regarding the ways and means of human
pleasures or desires. The secrets of winning techniques and remedies, the
ways and means of establishing a better family life were all mentioned in this
science.
 Moksha: This refers to the spiritual theories and philosophies one should
implement in their life to attain emancipation. The fulfillment of human life is
to attain freedom for the soul, from this cycle of birth and death.
II. Shodasha karmas- (16 rituals/sacraments)
Shodasha karmas start even before the birth of a child. When the kid is in the womb,
kid’s parents should perform some of them. In the form of the Shodasha karmas
Brahmins took hold of every person’s life. From conception to cremation (Womb-
tomb) life was in the hands of Brahmins. They have designed them in such a way
that People need to pay them at every walk of life.
1. Garbhadaana- Should be performed by a newly wed couple. If a kid
is born without this ritual, he is not entitled for salvation.
2. Pumsavana- Should be done after pregnancy and before the birth.
This ritual is done for expecting the birth of male child. Pum= Male.
3. Simanthonyaya- On 6th or 7th month of the conception.
Simanthonyaya is done for the safety of the child in the womb. God is
invoked for the child`s safety.
4. Jataka karma- Astrologer reads the child’s future.
5. Namakarana- Naming ceremony.
6. Nishakramana- 1st time the kid is exposed to the sun. kid is shown to
the sun.
Food is given to the kid for the first time.
7. Anna prasana- Child is given solid food for the first time.
8. Chuda karma- Keshakhandana mahotsavam. Tonsure ceremony.
9. Karna Bheda- Pearcing the ears.
10. Vidyaramba- Formal commencement of education.
11. Upanayana- Most sacred ceremony. Sacred thread ceremony on
8th year. They are born only once. Upanayana is performed for the
new and real birth of a boy. On this occasion Gayathri manthra (Rg
veda III mandala) is chanted. At the age of 8 ceremonial birth is given
to child.
12. Vedaaramba- After Upanayana boy goes to Gurukula.
13. Keshantha- shaving head.

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14. Samavartana- Home coming ceremony. After the completion of

education boy comes back to home from Gurukula
15. Vivaaha End of Brahmacharya.
16. Anthyesti- Performed after the death. Last rites. Performed by a son
for his parents.
1.3.6.2 Vedangas -Shrauta-sutra:
Shrauta-sutra are ritual manuals used by priests engaged in the performance
of the grander Vedic sacrifices. These require three fires and the services of
many specialized priests. The manuals are called shrauta (from
Sanskrit shruti, “revelation”; literally “that which is heard”).
The Shrauta-sutras, together with the “Grihya-sutras” (dealing with domestic
ceremonies) and the “Dharma-sutras” (dealing with rules of conduct), make
up the “Kalpa-sutras”. Each Shrauta-sutra guides the priests of its own
particular Vedic school in the performance of specialized functions. The texts
deal with such subjects as the laying of the three fires, the full and new moon
ceremonies, and the various animal and soma sacrifices.
1.3.6.3 Sulva suthra:
Sulvasutras deal with complex fire altars of various shapes constructed with
bricks of specific shapes and area: the total area of the altar must always be
carefully respected. This proves that despite of no existence of algebra, there
was an awareness of precise purely geometrical calculations. Seidenberg’s
conclusion of India being the source of the geometric and mathematical
knowledge of the ancient world has been included now in chronology of the
texts. The four major Sulva Sutras, which are mathematically the most
significant, are those composed by Baudhayana, Manava, Apastamba and
Katyayana. Out of them the oldest belongs to Baudhayana and dates back to
600BC. It has many geometrical calculations used today like, square root of 2
to 1.414215, up to last 5 decimals.
13.6.4 Dharma-sutra:
Dharma-sutra means “righteousness thread”.  It is a blend of the two
components ‘dharma’ and ‘sutra’. Therefore this blend obviously means
‘sutras’ dealing with ‘dharma’.  It could be interpreted in many ways.
However, it is often understood as religion or moral code. Dharma Sutras
deal with directions about our domestic, social and religious lives. It has
several manuals of human conduct. They consist chiefly of sutras (“threads”
or “strings”) of terse rules containing the essentials of law concerning
interpersonal relations and the relationship between people and the state. The
maxims deal with the practical rules of  human beings in their social,
economic, and religious relations. These metrical versions of previously
existing Dharma-sutras came to be called Dharma-shastras, though in modern
times that term more commonly is used to denote the whole body of
customary rules and observances governing religious and social life. Dharma
Sutra not only deals on the ‘law’ or righteousness but also on the broader

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stand about the conduct of men, secular law (Vyavahāra) and duties of the
king (rāja–dharma). 

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1.4 UPANGAS
The Upangas found their roots in Vedic literature, which can be looked at like
an instruction manual to understand Vedas. The four Upangas, though not integral
to the Vedas, are supporting text to unveil knowledge wisdom of Vedic literature.
Upangas are broadly classified into four types, they are:

1. Dharmasastra
2. Mimamsa
3. Tarkashastra
4. Puranas
Among the Upangas, Mimamsa deals with the action and knowledge based
interpretations of the Vedic texts, Tarkashstra with referred name of Nyaya deals
with logic, Dharma Sastras speak about the Vedic codes of conduct and Puranas deal
with mythology and serve as a magnifying glass of the Vedic Injunctions,.

1.4.1. Upangas - Dharma Sastras

Dharma sastras mainly focus on the four sutras - Dharma sutra, Grhya Sutra,
Sulba Sutra and Srauta Sutra which deals with different aspects of life. The sutras of
Dharma sastra can be elaborate as:

 Dharma sutras : Marriage, sonship and inheritance & contain the

guidelines to live a Dharmicife.
 Grhya sutras contain specific guidelines to Grhasthas.
 Srauta sutras contain guidelines for performing rituals.
 Sulba sutras contain the mathematical principles for construction of
various altars.

The dharma sastras presented in different Smiritis of Vedic litarture out of them the
three Smiritis which include Manu smriti, Yajnavalkya smriti and Narada smriti are
shown significant effect on Vedic age.

I. Manu Smriti or Code of Manu

Right from the age of Rig-Veda almost all authors of Dharmashastra

refer to the opinion of Manu and the he was regarded as the first law giver.
Manu Dharma Sastra is, if not the first, the most authoritative and
comprehensive law-book. It is also called Manu Smrti where Smrti means the
tradition remembered (smdrta) as distinct from Vedas (Sruti) which are
supposed to be 'revealed'. But, unlike the other codes, Manu Smrti considers,
in addition to the legal maxims, certain religious, political, moral, economic
and metaphysical principles to provide a consistent justification for its social
theory.

The twelve essential aspects of Manu smriti includes

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 Creation of the Universe

 Definition of Dharma and sources of Dharma
 Studentship-marriage
 Mode of life-householder’s code of conduct
 Rules for governing cultivation and food
 Rules governing forest
 Raja-dharma
 King’s duty relating to administration of justice
 Duties of husband and wife-partition-sonship-five major sins-the
punishments.
 Rules of conduct for all
 Seven proper modes of livelihood
 Karma-the knowledge of self -the highest means of bliss

II Yajnavalkya smriti:

The Yajnavalkya smriti which deals with legal aspects follows the same
pattern as of Manu in the treatment of subjects, it is scientific and more
systematic. It avoids repetition of same or similar provisions This smriti
consists of 1010 verses divided into 3 chapters on matters such as.

 Women rights of inheritance

 Right to hold property
 Status of Sudras
 Criminal penalty and Yajnavalkya is more liberal than Manu
 Creation of valid documents
 Law of loan agreements
 Partnership and business ventures
 Civil and Criminal law

III. NARADA SMRITI

The narada smriti exclusively deals with forensic law, both substantive
and procedural with any reverence to self punishment and other religious
matters. Narada was independent in his views and did not allow himself to
be bound by the earlier texts. The Procedural law laid down by this smriti
contains provisions relating to pleading, evidence (oral and documentary) as
also the procedure required to be adopted by the courts of law. Narada Smriti
contains thee introductory chapters on the principles of judicial procedure
and on judicial assembly. He also introduced some changes in the laws of
Manu and Yagnavalka
In the matter of inheritance smriti says that an younger son could become
a karta of a Hindu joint family and Provides two shares to father in his self
acquired property in case of partition. After death of father, mother gets equal
share with her sons at a partition. Unmarried daughter takes a share as
younger sons. Regarding law of marriage tells that a widow as well as a wife

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whose husband is absconding entitled to remarry. Fixes age of majority at 16

years.

1.4.2 Upangas - Mimamsa

The Sanskrit word “mimamsa” means a “revered thought”. The word is
originated from the root ‘man’ which refers to ‘thinking’ or ‘investigating’. The word
'mimamsa' suggests "probing and acquiring knowledge" or ”critical review and
investigation of the Vedas" . The goal of Mimamsa is to provide enlightenment on
dharma, which in this school is understood as the set of ritual obligations and
prerogatives that, if properly performed, maintains the harmony of the world and
furthers the personal goals of the performer.
Mimamsa has two parts

I. Purva Mimamsa II. Uttara Mimamsa.

a. Purva-Mimamsa is based on the earlier (Purva = earlier) parts of the Vedas.

Purva-Mimamsa (Karma Mimamsa) since it deals with the Karmic actions of rituals
and sacrifices. It speaks of the philosophy of rituals.

b. Uttar-Mimamsa is based on the later (Uttar = later) parts of the Vedas. Uttar-
Mimamsa (Brahman Mimamsa) since it is concerned with the knowledge of Reality.
It is a spiritual philosophy.
There is another text called Sankarsha kanda, which is also called the Madhya
Mimamsa and Upasana Kanda, which speaks of Gods and mentions the essential
one-ness of all God-forms. This can be seen as a ramp from Purva Mimamsa to
Uttara Mimamsa. Mimamsa can be discussed more elaborately as a darshana.

Concept of Dharma In Mimansa

• Jaimini defines dharma as a good which is of the nature of a command.

• It is a prescription of the Vedas, which indicates the nature of good and evil,
and impels the self to realize the highest good.

• Dharma can be revealed by the vedic prescriptions only, it is not

apprehended by perception, inference, comparison or any other means of
knowledge.

• Kumarila recognizes two kinds of duties, secular and scriptural or non

temporal.

• The secular duties fulfill perceptible secular ends. The scriptural duties fulfill
imperceptible super sensuous ends. They are of the two kinds, i.e. conditional
duties and unconditional duties.

• The former are empirical duties for the realization of desired ends. The latter
are obligatory occasional duties i.e. bath in the Ganges on the occasion of the
solar eclipse and the lunar eclipse.

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1.4.3 Upangas - Tarkashastra

Tarkashastra with vedic name Nyaya is a darshana and speaks of the "law of
nature". It deals with logics and truth. All systems of Indian philosophy begin with
the problem of suffering – duḥkha. The goal of the Nyāya is to enable us to attain the
highest goal of life which is Liberation from duḥkha and the attendant cycle of births
and deaths — mokṣa, variously known as ‘release’, ‘freedom’, ‘emancipation’ or
nirvāṇa – the state of non-return to birth/death. According to nyāyikas the world
presents itself to us as a chain of consequences which needs to be broken in order to
attain Liberation from suffering.
The truth extraction process of Nyāya consists of three stages Statement,
Definition and discussion. The logical method of ascertaining the Truth is through
the application of the 16 categories of Logic, called Padārthas or topics, these are:

1. Means of right knowledge - pramāna

2. Object of right knowledge - prameya
3. Doubt - Saṃśaya
4. Motive - prayojana
5. Illustrations - dṛṣṭānta
6. Demonstrated Truth -siddhānta
7. Factors of Reasoning — syllogism - avayava
8. Reasoning and confutation - tarka
9. Discernment - nirṇaya
10. Discussion -vāda
11. Disputation - jalpa
12. Cavil or objection - vitaṇḍā
13. Fallacious Reasoning - hetvābhāsa
14. Casuistry (unfair reasoning) - chala
15. Futile Rejoinder - jāti
16. Clinchers - nigraha-sthāna

1.4.4 Upangas - Puranas:

The Puranas  are Hindu religious texts that are part of the Vedas. They contain
narratives about the history of the Universe from creation to destruction and the
genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and deities. Some of the Puranas are discourses
on cosmology, geography and Hindu philosophy. They are usually written in the
form of a dialogue. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are
the Mahāpurāṇas. These are always said to be eighteen in number, divided into three
groups of six, though in fact they are not always counted in the same way
There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas.  The eighteen MahaPuranas are
Matsya,Markandeya, Bhagavata,Bhavishya, Brahmanda, Brahma, Brahma Vaivarta, 
Vishnu Dharmottara, Varaha, Vamana, Siva, Skanda, Narada, Garuda, Padma,

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

U18MH315 / U18MH415 - ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITION AND KNOWLEDGE Unit - I

Kurma, Linga and Agni Puranas. Purana is said to speak of five subjects (Panca
Lakshana):

1. the creation and dissolution of Universe,

2. evolution,
3. cycle of time,
4. theology,
5. history of kings (human history)

They also speak of three levels of allegories - terrestrial, astronomical and

spiritual. and the different incarnations of the Supreme Godhead - 51 avataras, then
21 important ones from them, then 10 primary avatars out of them that we call as
dashavataras and 2 as complete incarnations (purnavataras) which
are Rama and Krishna. The remaining are said to be amshavataras (partial
manifestation) in different degrees.

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal

U18MH315 / U18MH415 - ESSENCE OF INDIAN TRADITION AND KNOWLEDGE Unit - I

MODEL QUESTIONS ON VEDAS:

1. Define Vedas?
2. Explain the Origin of Vedas.
3. State classifications of Vedas?
4. Differentiate Brahmanas with Aranyakas ?
5. State structures used in explanation of each Veda?
6. Which Veda has knowledge related to “Music”?
7. Which Veda deals with surgical aspects of medicines?
8. List any 2 ritual of Krishna Yajurveda.

MODEL QUESTIONS ON UPAVEDAS:

1. Briefly explain about UpaVedas?
2. Explain about significance of Ayurveda?
3. State the principles of Sthapatyaveda in constructing an ideal home
4. List different Ayurveda samhitas?
5. Explain Dhanurveda and what is the importance of a soldier in protecting a
country?
6. Describe Gandharvaveda.
7. What are Three doshas of human body?
MODEL QUESTIONS ON VEDANGAS:

1. What is the meaning of Vedangas and list them.

2. Explain Kalpa-Vedanga.
3. Write short notes on Jyothisha-Vedanga.
4. Write short notes on Shiksha-Vedanga.
5. Explain Nirukta-Vedanga.
6. Write a note on Vyakarana-Vedanga
7. Explain the importance of Chandas-Vedanga in reciting the vedic mantras

MODEL QUESTIONS ON UPANGAS:

1. Explain about Upanga
2. Differentiate Tarkashastra and Mimamsa
3. State sixteen categories of logics mentioned in Nayaya sastra
4. List the major categories of subject that purana talked about
5. Explain concept of Dharma in Mimamsa.
6. Differentiate Uttara and Purva Mimamsa.
7. List the twelve essential aspects of Manu smiriti.
8. Explain essence of Narada smiriti.
9. Explain the sutras of Dharma sastra.

Kakatiya Institute of Technology & Science, Warangal