Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Eco-Cultural Resource Use in Diyakapilla Village
Eco-Cultural Resource Use in Diyakapilla Village
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The Sigiriya area is one of the most diverse and productive ecosystems that
provides economic, environmental and social benefits to the local
communities. The diverse habitats incorporated within this area are the
Tropical Dry-mixed Evergreen Forest type, dry grasslands, village forests,
home gardens and tank environments that harbour over 80% of the Dry Zone
vertebrate fauna -- the majority of which are considered to be nationally
threatened owing to the loss or modification of habitats; almost 60% of the
Dry Zone flora; and the invertebrate faunal group facing a direct threat from
the extensive use of agricultural pesticides and fungicides. The introduction
of national laws to protect endangered environments and cultural sites include
Sigiriya in its entirety as a designated Protected Area (PA) that yet, contains
several occupied traditional villages, including Diyakapilla and neighbouring
Kosgaha Ala. Among the designated Protected Areas are the World Heritage
Site of the Sigiriya royal palace complex and archaeological reserve; Sigiriya
wildlife sanctuary; and the Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve. Yet most of
these ecosystems continue to face the
threat of diverse increased human
activities
that
endanger
the
for
environmental
a
and
community-based
cultural
resource
community
participation
in
the
1.1
LOCATION
Diyakapilla is situated approximately 3 km east of the nearest establishment
in Sigiriya within the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary on the peripheries of the
archaeological reserve and World Heritage Site of the Sigiriya Royal complex
and the western boundary of the Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve.
Dambulla to the southwest of Diyakapilla is the nearest major town and
economic centre; and Habarana to the north as the hub, also serve as
important tourist destinations.
1.2
CLIMATE
The climate throughout the Dry Zone is largely influenced by the
convectional rainfall pattern that governs the agricultural calendar. The
principal rains are received annually from the northeast monsoon between
December and February, with brief inter-monsoonal periods from MarchApril and October-November. The mean annual temperature falls within the
range of 25o and 27o C. The wind velocity of the region increases
1.3
GEOLOGY
The area belongs to the Highland Series dating back to the Pre-cambrian
Period. The rock types distributed in the area include magmatite gneiss,
quartzite or quartz and crystalline limestone. Monoliths such as Sigiriya,
Pidurangala and Mapagala dominate the landscape and are important for their
geological formation and cultural value. The dominant types of soil prevalent
in the area are Reddish-brown Earth and Low Humic Gley soil.
1.4
WATER RESOURCES
Water is evidently the most severely deficient resource in Diyakapilla for
drinking, bathing or sustained agricultural practices. The main natural
waterways of Migolla Ala and Kuda Ulpota flow across Diyakapilla on the
southern and northern sides respectively, and fall into the village tank of
Kosgaha Ala vava or Vannigamaya vava in Kosgaha Ala further east. The
majority of inhabitants presently use selected sites these waterways for
bathing in, with some sites reserved for drinking purposes. The initiative to
develop the existing waterways for sustained benefits is, however, evidently
minimal, with the exception of one spring well upstream on Migolla Ala that
has been conserved with thoughtful consideration to cleanliness and hygiene
and is often useful in the long dry period in August and September when most
water holes in the area dry out. The remaining sites and drinking water wells
are largely neglected through a lack of concern, despite the continued need for
potable water.
The few sources of available water fit for drinking and bathing are located
along
wells are often shared by only the closest kin and neighbours, while the
remaining families depend on the few available perennial water sources in
Pihilla -- a site marked by the present construction of a causeway or in
Kosgaha Ala. As such, a well dug by the Mahaveli authorities is available for
use for the families of the owners of the compound in which it is located, and
is restricted for common
usage. Additionally, two
to three wells that are less
deep dry out during the
dry period and are thus
seasonally
used
or
neglected
over
an
indefinite period.
Fig.5. The village tank: Vannigamaya vava, also
known as Kosgaha Ala vava.
The only tube well installed in the Primary School yard is accessible to all
members of the community, except when it runs dry with an increased
demand for water, used for drinking and cooking.
The eastern sector of the village particularly lacks water owing to the
widespread dispersal of the subterranean limestone belt. A single well
contains drinking water with two more available for bathing at the lower end
of the hamlet and is shared by a number of families. A further two spring
wells are available for individual use on the south-eastern periphery. A
seasonal waterway along the route to Kosgaha Ala is also used for bathing,
while a common perennial stream is located further east in Pihilla.
1.5
VEGETATION
The most widespread vegetation type in the Dry Zone is the Tropical Drymixed Evergreen Forest ecosystem (Gunatilleke 1990; Andrews 1961;
Holmes 1956; Rosayro 1950). It has also been described as a Semi-deciduous
Forest ecosystem (Greller and Balasubramaniam 1990) and further nominated
as a Semi-evergreen Forest by Dittus (1977). The vegetation in the area
concerned is representative of the Dry Zone lowland vegetation widely
known as secondary forests. The abandonment of the great kingdoms and
tanks in the past coincides with the development of this forest type, in
addition to sustained chena practices (slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation)
in the area.
The dominant species in this forest ecosystem include Manilkara hexandra
(Palu), Drypetes sepiaria (Vira) Diospyros ebenum (Kaluvara), Chloroxylon
swietenia (Buruta), Berrya cordifolia (Halmilla), Vitex altissima (milla) and
Schleichera oleosa (Kon).
The vegetation along the waterways in moist conditions occurs with the moist
facies of the former general type. The most abundant species in this habitat
are Vitex leucoxylon (Nabada), Madhuka longifolia (Mi), Berrya cordifolia
(Halmilla) Diospyros malabarica (Timbiri), Hydnocarpus venenata (Makulu)
and Mitragyna parvifolia (Halamba) and Terminalia arjuna (Kumbuk). Since
these deciduous species are not all necessarily simultaneously leafless the
forest appears evergreen throughout the year. Species such as Manilkara
hexandra (Palu) and Diospyros ebenum (Kaluvara) are commonly evergreen
emergent, with species such as Mimusops elangi (Munamal) also occasionally
found (Rosayro 1958, Holmes 1956, Cramer (1993).
The ground vegetation in this forest ecosystem is relatively sparse and may be
observed in open areas and large forest gaps mostly induced by the felling of
trees. The undergrowth is floristically very poor and is mostly dominated by a
few grasses and annual herbs.
The Scrub Forest environment consists mainly of thorny and non-thorny
shrubs
and
scattered
few
trees.
The
Dichrostrachys
cinera
(Andara),
Ziziphus
mauritiana
(Masan),
Ziziphus
oenoplia
(Eraminiya)
and
carmera
10
1.6.1
Mammals
Of the diverse species of fauna represented in
Sigiriya,
approximately
40
species
are
11
Flying fox (Pteropus giganteus), Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica), Malabar Bandicoot
(Bandicota indica), Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum), Giant Squirrel (Ratufa
macroura), Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis), Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus), Grey
edwardsi),
Black-tipped
Mongoose
(Herpestes
smithii),
Fishing
Cat
(Prinonailurus viverrinus), Otter (Lutra lutra), Jackal (Carnis aures), Elephant (Elephas
maximus), Mouse Deer (Moschiola meminna), Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Sambhur (Cervus
unicolor), Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntijak), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Indian Pangolin
(Manis crassicaudata).
1.6.2
Birds
The Sigiriya region contains over 170 species of migrant and resident birds.
Of these, approximately 50% are considered to be nationally threatened.
Numerous types of Babblers, Bulbuls, Barbets, Flycatchers, Eagles,
Parakeets, Pigeons, Owls and Woodpeckers are common as are Kingfishers,
Egrets, Herons, Cormorants and Storks that are found in tank environments.
Migrant birds such as the Forest Wagtail, Indian Pitta, Orange-headed Ground
Thrush and Blue Rock thrushes are the most attractive species found in the
area when winter sets in the Northern Hemisphere.
12
Black-headed
Ibis
(Threskiornis
melanocephalus),
Eurasian
Spoonbill
(Platalea
(Turnix suscitator), Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis), Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis
cheela), Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill (Tockus gingalensis), Malabar Pied Hornbill
(Anthracoceros coronatus), Sri Lanka Jungle Fowl (Gallus lafayettii), Spot-bellied Eagle
Owl (Bubo nipalensis), Oriental Scops Owl (Otus sunia), Blue-faced Malkoha (Rhopodytes
viridirostris), Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Stork-billed Kingfisher (Halycon
capensis), Crimson-fronted Barbet (Megalaima rubricapilla), Coppersmith Barbet
1.6.3
Fishes
Over 45 species of freshwater fish have been recorded in the area and the
majority are tank-living species. Introduced fish food species are the most
dominant in tank environments. Numerous species of indigenous fish are found
in streams and rock pools and are less frequent in irrigated channels.
13
suratensis),
Tilapiya
(Saratherodon
mossambicus),
Bar
Eyed
Goby
1.6.4
Amphibians
Of the amphibians recorded in Sri Lanka, over 15 species are distributed in
numerous habitats in the Sigiriya area including streams, tanks, mud flats,
paddy fields, home gardens and forested areas. The forest floor and canopy
also contain numerous species demanding further taxonomic studies.
Common Toad (Bufo melanostictus), Fergusons Dwarf Toad (Bufo fergusonii), Red
Narrow-Mouthed Frog (Mycrohyla rubra), Ornate Narrow-mouthed Frog (Mycrohyla
ornata), Spotted Ramanella (Ramanella variegata), Common Bull Frog (Koloula
taprobanica), Balloon Frog (Uperodon systoma), Skipper Frog (Euphlyctis cyanophtyctis),
14
1.6.5
Reptiles
Diverse species of reptiles numbering over 75 have been recorded in the area
including Snakes, Geckos, Agamide Lizards and Skinks.
Common Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus), Sebas Bronze-back (Dendrolaphis tristis), Green
Whip Snake (Ahaetulla nasutus), Brown Speckled Whip Snake (Ahaetulla pulverulentus),
Flying Snake (Chysophelea ornata), Flying Snake (Chrysopelea taprobanica), Checkered
Keel-back (Xenochrophis asperrimus ), Buff-striped Keel-back (Amphiesma stolata), Cobra
(Naja naja), Russels Viper (Doboia russelli), Merrem's hump-nose Viper (Hypnale
hypnale), Green pit Viper (Trimeresurus trigonocephalus), Garden Lizard (Calotes
versicolor), Earless Lizard (Otocriptis wiegmanni), Spotted Gecko (Hemidactylus
maculatus),
Common
House
Gecko
1.6.6
Insects
Of the 242 species of Butterflies distributed in Sri Lanka, over 60 species
may be observed in the area. Some of them are mostly common in open
areas, while others inhabit the more dense jungle thickets. A higher number
of Butterfly species may be observed during the seasonal migrations,
particularly during March and April.
15
Common Cerulean (Jamides celeno), Red Pierrot (Talicada nyseus), Common Tiger (Danaus
chrysippus), Glassy Tiger (Danaus aglea), Tree Nymph (Idea Lynceus), Indian Crow (Euploea
Core), Great Crow, (Euploea phaenareta), Common Leopard (Phalanta phalantha), Common
Sailor (Neptis hylas), Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus), Banded Peacock (Papilio crino),
Common Mormon (Papilio polytes), Crimson Rose (Atrophaneura hector), Common Rose
(Atrophaneura aristolochiae), Common Birdwing (Troides helena), Common Emigrant
(Catospsilia crocale), Lemmon Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona), Common Jezebel (Delias
eucharis), Common Gull (Cepora nerissa), Common Grassy Yellow (Eurema hecabe), Common
2.0
METHODOLOGY
The standard methods applied in socio-anthropological and faunal and
floristic research studies were employed in carrying out the present survey.
Questionnaires designed to meet the overall objectives of the proposed project
and those of the Institute (Centre for Eco-cultural Studies/CES) serve as the
preliminary method for retrieval of the demographic data. Direct and indirect
observations and local knowledge collected through formal and informal
discussions with the local community provide specific information pertaining
to folklore, traditions and present lifeways. The available standard one inch
to one mile map published by the Survey Department of Sri Lanka was also
used for a study of the area.
3.0
16
1
2
PGIAR
At the time of its investigation by the present researcher
ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA
17
3.0
HISTORY OF DIYAKAPILLA
The site of Diyakapilla is historically known as a place of Buddhist ritual and
worship involving the water-cutting ceremony associated with the 1600 yearold history of the Sigiriya Kingdom -- a practice that is now obsolete, but
testified in name (pers. comm. A. G.3 Wijesinghe) A rock slab inscribed with
a figure of a peacock was evidently removed from the site believed to have
been a ceremonial site, by the Archaeology Department in recent years and
perhaps placed in the Museum in Kandy (pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe). The
remains of a forest monastery lying scattered in the forest surroundings
approximately 1/2 km east of the present settlement in the vicinity of Pihilla,
are among the few signs that bear testimony to past religious activities (vide
Manjusri 1988: 24 September 1988).
The recent history of the settlement documents the arrival of settlers from
Kalavava in Anuradhapura during the early 20th century as recalled by their
descendants, the extant older generation. The settlers were members of a
single family of cattle herders (Sinhala Pattikula; Enderan) whose herds had
caused considerable damage to the bund of the reservoir built in the reign of
King Dhatusena in 5th century A.D., thus leading the authorities to direct the
herders away from the tank. Tradition has it that they arrived in Sigiriya and
occupied the property safeguarded by the Archaeological Department that
again led to their ultimate shift to Diyakapilla (pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe;
pers. comm. A. G. Appurala).
Alut Gedara
ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA
18
5.0
5.1
inhabitants
as
revealed
in
the
SARCP
investigations
(vide
(Senadhiriyagama)
and
Minneriya
are
also
perceived
19
Kosgaha
Ala
and
pilgrim
Minneriya
also
route
to
continues
20
into the depths of the forest. This track though less circuitous than the main
road is frequented by wild animals -- the elephant, leopard, bear and wild boar
-- by which it is now seldom used by these and other villagers journeying to
and from Minneriya. Composed of habitations each with its own compound of
1 to 2 acre home gardens and a Primary School, Diyakapilla is fringed by
seasonal chena fields.
The most typical structures built in the 2-3 acre home gardens are a dwelling
and a small toilet located outdoors. The three original dwellings occupied by
the second generation of siblings are located at the entrance to the present
settlement and are yet in occupation. A few residents have shifted to other
settlements in the greater region in Kandalama, Galevela and Kakirava among
other areas, while one family with house and property in Diyakapilla and
Dikkanda Ala have shifted to Kibissa recently.
6.0
SUBSISTENCE
Much of the surrounding landscape has been transformed over time from
intensive subsistence activities. Combined, the varied practices have had a
direct impact on the environment now managed under the Protected Area
system that aims to curb land-use within PAs. Resulting from past human
activities, the diverse habitats in the area surrounding Diyakapilla largely
correspond with those in the area comprising Dry-mixed Evergreen Forests,
dry grasslands, abandoned chena lands that have given way to scrublands,
home gardens, tank environments and perennial waterways. The hill ranges
contain relatively undisturbed forest cover that serve as the catchment from
which several streams in the area originate. For example, Yan Oya.
The subsistence practices of the majority of inhabitants continue to influence
the forest environment. As with the older generation, a few members of the
21
6.1
Agricultural productions
6.1.1
The chena fields are mostly located in proximity to the village boundaries.
Traditional chena practices are mostly obsolete having being curbed by
wildlife conservation policies. The present fields in Diyakapilla are scattered
in isolated parts of the village peripheries that are less frequented by the law
implementing authorities; or are located in proximity to the home gardens
nearer the forest cover. The chena fields are seasonally prepared during the
22
Maha season by independent or shared family groups. A few fields have been
transformed into farmlands that are cultivated year-round. Those with wells
that have been developed have been converted into agricultural fields with the
farming of cash crops as well.
The traditionally cultivated paddy fields on the eastern peripheries of the
village in Ikiri vela is said to have been abandoned about two decades ago
resulting from an insufficient acreage to sustain the population. Most of the
present paddy fields held are located in Kosgaha Ala and to a lesser extent in
Peikkulama and Dikkanda Ala. Combined, they are all located within the
wildlife Protected Areas. These and the fields held by a single family in
Peikkulama approximately 7 km away are located within the peripheries of
the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary. The remaining fields in Dikkanda Ala some 3
km east of Kosgaha Ala are
located
within
the
irrigates
the
Fig. 9. A Tala chena field in Diyakapilla.
Further, cash crops may be grown in the fields nearer the settlement in
Kosgaha Ala during the less intensive Yala season of cultivation, depending
on the availability of water following the preceding season of cultivation.
Diverse other crops may also be grown in the fields under the Mahaveli
irrigation scheme. The grains cultivated in the seasonal chena cycle as with
the paddy and garden produce, are often sold independently and at random
when the need arises. The agricultural practices concerned are often carried
23
as
with
other
are
sometimes
neighbouring
businessman or interested
persons from outside the
village, as many of the
present inhabitants are yet
unable to bear the entire
costs involved. The initia
24
English name
Botanical name
Bada Iringu
Zeamays indentata
Aba
Mustard
Brassica sp.
Tala
Gingelly
Sesamum indicum
Kurakkan
Finger Millet
Eleusine coracana
Mung
Green Gram
Phaseolus aureus
Batu
Brinjal
Solanum surattense
Tibbatu
Tibbatu
Solanum indicum
Elabatu
Elabatu
Solanum xanthocarpum
Karavila
Bitter gourd
Mormordica charantia
Asamodagam
Asamodagam
Trachyspermum roxburghlanum
Kakiri
Cucumber
Cucumis sp.
Pipingnga
Cucumber
Cucumis sp.
Alu puhul
Ash pumpkin
Benincasa hispida
Vattakka
Pumpkin
Cucurbita sp.
Miris
Chilli
The home gardens contain a selection of plant foods for home consumption
needs and for sale of vegetables, fruits, leaves, yams and woody plants.
Seasonal cash crops cultivated in agricultural fields provide an additional
means of income. The produce is often sold to independent collectors from
outside the hamlet for a minimal set price for re-sale to established markets at
neighbouring hotels or other establishments. The majority of home gardens
contain a few selected species of crops and woody plants.
Home gardening is also greatly dependent on water. The home gardens are
considerably neglected at present owing to the scarcity of perennial water or
difficulty in accessing the water that may be available. With the availability of
ground water, a well is sometimes dug at a suitable location for home
consumption needs.
25
Sinhala name
6.2
English name
Botanical name
Pra
Guava
Psidium guajava
Pol
Coconut
Cocos nucifera
Vl dhodam
Passion fruit
Passiflora edulis
Dhehi
Lime
Citrus hystrix
Kesel
Banana
Musa sapientum
Amba
Mango
Mangifera indica
Beli
Beli
Aegle marmelos
Dhelum
Pomegranate
Punica granatum
Dhodam
Jm
Jam
Muntingia calabura
Dhivl
Wood-apple
Limonia acidissima
Gaslab
Papaya
Carica papaya
Anda
Sugar apple
Annona squamosa
Kat anda
Soursop
Annona muricata
Vli anda
Annona reticulata
Kos
Jak
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Ratakaj
Ground nut
Arachis hypogaea
26
species including bees honey (vide Fernando 2001:6). Hunting and fishing
have a long history in the area dating back to the Mesolithic culture phase of the
Stone Age. Although these practices are curbed under the Protected Area
system and the hunting of large mammals has in particular decreased in recent
years, small game hunting prevails. The Black-naped Hare, Indian Porcupine,
Mouse Deer, Gray Langur), Purple-faced Leaf Monkey, Hard-shelled
Terrapin, Soft-shelled Terrapin and the Indian Pangolin are some of the faunal
species commonly hunted for food. The Spotted Deer, Sambhur, Barking Deer
and Wild Boar are also hunted though rarely, while the Jungle Fowl and
diverse pigeons are among the birds favoured.
The present mode of hunting in the greater region is mostly with three types of
firearms. The Paturam thuvakkuva (Cartridge-firing shotgun) of which two
such licensed guns are available in Diyakapilla. The Beheth thuvakkuva
(Muzzle-loader) is the most commonly used, while the Bandina thuvakkuva
(Self-triggered gun/Trap gun) is also found among a few families. Possession
of the two latter types is illegal and offenders will be liable for prosecution if
apprehended by the authorities. These types of firearms are thus mostly used
in areas that are least visited by the officials and are often kept hidden in the
chena or paddy fields or in the forest and are only obtained when necessary.
Traps are also used mostly in the environs of the chena or paddy fields. The
types of traps used in the past are now obsolete. The common types in use are
the Deadfall (Sinhala: habaka) -- a weighted trap, Noose (Sinhala: manda),
Pitfall with pit-spear (Sinhala: boruvala), Lati thibima (snaring with sticky
sap/glue). Fishing nets are also used for snaring small animals such as the
Black-naped Hare and birds, and are laid out along the fences in the
agricultural fields.
27
Fishing is a seasonal practice engaged in during the dry period in JulyOctober when the tank water subsides and a lull follows the Yala season of
agriculture. Fishing is mostly a leisure activity sought for home consumption
needs to add flavour to the
regular diet and provides an
additional source of income to
some families who sell their
produce
locally.
The
most
while
fishhooks
are
6.3
Livestock management
Despite the communitys herding origins the efforts for livestock
management is considerably limited at present. 9 families are small-scale
herders, each with under thirty head of cattle compared with the larger, often
countless herds managed by the preceding generation (pers. comm. A. G.
Wijesinghe 2000). The influence of cattle herding in the area surrounding
Diyakapilla and Kosgaha Ala, extending into Dikkanda Ala in what is now
28
29
and are mostly reared for eggs, breeding or sale of the bird. Eggs in small
numbers are either consumed at home, sold locally and/or to traders.
6.4
Beekeeping
Beekeeping or apiculture as a commercial venture using systematic methods
of production is not common to Diyakapilla. The practice is restricted to two
or
three
families
who
technique
of
in
the
forest
the
wild
colonies
indica)
are
widespread
in
and
around
Diyakapilla.
30
6.2
NON-AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS
6.2.1
Mi oil extraction
The seeds of the Mi (Madhuka longifolia) tree are collected seasonally for
processing into oil. The oil is traditionally used for cooking and also serves as
a local remedy. The seeds collected by women and children in the dry period
prior to the Maha seasons intense agricultural season are left to dry and
stored in bags. The seeds are processed when the males who assist in the
tedious process of extracting the oil are less confined by agricultural activities
in May/June. The task is carried out outdoors and is often a communal
activity. A male often joined by the women, older children, or neighbouring
females engage in processing
the
hard-shelled
seeds.
obsolescent
replaced
by
and
are
modern
31
6.2.2
Brick-making
The only type of building material
produced in the village is brick. Brick
making commences during the dry
period and is infrequently engaged in by
a few families. Bricks are mostly
produced for home consumption needs
and/or sold locally. The fuelwood for
firing the bricks are collected from the
surroundings
for
which
selected
6.2.3
are
skilled
in
mostly
weaving
products
primarily
woven
are
for
commercially
32
7.0
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
The hamlet is one of several others in the area without an electricity supply.
The local residents are mostly reliant on kerosene oil for lighting. The
existing power lines extend only as far as Sigiriya Town, while a main power
line supplies electricity to the neighbouring tourist establishments and other
settlements. While an electricity supply to the village would provide direct
social and economic benefits -- enhance productivity and minimise the
existing human-elephant conflict rampant in the area -- the numerous attempts
made by the residents to obtain a supply have thus far been futile.
The most common mode of energy used in cooking is fuelwood. The required
supply including fallen branches or those from dead trees are collected from
the surrounding home gardens, chenas and forestlands. The dry period in
August is the most effective for storing a considerable supply for the months
ahead when the annual monsoon makes the task more difficult. Females in
particular often accompanied by one or more others engage in the practice of
collecting the required
fuelwood
for
individual
households
and
cross
often
the
the
33
8.0
VILLAGE INFRASTRUCTURE
8.1
8.2
Transport
Public transport to the village has often been minimal and is one of the
major problems faced by the Diyakapilla community. Until the latter
half of Year 2000, the Secondary School students of Sigiriya Madya
Maha Vidyalaya have had little option but to travel 5 km to school daily
on foot or by bicycle. The elephant is often encountered by the residents
and students on their way to school, and being vulnerable to attack fear
often leads them back home or to seek assistance if they are in the
vicinity of the village. The efforts of the Principal of the Primary School
and resident teachers have led to the introduction of public transport to
Diyakapilla towards the end of Year 2000, with a school bus arranged to
transport the students to and from school. Its regularity is, however,
questionable with the bus often not reporting for duty for days.
34
Public transport along the tarred tract from Sigiriya to Habarana via
Mahasengama (Illukvava) and Gallinda is, however, lacking. A bus
service presently operates only as far as Mahasengama 3.2 km north of
Sigiriya, while the remaining 5.6 km route leading to Habarana is
neglected. Habarana, Minneriya, Polonnaruva, etc. to the north-east may
thus be accessed along the operative bus route from Sigiriya-Inamaluva
or Sigiriya-Dambulla, while the jungle route to Minneriya via
Diyakapilla is also infrequently accessed.
Bicycles are the most common mode of transport and are owned by the
majority of male residents. Additionally, two motorcycles are owned by
two families are the fastest mode of travel at present. The motorcycles
serve as the main mode of transport in an emergency whether day or at
night. Women mostly travel on foot or are doubled on bicycles.
Additionally, three-wheelers may be hired from Sigiriya Town.
8.3
35
8.4
Education
Secondary Schooling
There are no existing facilities for secondary school education in
Diyakapilla. The secondary school students are thus required to travel
approximately 5 km to the Sigiriya Madya Maha Vidyalaya on foot,
bicycle or the recently introduced, but irregular school bus service
situated beyond the main Sigiriya town on the Dambulla-Sigiriya route.
Education at a higher level than the Ordinary level examination has
often been lacking, with the exception of perhaps one or two of its
residents in the past (pers. comm. A.G. Gunadasa 2001).
8.5
Retail Stores
Diyakapilla does not have a retail store that sells even the basic
commodities. The only small store operating at present sells only
kerosene, sugar and a type of local cigarette beedi that is also sold
by one of the village elders at his house. All other requirements have to
be purchased at the nearest store in Sigiriya town or at the Sunday Fair
in Dambulla. Two stores that were previously in operation are
inoperative at present as they were evidently ineffectively managed,
with the goods taken for home consumption needs.
36
8.6
9.0
37
38
39
Chena fields
Grazing lands
Paddy fields
Habitations
Mining and gravel extraction
Timber/hardwood species
Hunting, trapping
Gathering:
- Bees honey
40
10.0
LOCAL-LEVEL DECISION-MAKING
Decisions concerning most village activities and the welfare of the
community are usually taken upon the advice or influence of the
Primary School Principal, resident teachers or the Grama Niladhari
(local State representatives). Additionally, the influence of the
Divisional Secretariat, the District Officer of the Agricultural
Department and the Department of the Wildlife Conservation
(DWLC) are essential in influencing the decisions made at the local
level, with concern to State legislation.
The centralised decision of a family, elder or nuclear family are
often respected and mostly adhered to. A higher level of respect for
elders is particularly common among the present generation and to
some extent, by the younger generation with respect to traditions.
The local Buddhist monks as well as the Animitirala of the village
shrine also influence certain decisions.
11.0
REPRESENTATION
OF
LOCAL
SOCIETIES
AND
COMMUNITY ORGANISATIONS
11.1
41
11.3
42
11.4
Samurdhi Group
The Samurdhi group was established with the direction and
influence of the Government Samurdhi aid programme for the
beneficiaries of the village. Its main objective is to maintain unity
among its recipients and to enhance collective decision-making and
the well-being of the community members.
11.5
12.0
43
13.0
44
14.0
ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS
Sanctuary,
the
Sigiriya
World
Heritage
Site
and
14.1
14.2
Garbage disposal:
The unauthorized disposal of garbage including non-biodegradable
plastic in secluded areas of the designated Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary
in proximity to Diyakapilla village has been a common practice of the
established tourist hotels. The effects of the illegal dumping grounds
have produced breeding grounds for the mosquito and led to increased
health hazards, while creating artificial feeding grounds for the wild
elephant population and intensifying the human-elephant conflict in
the area.
45
14.3
14.4
and
archaeological value
through
extreme
its
famous
46
14.5
Extraction of Gravel
The excavation of gravel pits for the construction of roads is another
matter that requires immediate attention. A vast acreage of the
wildlife sanctuary has already been cleared of forest for the
expansion of extensive roadways at the cost of the unique forest
habitat vital to the Dry Zone fauna and flora, that provide alternative
means of support to the forest-dwelling people. These gravel pits
have now developed into regular unauthorized refuse dumping
grounds for the tourist hotels and also serve as breeding grounds for
mosquitoes, thus leading to increased health hazards.
14.6.
Gemming
Non-residents with the support of some local residents have used
selected sites within the periphery of the wildlife sanctuary in the
vicinity of Diyakapilla, for the illegal mining of gems. The evidence
for gemming is corroborated by the considerably sized pits scattered in
the area.
47
14.7 Poaching
Wild game hunting -- now deemed poaching -- is still a continued
practice among a segment of this forest dwellers. Agriculture as the
economic mainstay is supplemented with hunting that brings better
and quicker returns. The wild game species mostly pursued is the
Sambhur Sri Lankas largest species of deer the spotted deer and
wild boar, for their meat. The demand is mostly from the
middleman/traders operating in Sigiriya, Kibissa, Ilukvava and
Pidurangala. The game flesh is usually transported via a jungle route;
or by main road during the early hourse of the day or in the late
evenings to avoid confrontation with the DWLC or Polive, being the
relevant authorities concerned. Prohibited by law, the offence is
punishable by a term in jail or fine, if apprehended.
14.8.
the
water
resources
also
frequented by the
wild
during
elephant
the
dry
to
both
and
Fig. 18. A victim of the prevailing conflict.
ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA
48
14.9.
of
valued
15.0
49
well as a local associate from Diyakapilla who only serves as the porter or
helper and receives a service tip of approximately Rs. 150 or 200/=, in
addition to a picnic lunch for the effort or service provided. The tour
comprises a visit to the home of the local associate and/or a scenic tour of
the forest hamlet leading to the village tank further east in Kosgaha la.
The first tour entails a visit to a village dwelling usually that of the local
associate to display methods and uses of traditional lithic and other
implements common to a village setting -- the grinding stone (Sinhala:
miris gala), the quern for grinding kurakkhan), the wooden pestle and
mortar for pounding, displayed by the spouse and or uninvited guests or
neighbours. If time permits, the tour group is accompanied on a nature
hike to the old hamlet of Kosgaha la. A picnic lunch organised by the
hotel is set on the tank bund -- a place of scenic beauty with the presence
of aquatic and other wildlife --overlooking the agricultural fields.
Systematic
organisation of
such
ought
visits
to
be
encouraged for
the benefit of
the
tourists
who wish to
experience the
Fig. 20. Tourists visiting the Diyakapilla Primary School.
culture and environmental setting of a forest hamlet of this nature and its
ecological aspects, as well as the local community. Visits that are not prearranged often do not adhere to the local custom of remaining at the
entrance of the compound (Sinhala: kadulla) until permission for entry is
granted by the householder. Instead, the tendency is for the visiting tour
50
guide and tourists to enter the compound without prior permission from a
householder. These and the pre-arranged visits detailed above also result
in havoc, with the compound often filled to capacity with the presence of
uninvited neighbours who habitually commandeer the setting as well as
the householders and create an aura of unpleasantness contrary to
accustomed traditional lifeways. The householders concerned are usually
unable to prevent these unwelcome visits and are accustomed to accepting
them with submissiveness. A further problem encountered is the
harassment of tourists by a few village children opt to stay away from
school with the arrival of the visiting tour groups with the knowledge of
their parents, mostly encouraged by small handouts.
16.0
DISCUSSION
The uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources in the area has
intensified in recent years with the expansion of human settlements and a
corresponding increase in requirements. For example, large-scale
development projects and chemical-using agricultural practices, shorter
periods of fallow in chena cultivation, the illegal extraction of valued
timber species and unsystematic use of natural habitats for commercial
purposes are some visible changes (vide Jasinghe et al. 1999). Chena
practices and/or paddy cultivation as the principal means of support have
potential to develop for obtaining maximum profits. Present-day
restrictions on traditional chena practices are a recurrent problem owing to
the location of the chena lands within the wildlife Protected Area system,
causing considerable damage to the existing vegetation cover.
Consideration of the fundamental requirements of local/regional/global
bio-diversity conservation aims to ensure the protection and maintenance
51
52
53
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
54
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Myrdal-Runebjer, Eva. 1994. Premodern Sigirya Region an Ethnoarchaeological perspective. In S. Bandaranayake and M. Mogren (Eds.).
Further Studies in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla
Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). Pp. 241262.
14.
55
56
17.0
RECOMMENDATIONS
57
58
The majority of CES members are presently involved in various consultancy and
research-oriented activities for Government and Non-governmental concerns as well
as universities.
Objectives