Base metal

alloys

Presented by
Harsha vardhan k.v
Dept of Prosthodontics
SVSIDS

Contents
Introduction
History
Review of literature
Classification
Desirable properties of base metals
Composition of base metals
Important alloys
Casting proceedures
Guidelines for Clinical selection of alloys
Conclusion
References

Introduction

Base metala metal that readily oxidises or dissolves to release ions

Alloyis a metal containing two (or ) more elements, at least one of which is a metal and
all of which are mutually soluble in Molten State

The twentieth century generated substantially new changes to dental Alloys

The major factors that are driving new developments are
Economy.
Performance.
Aesthetics.

A brief description of the evolution base metal alloys is appropriate to understand the rationale
for the development of such wide varieties.

History
700BC Etuscans and Egyptians made gold wires

Fig-1 1907 The Lost-Wax technique was introduced by William H.Taggart

It led to the casting of inlays, onlays, crowns, fixed partial dentures.

1933 Cobalt-Chromium Partial Denture Alloys

Base metal removable partial denture alloys were introduced in the1930s. Since that time both
nickel-chromium and cobalt-chromium formulations have become increasingly popular
compared with conventional type IV gold alloys which previously were the predominant metals
used for such prostheses. The obvious advantages of the base metal alloys are their lighter weight
greater stiffness(elastic modulus). By 1978 the price of gold was increasing so rapidly that
attention was focused on the noble metal alloys to reduce the noble metal content yet retain the
advantages of the noble metals for dental use.
1959 Porcelain-Fused-to-Metal Process

In the late 1950s, a breakthrough occurred in dental technology that was to influence
significantly the fabrication of dental restorations. This was the successful veneering of a metal
substructure with dental porcelain. Requirement was felt for dental alloys which could bond to
porcelain and had high melting range. Until that time, dental porcelain had a markedly lower
coefficient of thermal expansion than did gold alloys. This thermal mismatch often led to
cracking of the porcelain which made it impossible to attain a bond between the two structural
components. It was found that adding both platinum and palladium to gold lowered the
coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction of the alloy sufficiently to ensure physical
compatibility between the porcelain veneer and the meal substructure. Weinstein et al.
demonstrated that both the fusion temperature of palladium-based and gold-based alloys and the
thermal expansion of the porcelains could be modified to produce thermally compatible metalceramic prostheses. The melting range of metal-ceramic alloys must be sufficiently high to
permit firing of the porcelain onto the gold-based alloys without deforming the metal
substructure.
1971 Gold Standard In 1971 US withdrew the gold standard and Gold then became a
commodity freely traded on the open markets.
deregulation of gold prices ----the price of gold increased years.
Hence in some alloys, gold was replaced with palladium. In other alloys, palladium eliminated
gold entirely.
This also lead to the progressive increase in the usage of non precious metals. The obvious
advantages of the base metal alloys are their lighter weight greater stiffness(elastic modulus)
Background on Cold Working
The temperature at which the deformation takes place is an important determinant of the final
properties. If the temperature is relatively low with respect to the melting point of the material (less
than 0.3 of the melting point), the deformation process is termed "cold working". A material that is
plastically deformed at temperatures above 0.6 of the melting point is said to be hot worked. There
are significant differences between the effects of cold and hot working on the properties and
structure of materials.

While cold-working a metal will tend to increase its strength, other properties such as ductility or
corrosion resistance may be negatively affected. Therefore, to remove internal stresses of cold work,
it is sometimes desirable to heat treat the metal after cold working. If this heat treatment, or
annealing, is conducted at a sufficiently high temperature, a reduction of the stress necessary to
further deform the material may be achieved as recrystallization occurs. This experiment introduces
us to the relationship between cold work and recrystallization processes and their associated
properties.
During cold-working, it may take a considerable amount of energy to affect the change in size and
shape. Some of the energy expended will appear in the form of heat. A considerable amount of the
energy will also be stored in the material. This stored energy is associated with the defects created
during the deformation. The free energy of the worked metal will be increased by approximately the
amount represented by the stored energy.
The most important result of cold working, which accompanies this increase in the number of
defects, is strain hardening. Strain hardening is the increase in the yield stress of the metal after it
has been deformed. This makes it more difficult to further deform the material. The increase in
yield stress comes from the fact that deformation results in a higher density of dislocations. The
strain fields around the dislocations most often repel one another, limiting dislocation movement.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
P.J Brockhurst and R.W.S Canon in 1981 examined the requirements of alloys for metalceramic crowns and bridgework and discussed the functional requirements and manipulative
behavior as well as cost of alternatives to high gold alloys.
They concluded that base metal alloys functioned satisfactorily as compared to high noble
alloys provided proper dental lab procedures were employed. Nickel and beryllium did not
appear to be health hazards for them.
J. Robert Kelly and Thomas C.Rose in 1983 discussed the various physical properties,
biocompatibility, porcelain bonding and corrosion resistance of various non precious alloys and
concluded that though the manipulation of non precious alloys is technique sensitive and
exacting, their better physical properties and clinical performance merited consideration.

They were of the opinion that beryllium was not a health hazard provided
proper exhaust and ventilation was used in the dental lab and that the allergenic
potential of nickel needed further research.
M. Bagby, S.J Marshall and G.W Marshall in 1990 reviewed the literature
on metal ceramic bio compatibility. They discussed the various tests to predict
thermo mechanical compatibility and also for measuring compatibility at the
metal ceramic interface.
Russel R. Wang and Aaron Fenton in 1996 reviewed the literature on
Titanium for prosthodontic applications. They described the development and
properties of titanium for the purpose of evaluating the present status and
future trends in its use.
Selcuk Oruc and Ybrahim Tulunoglu in 2000 evaluated the marginal and inner fit of metal
ceramic restorations and frameworks made with a Nickel-Chromium alloy (Remanium CS) and
a commercially pure Titanium (Rematitan).

They concluded that the fit of base metal alloy metal ceramic crowns was better than the
commercially pure Titanium metal ceramic crowns.

However both the artificial crowns were clinically acceptable.

John C. Wataha in 2002 discussed the properties that are relevant to proper selection of an
alloy for a given clinical problem.
He summarized the various alloys available till date and their classification and also provided
simple guidelines to help dentists choose appropriate alloys for their practices .
Classification
In 1984 ADA proposed simple classification for dental casting alloys. Three categories, are
described; High Noble (HN) Noble (N) and Predominantly base metal ( PB).
The ADA has adopted symbols for each of these classes
High Noble Metal (HN) -Contains 40 WT % Au, 60 WT % of the noble metal
of alloys to aid the practitioner in knowing to which
elements ( Au + Ir + Pt + Rh+Ru)
Noble
Metal
Contains 25 WT% of noble metal elements
category
a given
alloy (N)belongs
Predominantly Base Metal (PB)-Contains 25WT% of Noble metal Elements.

In 1927, the Bureau of standards established gold Casting alloy types I through 4 according to
composition,
Based on 1989 revision of specification No - 5 by the ADA, the four alloy types are classified by
their physical properties & not by their compositions
Type I - (Low strength) -

small inlays, easily burnished & subject to very slight stress. The

minimum yield strength(YS) is 80mpa and minimum percent elongation(PE) is 18%

Type 2- (medium strength) castings subjected to moderate stress, including 3/4 crowns,
abutments, pontics, & full crowns.YS-180mpa and PE-10%
Type 3 -( high strength) - castings subjected to high stress, including onlays, copings,
abutments, pontics, full crowns, & short span fpd's.
YS-270mpa PE-5%
Type 4- (extra high strength) - castings subjected to high stresses, including denture base bars
& clasps, long span fpd's endodontic posts & cones, thin veneer crowns & rpds. YS 360mpa PE3%
Classification of Alloys for all FULL Metal restorations, Metal - ceramic restoration and
partial dentures:-

It divided all the availible metals into three major catagories..

Highnoble alloys
Noble alloys and
Predominantly base metal alloys
Metal type

Highnoble alloys

All metal

Metal ceramic

Partial denture

prosthesis

prosthesis

frameworks

Au-Ag-Pd

Pure AU

Au-Ag-Pd-Cu

Au-Ag-Pd-Cu

Au- Pt-Pd(5-

Metal Ceramic

12%wt AG)

Alloys

Au-Pd-Ag(more
than 12%)
Au- Pd. ( No Ag)

Noble alloys

Predominantly base metal

Ag-Pd-Au-Cu

Pd- Au

Ag-Pd

Pd-Au-Ag

Metal Ceramic

Pd-Ag

alloys

Pd-Cu-ga

Ti - Al - V

Pd-Ga-Ag
Pure Ti

Ti - Al - V

Pure Ti

Ti - Al - V

Ni-Cr-Mo-Be

Ni - Cr - Mo- Be

Ni-Cr-Mo-Be

Ni-Cr-Mo

Co-Cr-Mo

Ni-Cr-Mo

Co-Cr-Mo

Co-Cr-W

Co-Cr-Mo

Co-Cr-W

Co-Cr-W

Emphasising on predominantly base metal alloys say that

------------------

J.C. Wataha, R.L. Messer / Dent Clin N Am 48 (2004) 499512

Alloy

Solidus-

type

liquidus

Color

Phase

Elastic

Vickers

Yield strength

structure

modulus

hardness

(tension,

(static, GPa

(kg/mm2)

0.2%, MPa)

(C)
Ni-Cr-

11601270

White

Multiple

192

350

325

Ni-Cr

13301390

White

Multiple

159

350

310

Ni-

12501310

White

Multiple

205

205

180

12151300

White

Multiple

155

155

390

Be

high-Cr
Co-Cr

The first three groups are closely related in composition and many physical properties but
are fundamentally different in their corrosion properties.
These alloys may be manufactured with or without trace amounts (0.1 wt %) of carbon.
When used for cast restorations, these alloys generally do not contain carbon.
However, when used for partial denture frameworks carbon is generally added
carbon is a potent enhancer of yield strength and hardness (but not modulus)
Metal

An element whose atomic structure readily loses electrons to form positively charged
ions, and which exhibits metallic bonding (through a spatial extension of valence
electrons), opacity, good light reflectance from a polished surface and high electrical and
thermal conductivity.
Grain
A microscopic single crystal in the microstructure of a metallic material
When a molten alloy cools to the solid state, crystals form around tiny nuclei. As the temperature
drops, these crystals grow until the crystal boundaries meet each other in the solid state. At this
point each crystals called a grain and the boundaries between crystal are grain boundaries. Small
grains have been found to improve the elongation and tensile strength of cast gold alloys. In
general a grain size of 30 micron or less has been reported to be desirable in dental alloys. Grain
size vary from10 to 1000micron. Under normal conditions, the grain structure of alloys is not
visible and special acid etching and magnification are generally necessary to view grains.
Phase structure
Alloys can either be single phase or multiple phase. Single phase alloys have essentially the same
composition throughout whereas multiple phase alloys have areas of composition that differ by
microstructural location. Whether an alloy is single or multiple phase is dependent on the
solubility of the alloy elements. If all elements are completely mutually soluble in solid state
(eg Au, Pd, Cu) then the alloy will be single phase. If some elements are not soluble in one
another (eg Au Pt) then alloy may be multiple phase. Phase structure affects the corrosion,
strength and etching characteristics of alloys. In general multiple phase alloys are prone to higher
corrosion rates than single phase alloys because of galvanic effects between the microscopic
areas of different compositions
Desirable properties

Biocompatibility.

The material must tolerate oral fluids and not release am harmful products into the oral
environment
Beryllium ---potentially toxic---hazardous
Nickel---allergenic potential

An Investigation of the Cytotoxic Effects of Dental Casting Alloys Ahmad S. Al-Hiyasat

et.al Int J Prosthodont 2003;16:812
Material and method
Ten specimen of each high-noble alloy (Bioherador N) andsix commercially available base-metal
alloys, including
four Ni-Cr alloys (Remanium CS,Heranium NA, Wiron 99, CB Soft),one Co-Cr alloy (Wirobond
C), and one Cu-based alloy (Thermobond) placed in 24-well tissue culture plates together
with a suspension containing Balb/C 3T3 fibroblasts (5 105 cells/mL). After 3 days of
incubation at 37C, cell viability was determined
Conclusion of the study
The cytotoxicity of casting alloys tested in this study was markedly affected by their
composition. Differences were found in the cytotoxicity of alloys classified within the same
category.
The presence of Cu in the composition of the alloy adversely affected cell viability.

Corrosion Resistance.

Corrosion is the physical dissolution of a material in an environment. Corrosion resistance is

derived from the material components being either too noble to react in the oral environment
(e.g., gold and palladium) or by the ability of one or more of the metallic elements to form an
adherent passivating surface film, which inhibits any subsurface reaction (e.g., chromium in NiCr and Co-Cr alloys and titanium in commercially pure titanium [CP Ti) and in Ti-6AI-4V alloy).

Tarnish Resistance.

Tarnish is a thin film of a surface deposit or an interaction layer that is adherent to the metal
surface. These films are generally found on gold alloys with relatively high silver content or on
silver alloys
Metals are generally more susceptible to such attacks because of electrochemical reactions.
Corrosion resistance is derived either by the component being too noble to react in the oral
environment(E.g.: gold, palladium) or by its ability to form an adherent passivating surface film

which inhibits any subsurface reactions( E.g.: Co-Cr, Ni-Cr and Co-Cr alloys and Ti alloys in CP
Ti and in Ti-6Al-4V alloys).

Allergenic Components in Casting Alloys.

The concern for allergicreactions to dental materials gained momentum in the 1980s. Although
Presence of chromium --corrosion resistance some broad-based claims have been
unsubstantiated, the subject is important from materials science and legal standpoints. Obviously,
a restorative material should not cause adverse health consequences to a patient. Toxic materials
are eliminated by regulation and sound business practices. Allergic reactions, however, are
peculiar to the individual patient, and the practicing dentist has an obligation, morally and
legally, to minimize this risk. The patient's "right-to-know" extends to having some knowledge of
what is being placed into their bodies. Laws in some states are explicit in this respect. It is wise
for the dentist to maintain a record of the material used for each restoration or prosthesis, as well
as an understanding of any known allergies stated by the patient
Be` concerntration for dental alloys rarely exceeds 2% by weight
However Studies have shown that the parameter to evaluate its toxicity is the atomic
concerntration rather than weight %
Acc. To OSHA(occupational health and safety administration) exposure to `Be` should be
limited to 2g/cu.mm and that of Ni is 15g/cu.mm
MOFFA et.al 1973 advocated the use of proper exhaust and ventilation

Aesthetics.

Considerable controversy exists over the optimal balance among the properties of aesthetics, fit,
abrasive potential, clinical survivability, and cost of cast metal prostheses compared with directfilling restorations, ceramic-based prostheses (all-ceramic and metal-ceramic), and resinveneered prostheses

Considerable controversy exists over esthetics with regards to base metal alloys

Studies showed that base metal alloys form dark oxide layer which is un esthetic

Also cause blue or gray discoloration of subgingiva unlike noble metals

Thermal Properties.

For metal-ceramic restorations, the alloys or metals must have closely matching thermal
expansion to be compatible with a given porcelain, and they must tolerate high processing
temperatures
Compensation for Solidification
. To achieve accurately fitting cast inlays, onlays, crowns and more complex frameworks of
prostheses, compensation for casting shrinkage from the solidus temperature to room
temperature must be achieved either through computer-generated oversized dies or through
controlled mold expansion. In addition, the fit of a cemented prosthesis must be tailored to
accommodate the layers
of bonding adhesive (if used) and the luting cement
High melting range-high shrinkage
Casting shrinkage= thermal shrinkage + solidification shrinkage
Compensation for casting shrinkage must be achieved by oversized dies or through
controlled mold expansion.

CASTABILITY:

To achieve accurate details in a cast framework or prosthesis, the molten metal must be able
to wet the investment mold material very well (demonstrated by a sufficiently low contact
angle) and flow into the most intricate regions of the mold without any appreciable
interaction with the investment and without forming porosity within the surface or subsurface
regions. The castability of some base metals is extremely challenging in this regard, because
these alloys tend to readily form oxides or interact chemically with the mold wall during the
casting process. In addition, these cast alloys tend to be more difficult to separate from the
casting investment after cooling to room temperature
The molten metal must be able to wet the investment mold material very well (decreased contact
angle) and flow into the most intricate regions of the mold without any appreciable interaction
with the investment and without forming porosity..
WHITLOCK et.al1985 measured % castability values of 14 metal ceramic alloys Of
which

4Ni-Cr-Be
7Ni based alloys without Be
3gold based
Results were
with Be was 43-92%
Without Be was 10-67%

Finishing of Cast Metal.

Cutting, grinding, finishing, and polishing of some metals is quite demanding, and extra time is
required to produce a satisfactory surface finish. Hardness, ductility (percent elongation),and
ultimate strength are important properties in this regard. The hardness of an alloy is a good
primary indicator of cutting and grinding difficulty, and this property varies widely among the
current casting metals. For example, Co-Cr and Ni-Cr alloys are quite hard compared with other
metals, as seen in the following listing of Vickers hardness numbers: Co-Cr, 450 to 650; Ni-Cr,
330 to 400; Ti-6A1-4V, 320; tooth enamel, 300 to 400;

Porcelain Bonding.

To achieve a sound chemical bond to ceramic veneering materials, a substrate metal must be able
to form a thin, adherent oxide, preferably one that is light in color so that it does not interfere
with the aesthetic potential of the ceramic. The metal must have a thermal expansion/contraction
coefficient that is closely matched to that of the porcelain. Stresses that develop in the ceramic
adjacent to the metal/ceramic interface can enhance the fracture resistance of a metal-ceramic
prosthesis (if the stresses are predominantly compressive in nature), or they can increase the
susceptibility to crack formation (if they are predominantly tensile in nature

Economic Considerations.

The cost of metals used for single-unit prostheses or as frameworks for fixed or removable
partial dentures is a function of the metal density and the cost per unit mass. For example,
compared with a palladium alloy having a density of 11g/cm3, a gold alloy with a density of 18
g/cm

3 will cost 164% (18/11 x100) more for the same volume and unit cost of metal.
Composition of base metals
CHROMIUM:

Chromium content is responsible for the tarnish resistance and stainless properties of
these alloys.

When the chromium of an alloy is over 29% the alloy is more difficult to cast because

It forms a brittle phase known as the sigma phase.

Passivation12% of chromium

COBALT AND NICKEL:

They are some what interchangeable to a certain extent.

Cobalt increases the elastic modulus, strength and hardness of the alloy more than nickel
does. Nickel may increase ductility.

CARBON CONTENT;

The hardness of cobalt based alloys is increased by the increased content of carbon.

Reduces ductility

A change in the carbon content in the order of 0.2 % in these alloys changes their
properties to such an extent that the alloy would no longer be usable in dentistry
MOLYBDENUM:

The presence of 3-6% molybdenum contributes to the strength of the alloy.

decreases the thermal expansion coefficient

ALUMINIUM:
Al in Ni containing alloys forms a compound of Nickel and Aluminium (Ni3-Al).This
compound increases the ultimate tensile and yield strength.
BERYLLIUM:

1 % of this element to Nickel based alloys reduces the fusion range of the alloy by about
100 degree Celsius.

It also aids in solid solution hardening.

It improves the casting characteristics which possibly aid in porcelain bonding

SILICON AND MANGANESE:

These are added to increase the castability of base metal alloys.

They primarily prevent oxidation of other elements during melting.
When the nitrogen content of the final alloy is more than 0.1 % the castings loose some
of their ductility
NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
Most Ni - Cr alloys for crowns & FPDs contains
61 - 81% Ni,
11 - 27 % Cr and
2- 5% Mo.
By 1981, the percentage of laboratories using these base metal alloys increased to 70%, because
of the unstable price of noble metals during this period. The Ni-Cr-Be alloys have retained their
popularity despite the potential toxicity of beryllium and the allergenic potential
of nickel. In some regional areas, an increase in the use of palladium alloys has been observed.
This section has been prepared to provide a critical assessment of the risks and benefits of base
metal alloys when compared with gold-based or palladium based alloys for metal-ceramic
prostheses. One might inquire why the Ni-Cr and Ni-Cr-Be alloys retain their popularity despite
the known toxicity of beryllium as well as the allergenic potential of nickel, are examples of
potential nickel allergies on the hand of an individual who has had frequent exposure to nickel
metal. There are several reasons for the use of nickel-chromium alloys in dentistry. Nickel is
combined with chromium to form a highly corrosion resistant alloy.
2. Ni-Cr alloys became popular in the early 1980s as low cost metals ($2 to $3 per conventional
avoirdupois ounce) when the price of gold rose to more than $500 per troy ounce. Because
metal-ceramic restorations made with Ni-Cr-Be alloys have exhibited high success rates from the
mid-1980s to the present, many dentists have continued to use these alloys.

3. Alloys such as Ticonium 100 have been used in removable partial denture frameworks for
many years with few reports of allergic reactions. However, it is believed that palatal epithelium
may be more resistant to allergic reactions (contact dermatitis) than gingival sulcular
epithelium.
4. The Ni-Cr and Ni-Cr-Be alloys are relatively inexpensive compared with high noble or noble
alloys. The price
of nickel-based alloys is stable, unlike the price of palladium-based alloys.
5. Although beryllium is a toxic metal, dentists and patients should not be affected because the
main risk occurs primarily in the vapor form, which is a concern for technicians who melt and
cast large quantities of Ni-Cr-Be alloys without adequate ventilation or fume hoods in the
melting area.
6. Nickel alloys have excellent mechanical properties, such as high elastic modulus (stiffness),
high hardness, and a reasonably high elongation (ductility).Since the development of cobaltchromium alloys for cast dental appliances in 1928 and the subsequent introduction of nickelchromium and nickel-cobalt-chromium alloys in later years, base metal alloys have demonstrated
widespread acceptance in the United States as the predominant choice for the fabrication of
removable partial denture frame works. Compared with Type IV gold alloys, cobalt-based alloys
and nickel-based alloys feature lower cost, lower density, higher modulus of elasticity, higher
hardness, and comparable clinical resistance to tarnish and corrosion. However, a comparison
between nickel-based alloys and noble metal alloys designed for metal-ceramic crowns and fixed
partial dentures (FPD) is more complex. Relatively small compositional differences or certain
base metal additions such as beryllium, silicon, boron, and aluminum produce significant
changes in base metal alloy microstructures and properties, which could affect the bond strength
of ceramics to the metal oxide layer that is required to achieve chemical bonding. The majority
of nickel-chromium alloys for crowns and FPD prostheses contain 61 wt% to 81 wt% nickel, 11
wt% to 27 wt% chromium and 2wt% to 4 wt% molybdenum. These alloys may also contain one
or more of the following elements: aluminum, beryllium, boron, carbon, cobalt, copper, cerium,
gallium, iron, manganese, niobium, silicon, tin, titanium, and zirconium. The cobalt-chromium
alloys typically contain53 wt% to 67 wt% cobalt, 25 wt% to 32 wt% chromium, and 2 wt% to
6wt% molybdenum, which could affect the metal-ceramic bond strength
Vitallium(Co-Cr-Mo)

1939 Dr.Strock placed vitallium screws into human bone and called them `venable screws`
As it resulted in formation of bone around metallic implant
Though they failed
There are several reasons for the use of nickel chromium and/or cobalt chromium alloys in
dentistry

These alloys are highly corrosion resistant as they are combined with Chromium

Cost effectiveness

Alloys such as Ticonium 100(Ni-Cr) have been used in removable partial denture
frameworks for many years with few reports of allergic reactions.

these alloys have excellent mechanical properties such as high elastic modulus, high
hardness, high sag resistance and a reasonably high elongation (ductility)

Lower density
Because of higher modulus ,in metal ceramic prosthesis it is considered that a coping thickness
can be reduced to 0.1mm and also the thickness of connector to as much as half

but
Jones et.al connector thickness should not be reduced morethan 16%
and reduction of coping thickness should not be done to 0.1mm
Contrary to jones findings, finite element analysis studies proved that 0.1mm thick coping is
acceptible and has slight effect
On the other hand it is also important the realize the limitations of these alloys,

These alloys are more difficult to cast and presolder

The ability to obtain acceptable fitting castings may require special procedures to
adequately compensate for the higher solidification shrinkage

Potential for porcelain delamination as a result of separation of poorly adherent oxide

layer

from the metal substrate.

Finishing and polishing require special procedures and is not easy either in the lab or at
chair side.

Removal of defective restorations may take time.

Repair of crowns with fractured porcelain veneers which may be simply performed on
noble metal substrates using pin-retained facings or metal ceramic onlays, is more
difficult to accomplish in base metal frameworks.

Few other important base metal alloys are

18-8 austinite

form of stainless steel

18%cr and 8%ni

orthodontic wires

Elgiloy

titanium/ TMA- titanium-molybdenum-aluminium

Nitinol (nickel titanium Naval Ordnance Laborator)
developed by Buehler
This alloy system exhibits shape memory effect (SME) and super-elasticity,
giving it a unusual set of mechanical properties

Co-Cr-Ni

Titanium and Titanium Alloys

The use of commercially pure titanium (CP Ti) and titanium alloys increased significantly over
the last two decades of the twentieth century. These metals can be used for all-metal and metalceramic prostheses, as well as for implants and removable partial denture frame works. Titanium
is considered the most biocompatible metal used for dental prostheses. Because of the unique
properties of titanium, and especially its biocompatibility, it does not fall within the classification
of base metals. It is worthy of a separate class of metals. According to the American Society for
Testing and Materials(ASTM), there are five unalloyed grades of CP Ti (Grades 1-4, and Grade
7), based on the concentration of oxygen (0.18 wt% to 0.40 wt%) and iron (0.2 wt% to 0.5 wt%).
Other impurities include nitrogen (0.03 wt% to 0.05 wt%), carbon (0.1 wt%), and hydrogen
(0.015 wt%).Grade 1 CP Ti is the purest and softest form. It has a moderately high tensile
strength (Grade 1 CP Ti, 240 MPa; Grade 4 CP Ti, 515 MPa),moderately high stiffness (elastic
modulus, 117 GPa), low density(4.51 g/cm3
), and low thermal expansion coefficient (9.4 x10-6/C). The elastic modulus of CP Ti is
comparable to that of tooth enamel and noble alloys, but it is lower than that of other base
metals. CP Tiis very resistant to tarnish and corrosion. The corrosion protection is derived from
a thin (10 nm) passivating oxide film that forms spontaneously. However, because the oxidation
rate of titanium increases markedly above 900 C, it is desirable to use ultralow-fusing
porcelains (sintering temperature less than 850 C) for titanium-ceramic prostheses. A porcelain
sintering temperature below 800 C is desirable to minimize oxidation and to avoid the
conversion of alpha phase to the higher-temperature beta phase discussed in the
following. Titanium has a high melting point (1668 C), and a special casting machine with arcmelting capability and an argon atmosphere is typically used, along with a compatible casting
investment, to ensure acceptable capability. Because of reaction with the investment, a very hard
so-called
case having a thickness of approximately 150
mforms at the surface of cast dental titanium alloys.
For cast CP Ti, the HV increases from a bulk value of nearly 200 to approximately 650 at a depth
of 25m below the surface, and special tools are required in the dental laboratory for finishing
and adjusting CP Ti castings. Because of the presence of the

case, special surface modifications of cast titanium, using caustic NaOH based solutions or
silicon nitride coatings, have been employed to improve the bond between cast CP Ti and dental
porcelain. Titanium has the highest melting temperature of all metals used for metal ceramic
prostheses and is highly resistant to sag deformation of metal frameworks at porcelain sintering
temperatures. This high melting point is accompanied by a relatively low thermal expansion
coefficient, and special low-expansion dental porcelains are necessary for bonding to titanium.
Commercially pure titanium undergoes an allotropic transformation from a hexagonal closepacked crystal structure (phase) at 885 Cto a body-centered crystal structure (phase). Four
possible types of titanium alloys can be produced:, near-
,, and. A alloywill form no phase on cooling. A near- phase alloy will formlimited
phase on cooling. An - alloy will contain phase at room temperature and may contain
retained phase and/or transformed phase. A alloy will retain the (3 phase on cooling, and it
can precipitate other phases as well during heat treatment. Vanadium, which has a bcc structure,
is one of the alloying elements that is isomorphous with the phase and is a phase stabilizer,
that is, causing the transformation from phase to
phase to occur at lower temperatures on cooling. Aluminum, which is an a phase stabilizer (i.e.,
causing the transformation of a phase to phase to occur at a higher temperature on heating), is
included in a and near- alloys. Aluminum, tin, and zirconium are soluble in both the and
phases. The most widely used titanium alloy in dentistry and for general commercial applications
is Ti-6Al-4V, which is an- alloy. Although this alloy has greater strength than CP Ti, it is not as
attractive from a biocompatibility point of view because of some concerns about health hazards
from the slow release of aluminum and vanadium atoms in vivo
Dr. Wilhelm kroll 1936 invented useful metallurgical processes for the commercial
production of titanium metal and hence he is called the father of titanium industry.
In early researches Bothe and Leventhal found that the response of bone to titanium was
better than that of the previous alloys of Vitallium
Branemark took this concept further and found that titanium implanted to the upper and
lower jaws of dogs could withstand several years of loading without any change in
stability,

and without the tissue reactions shown to other

materials at that time.

His concept of intra-osseous implantation, where the bone was in a functional

structural connection with a load-bearing implant, was later termed osseointegration.
Since that time, the use of titanium and its alloys is increasing in many dental
applications
A special casting machine with arc melting capability and argon atmosphere is used
along with a compatible investment are used to ensure acceptable castability.
A pressure vacuum casting
system with separate chamber
AL2O3 MgO based investments are used
Guidelines for Clinical selection of alloys
Considering oral health of patient and long term success, selection of casting alloys
should be made primarily by the practitioner with consultation from the dental laboratory
Customised approachmedical considerations like hypersensitivity to metals

 The physical requirements of the alloy --highest modulus of elasticity and less shrinkage
is advisable
The tensile strength is important if the restoration involves connectors between multiple
units
Color

Conclusion: Choosing an alloy for prosthodontics applications is a formidable task. Selecting an alloy
based on its color should be avoided unless all other factors are equal. One should know the
complete composition of alloy and avoid elements to which patient is allergic. Single phase
alloys should be preferred over multiphased. One should try to keep a track of alloys used in the
patient. Alloys should be chosen from companies which research and manufacture their own
alloys. These companies will be able to provide the most accurate information, the best service
and best answers when the problems arise. Alloys which have been tested to elemental release
and corrosion and have lowest possible release of elements should be used. Focus should be on
long term clinical performance and long term costs of restorations. Clinical situations like
esthetics, occlusion, space, allergy etc should be considered while selecting an alloy. Finally one
should remember that clinician is ultimately responsible for the safety and efficacy of any
restoration. Hence Selection of alloy should not be left to the lab, but should be meticulously
selected according to the case in consultation with the lab.

References
Anusavice-science of dental materials
craigs restorative dental materials-12th edition
Wataha JC. Alloys for prosthodontic restorations. J Prosthet Dent 2002;87:35183.
Base Metal Alloys Used for Dental Restorations and Implants
Michael Roach, MS Dent Clin N Am 51 (2007) 603627
Casting alloys
John C. Wataha, DMD, PhD*, Regina L. Messer, PhD Dent Clin N Am 48 (2004) 499
512
The effects of recasting on the cytotoxicity of base metal alloys
Ahmad S. Al-Hiyasat, BDS, MScD, PhD,a and Homa Darmani, BSc, PhDb(J Prosthet

Dent 2005;93:158-63.)