Indian Knowledge System

Unit 1

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) is a vast and diverse body of knowledge that
has been developed over thousands of years in the Indian subcontinent. It
encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including philosophy, science,
mathematics, medicine, engineering, arts, and social sciences. IKS is
characterised by its holistic approach, which emphasises the interconnectedness
of all things. It also emphasises the importance of experiential learning and
self-realisation.

IKS has made significant contributions to human knowledge and civilization. For
example, the concept of zero and the decimal system were developed in India.
Indian mathematicians also made significant advances in algebra, trigonometry,
and calculus. In the field of medicine, Ayurveda is a holistic system of medicine
that has been practised for thousands of years. IKS has also made significant
contributions to the fields of yoga, meditation, and spirituality.

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in IKS, both in India and around
the world. This is due in part to a recognition of the limitations of modern science
and technology, and a search for more holistic and sustainable approaches to
development. IKS has much to offer the world in terms of its insights into the
nature of reality, the human mind, and the relationship between humans and the
environment.

Here are some of the key features of IKS:

● Holistic approach: IKS emphasises the interconnectedness of all things,

and the importance of understanding the whole system rather than just its
parts.
● Experiential learning: IKS emphasises the importance of learning through
direct experience, rather than just through theoretical knowledge.
● Self-realisation: IKS emphasises the importance of self-knowledge and
self-realisation as the ultimate goal of human life.
Importance of Ancient Knowledge

Ancient knowledge systems, such as the Indian Knowledge System (IKS), hold
immense value and relevance in today's world. These systems offer a wealth of
insights into human existence, the natural world, and the interconnectedness of
all things. They provide alternative perspectives on knowledge acquisition,
emphasising experiential learning, holistic understanding, and the pursuit of
self-realisation.

Defining IKS

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) encompasses a vast and diverse body of
knowledge that has evolved over millennia in the Indian subcontinent. It
encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including philosophy, science,
mathematics, medicine, engineering, arts, and social sciences. IKS is
characterised by its holistic approach, emphasising the interconnectedness of all
aspects of life and the universe.

The IKS Corpus – A Classification Framework

The IKS corpus can be broadly classified into the following domains:

1. Śruti: The Vedas, considered the primary source of knowledge in IKS,

encompassing philosophical and spiritual wisdom.

2. Smriti: Texts that elaborate on Vedic knowledge, including epics like

Ramayana and Mahabharata, Dharmashastras, and Puranas.

3. Darśana: The six schools of Indian philosophy – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya,

Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta – each offering unique perspectives on
reality and existence.
4. Upaveda: Subsidiary knowledge systems, including Ayurveda (medicine),
Dhanurveda (martial arts), Gandharvaveda (music), and Arthashastra (political
science).

5. Sthapatya Veda: Traditional Indian architecture and engineering principles,

emphasising harmony with nature and sustainability.

6. Jyotisha: Indian astronomy and astrology, encompassing celestial observations

and their influence on human affairs.

7. Vyakarana: Sanskrit grammar, a highly structured and scientific approach to

language analysis.

8. Natyashastra: The ancient treatise on drama, dance, and performance arts.

9. Alankara Shastra: The study of aesthetics and literary embellishments.

IKS offers a rich tapestry of knowledge, providing valuable insights into the
human condition, the natural world, and the pursuit of self-knowledge. Its holistic
approach and emphasis on experiential learning hold immense potential for
addressing contemporary challenges and fostering sustainable development.

Chaturdaśa-Vidyāsthāna

The Chaturdaśa-Vidyāsthāna, or the "Fourteen Vidyas," is a classification scheme

for the various branches of knowledge in the Indian Knowledge System (IKS). It
represents a comprehensive framework for understanding the diverse disciplines
that encompass IKS.

The fourteen Vidyas are:

1. Śikṣā (Phonetics): The study of sounds and pronunciation, essential for

accurate recitation and understanding of Vedic texts.
2. Kalpa (Ritual): The study of Vedic rituals and ceremonies, ensuring the proper
performance of religious rites.

3. Vyākaraṇa (Grammar): The analysis of language structure, particularly

Sanskrit, providing a foundation for linguistic understanding.

4. Nirukta (Etymology): The study of word origins and meanings, revealing deeper
insights into language and concepts.

5. Chandas (Metrics): The study of poetic metres and rhythmic patterns, essential
for composing and appreciating poetry.

6. Jyotiṣa (Astronomy and Astrology): The study of celestial bodies and their
movements, including their influence on human affairs.

7. Kāraṇa (Logic): The study of reasoning and argumentation, developing critical

thinking and debate skills.

8. Dharmaśāstra (Law): The study of moral and ethical principles, governing

social order and individual conduct.

9. Mīmāṃsā (Exegesis): The interpretation of Vedic texts, extracting deeper

meanings and resolving ambiguities.

10. Purāṇa (Mythology): The study of ancient legends and stories, conveying
cultural values and spiritual teachings.

11. Āyurveda (Medicine): The holistic system of medicine, focusing on preventive

care and natural remedies.

12. Dhanurveda (Martial Arts): The study of warfare and weaponry, emphasising
self-defence and military strategy.
13. Gandharva Veda (Music): The study of music and its therapeutic effects,
promoting harmony and well-being.

14. Arthaśāstra (Political Science): The study of statecraft and economics,

guiding governance and societal prosperity.

History of IKS

The origins of IKS can be traced back to the Vedic period (c. 1500 – 500 BCE),
with the Vedas, the earliest sacred texts of Hinduism, forming its foundation.
Over centuries, IKS evolved through oral transmission, philosophical discourses,
and written treatises.

The Upanishads, philosophical texts attached to the Vedas, explored the nature
of reality, consciousness, and the human soul. The six schools of Indian
philosophy – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta –
emerged, each offering unique perspectives on existence and knowledge.

In parallel, various branches of knowledge flourished, including Ayurveda,

Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda, and Arthashastra. These systems contributed to
the holistic understanding of human life, encompassing physical, mental, and
spiritual well-being.

Some unique aspects of IKS

IKS possesses several distinctive characteristics that set it apart from other
knowledge systems:

1. Holistic Approach: IKS emphasises the interconnectedness of all aspects of

life, viewing knowledge as an integrated whole rather than isolated disciplines.

2. Experiential Learning: IKS emphasises direct experience and observation as

primary sources of knowledge, complementing theoretical understanding.
3. Self-Realisation: IKS views knowledge as a means to self-realisation, the
ultimate goal of human existence, leading to liberation from worldly attachments
and suffering.

4. Emphasis on Harmony: IKS promotes harmony between humans and nature,

recognizing the interdependence of all living beings and the environment.

5. Spiritual Dimension: IKS acknowledges the spiritual dimension of human

existence, integrating spiritual practices and insights into its pursuit of
knowledge.

Introduction to the Vedas

The Vedas are the most ancient and revered scriptures of Hinduism, considered
the primary source of knowledge and spiritual wisdom in the Indian Knowledge
System (IKS). Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, they encompass a vast collection of
hymns, rituals, philosophical insights, and spiritual teachings. The Vedas are
believed to have been divinely revealed to sages and passed down through oral
tradition for millennia before being written down.

The Four Vedas and their divisions

The Vedic corpus is divided into four main Vedas:

1. Rig Veda: The oldest and most prominent Veda, containing over 1,000
hymns dedicated to various deities, praising their powers and seeking their
blessings.

2. Yajur Veda: Comprises sacrificial formulas and rituals, providing

instructions for conducting Vedic ceremonies and sacrifices.

3. Sama Veda: A collection of melodies and chants, derived from the Rig
Veda, designed for musical recitation during rituals.
 4. Atharva Veda: Contains spells, incantations, and remedies for healing,
protection, and prosperity, reflecting a more practical and worldly
approach.

Each Veda is further divided into four sections:

• Samhitas: The core collection of hymns, mantras, and prayers.

• Aranyakas: Texts related to rituals and symbolic sacrifices, often containing

philosophical reflections.

• Brahmanas: Commentaries on rituals and ceremonies, providing detailed

explanations and interpretations.

• Upanishads: Philosophical treatises exploring the nature of reality,

consciousness, and the human soul, forming the foundation of Vedanta
philosophy.

Vedāngas

The Vedāngas, meaning "limbs of the Vedas," are six auxiliary disciplines that
emerged to aid in the proper understanding, preservation, and transmission of
Vedic knowledge. They are:

• Śikṣā (Phonetics): The study of sounds and pronunciation, ensuring accurate

recitation of Vedic texts.

• Kalpa (Ritual): The study of Vedic rituals and ceremonies, guiding their proper
performance.

• Vyākaraṇa (Grammar): The analysis of Sanskrit grammar, providing a framework

for linguistic understanding.
• Nirukta (Etymology): The study of word origins and meanings, revealing deeper
insights into Vedic concepts.

• Chandas (Metrics): The study of poetic metres and rhythmic patterns, essential
for composing and appreciating Vedic poetry.

• Jyotiṣa (Astronomy and Astrology): The study of celestial bodies and their
movements, including their influence on human affairs.

Vedic Life

Vedic society was characterised by a strong emphasis on ritual practices, social

hierarchy, and a deep reverence for nature. The Vedas guided every aspect of
life, from daily routines to major life events. Vedic rituals were believed to
maintain cosmic order and ensure harmony between humans and the divine.

Vedic knowledge was primarily transmitted through oral tradition, with sages and
priests preserving and disseminating the sacred texts through meticulous
memorization and recitation. Education was highly valued, with gurukulas
(residential schools) providing instruction in Vedic scriptures, philosophy, and
various disciplines.

The Vedic period laid the foundation for many aspects of Indian culture, including
its spiritual traditions, philosophical inquiries, and social structures. The Vedas
continue to hold immense significance in Hinduism, providing a timeless source
of wisdom and guidance for spiritual seekers and scholars alike.

Indian Philosophical Systems

India has a rich and diverse philosophical tradition that has evolved over
millennia. Indian philosophical systems delve into profound questions about the
nature of reality, consciousness, existence, and the ultimate goal of human life.
These systems offer a variety of perspectives and methodologies for
understanding the self, the world, and the relationship between them.
Vedic Schools of Philosophy

The Vedic schools of philosophy, also known as āstika or orthodox schools, are
those that accept the authority of the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism.
These schools emerged from the philosophical inquiries found in the Upanishads,
the philosophical portions of the Vedas. The six Vedic schools of philosophy are:

1. Samkhya: A dualistic system that posits two fundamental realities:

Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter). It emphasises the
distinction between the eternal soul and the ever-changing material world.

2. Yoga: A practical philosophy that focuses on achieving liberation through

mental discipline, meditation, and physical practices. It aims to control the
mind's fluctuations and attain a state of pure consciousness.

3. Nyaya: A system of logic and epistemology that emphasises rigorous

reasoning and argumentation. It seeks to establish valid means of
knowledge and develop a coherent understanding of reality.

4. Vaisheshika: An atomistic philosophy that analyses the nature of the

physical world and its constituents. It proposes that the universe is
composed of indivisible particles and qualities.

5. Mimamsa: A hermeneutical school that focuses on the interpretation of

Vedic texts and the proper performance of rituals. It emphasises the
importance of action and duty in upholding cosmic order.

6. Vedanta: The culmination of Vedic philosophy, Vedanta explores the nature

of Brahman, the ultimate reality, and the relationship between Brahman
and the individual soul (Atman). It emphasises non-dualism and the
realisation of oneness with the divine.
Non-Vedic Philosophical Systems

Non-Vedic philosophical systems, also known as nāstika or heterodox schools,

are those that do not accept the authority of the Vedas. They developed
independently and offered alternative perspectives on reality and liberation. The
two main non-Vedic schools are:

1. Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, Buddhism

emphasises the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, leading to the
cessation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. It rejects the concept
of a permanent soul and emphasises impermanence and non-attachment.

2. Jainism: Founded by Mahavira, Jainism emphasises non-violence,

asceticism, and the liberation of the soul from karmic bondage. It adheres
to strict vegetarianism and practices of self-discipline to achieve spiritual
liberation.

Indian philosophical systems continue to be studied and debated today, offering

valuable insights into the human condition and the pursuit of knowledge and
spiritual fulfilment. They provide diverse perspectives on the nature of reality,
the path to liberation, and the relationship between the individual and the
cosmos.

Wisdom through the Ages

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) encompasses a vast repository of wisdom

that has been passed down through generations, offering guidance and insights
for navigating life's challenges and pursuing a meaningful existence. This
wisdom is embedded in various forms of literature, including the Puranas,
Itihāsas, Nitiśāstras, and Subhāssitas.
Purānas:

The Puranas are a collection of ancient texts that chronicle the history of the
universe, the genealogies of gods and kings, and the legends of great sages and
heroes. They provide a rich tapestry of mythology, philosophy, and ethical
teachings, illustrating the principles of dharma (righteous conduct), karma (cause
and effect), and the pursuit of moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth).

Itihāsa as a source of wisdom:

The Itihāsas, the great epics of India, namely the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, are not merely stories but repositories of profound wisdom. They
delve into complex moral dilemmas, explore the intricacies of human
relationships, and offer insights into the nature of good and evil, duty and
sacrifice, and the pursuit of justice and righteousness.

Rāmāyana:

The Ramayana narrates the epic journey of Prince Rama, an embodiment of

righteousness, as he faces exile, battles evil forces, and ultimately triumphs over
adversity. It teaches the importance of upholding dharma, maintaining family
honour, and adhering to moral principles even in the face of challenges.

Mahābhārata:

The Mahabharata, the longest epic poem in the world, recounts the war between
the Pandavas and the Kauravas, cousins vying for the throne. It explores themes
of duty, loyalty, and the consequences of human choices, highlighting the
complexities of human nature and the interplay of divine intervention and human
agency.

Nitiśāstras:
The Nitiśāstras, or treatises on ethics and political science, provide practical
guidance on governance, statecraft, and personal conduct. They emphasise the
importance of justice, social harmony, and the qualities of an ideal ruler, offering
timeless principles for leadership and ethical decision-making.

Subhāssitas:

Subhāssitas, or wise sayings and proverbs, encapsulate the distilled wisdom of

sages and scholars. They offer concise and memorable maxims on various
aspects of life, from personal conduct to social interactions, providing practical
advice for navigating daily life and cultivating virtuous character.

These diverse sources of wisdom within the Indian Knowledge System continue
to inspire and instruct individuals and societies, offering timeless insights into
the human condition, the pursuit of ethical living, and the path to a meaningful
and fulfilling existence. Their enduring relevance lies in their ability to address
universal human concerns and guide individuals towards personal growth and
societal harmony.

Foundational Concepts for Science and Technology: Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, encompassing its structure,

development, and relationship to human cognition and communication. It
provides a foundation for understanding how language shapes our thoughts,
interactions, and understanding of the world.

Components of Language

Language is a complex system composed of various interrelated components:

1. Phonology: The study of sounds and their patterns in a language, including how
they are produced, perceived, and organised into meaningful units.
2. Morphology: The study of word formation, examining how morphemes, the
smallest meaningful units of language, combine to create words and convey
grammatical information.

3. Syntax: The study of sentence structure, exploring how words and phrases are
arranged to form grammatically correct and meaningful sentences.

4. Semantics: The study of meaning in language, focusing on how words,

phrases, and sentences convey meaning and relate to concepts and the real
world.

5. Pragmatics: The study of language use in context, examining how speakers

and listeners interpret meaning based on social cues, intentions, and the
surrounding environment.

Pānini's Work on Sanskrit Grammar

Pāṇini, a renowned Sanskrit grammarian from ancient India (4th century BCE),
made groundbreaking contributions to the field of linguistics. His work, the
Ashtadhyayi, is considered a masterpiece of linguistic analysis and one of the
earliest examples of a formal grammar system.

Pāṇini's grammar consists of a comprehensive set of rules, or sutras, that

describe the structure of Sanskrit in a concise and elegant manner. He
introduced a sophisticated system of notation and metalanguage to represent
grammatical elements and their relationships.

Pāṇini's work had a profound impact on the development of linguistics, not only in
India but also in the West. His systematic approach to language analysis and his
insights into the structure of Sanskrit influenced later linguists and laid the
groundwork for modern linguistic theory.

Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi remains a remarkable testament to the depth of linguistic

understanding in ancient India and continues to inspire linguists and computer
scientists today. His work demonstrates the power of rigorous analysis and
formalisation in understanding the complexities of human language.

In conclusion, linguistics provides a crucial foundation for science and

technology, as it allows us to understand the intricacies of human
communication, the structure of thought, and the ways in which language shapes
our perception of the world. Pāṇini's contributions to Sanskrit grammar serve as a
testament to the rich intellectual tradition of India and the profound insights that
ancient scholars had into the nature of language.

Phonetics in Sanskrit

Sanskrit, an ancient language of India, possesses a highly structured and precise

phonetic system. It employs a set of 49 distinct sounds, categorised into vowels
and consonants. Each sound is precisely defined based on its place and manner
of articulation, making Sanskrit pronunciation highly consistent and
unambiguous.

The Sanskrit alphabet, known as the Devanagari script, visually represents these
sounds with distinct symbols. The script is well-organised and follows a logical
arrangement of sounds, facilitating accurate pronunciation and memorization.

Patterns in Sanskrit Vocabulary

Sanskrit vocabulary exhibits a remarkable level of organisation and systematic

patterns. Words are formed through a process of affixation, where prefixes,
suffixes, and infixes are added to root words to create new meanings. These
suffixes follow consistent rules and patterns, making Sanskrit vocabulary highly
structured and predictable.

The root words themselves often carry inherent meanings related to actions or
concepts. These roots can be combined with affixes to create a vast array of
words with related meanings, demonstrating the inherent logic and
interconnectedness of Sanskrit vocabulary.
Computational Concepts in Astādhyāyi

Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar, is considered a pioneering

work in computational linguistics. It introduces several computational concepts
that are remarkably similar to modern approaches in computer science.

Pāṇini's grammar employs a formal metalanguage to describe the structure of

Sanskrit. It utilises a system of rules, or sutras, that are concise, unambiguous,
and algorithmically organised. These rules can be applied recursively to generate
an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences.

Pāṇini's grammar also introduces a sophisticated system of notation to represent

grammatical elements and their relationships. This notation is akin to a
programming language, with symbols and operators that manipulate linguistic
units.

Logic for Sentence Construction

Sanskrit sentence construction follows a logical and well-defined structure. The

order of words in a sentence is crucial for conveying meaning and grammatical
relationships.

The basic sentence structure in Sanskrit typically follows a subject-object-verb

(SOV) pattern. This structure ensures clarity and precision in expressing actions
and relationships between entities.

Additionally, Sanskrit employs various grammatical markers and inflections to

indicate tense, aspect, mood, and case. These markers provide further context
and nuance to sentence construction, ensuring accurate and unambiguous
communication.

Importance of Verbs
Verbs play a central role in Sanskrit grammar and sentence construction. They
carry the core meaning of actions and express the relationships between the
subject, object, and other elements in a sentence.

Sanskrit verbs are highly inflected, meaning they undergo changes in form to
indicate tense, aspect, mood, person, and number. These inflections provide a
wealth of grammatical information and allow for precise expression of actions
and their nuances.

The rich system of verb conjugation in Sanskrit ensures clarity and precision in
communication, making it a powerful tool for conveying complex ideas and
relationships.

Role of Sanskrit in Natural Language Processing

Sanskrit's highly structured grammar, precise phonetics, and systematic

vocabulary make it an invaluable resource for Natural Language Processing
(NLP). NLP is a field of computer science that aims to enable computers to
understand and process human language.

Sanskrit's well-defined rules and patterns can be used to develop algorithms for
language analysis, machine translation, and text generation. Its rich grammatical
structure provides insights into the underlying principles of language and can
inform the development of more sophisticated NLP models.

Sanskrit's contributions to linguistics and computational concepts continue to

inspire researchers and hold the potential to advance the field of NLP, leading to
more effective and nuanced human-computer interactions.

Number System and Units of Measurement in India:

India has a rich history of mathematical and scientific advancements, including

the development of a sophisticated number system and various units of
measurement. These contributions have had a profound impact on global
knowledge and continue to influence modern-day mathematics and science.

Number System in India:

India's contributions to the development of the number system are significant.

The decimal system, with its base of ten, originated in India and was later
adopted by other civilizations. The concept of zero, a crucial innovation for
representing numbers and performing calculations, also emerged from India.

Salient Features of the Indian Numeral System:

● Place Value System: The Indian numeral system employs a place value
system, where the position of a digit determines its value. This allows for
efficient representation of large numbers and facilitates arithmetic
operations.

● Base Ten System: The system uses ten as its base, aligning with the
natural human tendency to count in groups of ten. This makes it intuitive
and easy to learn.

● Use of Zero: The incorporation of zero as a placeholder and a number in its

own right revolutionised mathematical calculations and enabled the
representation of both positive and negative numbers.

Unique Approaches to Represent Numbers:

Ancient Indian mathematicians developed unique approaches to represent

numbers, including:

● Katapayadi System: A method of representing numbers using letters of the

Sanskrit alphabet, where each letter corresponds to a specific numerical
 value.

● Bhūtasaṃkhyā System: A system for representing large numbers using

names of objects and concepts, where each object or concept is assigned
a numerical value.

● Śūnyabindu System: A notation for representing zero using a dot or bindu,

which later evolved into the modern symbol for zero.

Measurements for Time, Distance, and Weight:

India also developed various units of measurement for time, distance, and
weight, some of which are still in use today.

● Time: The traditional Indian system divides the day into 60 ghatikas, each
further divided into 60 palas. Larger units include ahoratra (day and night),
paksha (fortnight), and masa (month).

● Distance: Traditional units include angula (finger width), hasta (cubit),

yojana (a unit of distance equivalent to about 13 kilometres), and krosha (2
kroshas equal 1 yojana).

● Weight: Traditional units include ratti (seed of the gunja plant), tula (100
rattis), and pala (4 tula).

Conclusion:

India's contributions to the development of the number system and units of

measurement have had a profound impact on mathematics, science, and daily
life. The decimal system, the concept of zero, and various units of measurement
continue to be used globally, demonstrating the enduring legacy of Indian
knowledge systems.
Pingala and the Binary System

Pingala, an ancient Indian scholar, is credited with developing the first known
description of a binary system in his work Chandahśāstra, a treatise on Sanskrit
prosody. While the exact date of Pingala's work is uncertain, it is estimated to
have been composed around the 3rd or 2nd century BCE.

Pingala's binary system was primarily used to represent rhythmic patterns in

Sanskrit poetry. He devised a method of representing long and short syllables
using binary digits, or bits, with 1 representing a long syllable and 0 representing
a short syllable. This system allowed for efficient encoding and analysis of poetic
metres.

Although Pingala's work focused on prosody, his binary system laid the
foundation for modern binary representation of numbers and information. His
insights into representing data using two distinct states, 0 and 1, foreshadowed
the development of modern binary systems used in computing and digital
communication.

Knowledge: Framework and Classification

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) offers a comprehensive framework for

understanding and classifying knowledge. It emphasises the process of
acquiring knowledge, the validity of knowledge sources, and the resolution of
doubts to arrive at true understanding.

The Knowledge Triangle

The Knowledge Triangle is a central concept in IKS, representing the three

essential components of the knowledge acquisition process:

1. Prameya: The object of knowledge, the subject matter or phenomenon that

is to be known.
 2. Pramāna: The means of knowledge, the valid sources or instruments
through which knowledge is obtained.

3. Samśaya: Doubt or uncertainty, the initial state of questioning that

motivates the pursuit of knowledge.

Prameya

Prameya refers to the object of knowledge, the thing or phenomenon that is to be

known. It encompasses the vast range of subjects that can be studied and
understood, from the physical world to abstract concepts.

Pramāna

Pramāna refers to the means of knowledge, the valid sources or instruments

through which knowledge is obtained. IKS identifies six pramānas:

1. Pratyakṣa (Perception): Direct sensory experience, such as seeing,

hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling.

2. Anumāna (Inference): Deriving knowledge through logical reasoning,

drawing conclusions based on evidence and premises.

3. Upamāna (Comparison): Knowledge gained through analogy or

comparison, recognizing similarities between objects or concepts.

4. Arthāpatti (Postulation): Inferring the existence or nature of something

based on circumstantial evidence or necessity.

5. Anupalabdhi (Non-apprehension): Knowledge of the non-existence of

something based on the absence of perception or evidence.
 6. Śabda (Verbal Testimony): Knowledge acquired through reliable sources,
such as scriptures, experts, or trustworthy individuals.

Samśaya

Samśaya refers to doubt or uncertainty, the initial state of questioning that

motivates the pursuit of knowledge. It is the recognition of a gap in
understanding, a desire to resolve ambiguity and arrive at a clearer
understanding.

Framework for Establishing Valid Knowledge

IKS emphasises the importance of establishing valid knowledge, distinguishing

between true understanding and mere opinions or beliefs. The framework for
validating knowledge involves:

1. Pramāna Lakshana: Identifying the appropriate pramāna or means of

knowledge for the subject matter.

2. Pramāna Vyāpti: Establishing the validity and scope of the pramāna,

ensuring its reliability and applicability.

3. Pramāna Phala: Determining the outcome or result of applying the

pramāna, arriving at a conclusion or new understanding.

Conclusion

The Indian Knowledge System provides a comprehensive framework for

understanding and classifying knowledge. It emphasises the process of
acquiring knowledge, the validity of knowledge sources, and the resolution of
doubts to arrive at true understanding. This framework continues to be relevant
in various fields of study, providing a systematic approach to knowledge
acquisition and validation.