D&T Revision

Systems and Control

Examination Revision

Units
T = time in seconds, R = resistance in ohms, C = capacitance in farads, F = frequency in
hertz

555 monostable: Time constant formula T = 1.1x R x C

555 astable: Frequency formula F = 1.44 / ((R1 + 2R2)C)

Operational amplifier:
Commonly used as a comparator it allows two voltages to be compared. The
output voltage is switched depending on which input is the larger.
Non inverting (+) = +V
Inverting (-) = -V or 0V depending on whether you have two or three power
rails.

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Logic gates
Logic is used where a circuit (this can be a pneumatic or electronic
circuit) or system needs to make a decision. By selecting the appropriate
components you can select the rules that the system will follow when
faced with a decision. The arrangement of components is referred to as a
logic gate, though logic can be written into your programmes. The
system will respond only when and if the inputs it receives are recognised.
What the system will recognise is laid out in truth tables. In a truth table
the digit 1 represents high or positive and 0 represents low or
negative.
AND gate:

This gives a high output when

both inputs are high and no
output when either or both are
low. In a factory a machine that
represents a danger may have
a double locked safety barrier,
so for example the barrier must
be closed and the operator
must press a second button
before the machine will run. If
either is released then the logic
gate reverts to 0 and the
machine stops.

The OR gate:
This gives a high output when
either or both inputs are high
and no output when both are
low. The most common
mechanical logic example
given for this gate is the
landing light at home. You can
operate it from upstairs or
downstairs - it is constructed
from two single pole double
throw switches.

The NOT gate

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This gate inverts the input so a
high input equals a low output, and
a low input equals a high output.

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The EOR gate

EOR is short for Exclusive OR

(sometimes called the XOR) gate. The
EOR works just like a standard OR gate
but with one important difference. When
inputs at A and B are high you get a low
output instead of a high one. It also
works on what could be called a 'first
come, first served' basis: if A is high then
B is ignored until A is low again. A
common example of an EOR application
is a quiz show buzzer - the first person to
their buzzer cuts off the other
contestant's buzzer.

The NAND gate

This gate is simple if you can

remember the AND gate because
it does exactly the opposite. Look
at the truth table and compare it
with the AND table above.

The NOR gate

This only gives an

output when both A
and B are low, which
makes it the
opposite of an OR
gate.

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Combinational NAND gate logic

NAND gates can

be used in
combination to
produce other
logic functions.

Contact bounce
a
b
c
d
e
f
g

A
B
C
D
BCD
deco
der

BCD
count
er

clock

a
f

c
d

Example of schmitt
trigger used in a
counter

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Moments
M = M
(In equilibrium)
Moment (Nm) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
Reaction at a point (N) = Total weight (N) (Total moment (Nm) / distance to other support
(m))

30N

2m

3m

30N x 20m =
600Nm

3m

250N

20N

20N x 30m =
600Nm

4m

450N

1m

75N

2m

Reaction at X: (250+450+75)-((250x3 + 450x7 +

75x8) / 10)
= 775- (4500 / 10)
= 325N

Quality assurance and Quality control

Quality assurance:

Quality control:

A planned and systematic pattern of all actions necessary to provide

adequate confidence that the product optimally fulfils customers'
expectations, i.e. that it is problem-free and well able to perform the
task it was designed for
The assessment of product compliance with stated requirements.
Quality control should be independent from production.
Technical Terminology

Ergonomics Aesthetics Fitness for purpose Cost effective-

the branch of engineering science in which biological science is used

to study the relation between workers and their environments. Most
products are designed to fit 95% of people.
Properties which make products visually appealing like colour and
shape.
Does it suit the purpose for which it has been designed? In basic
terms does it do what it is designed to do well?
A product, process or material which can be produced or utilised in
such a way as to minimise cost. E.g. plastic products can be easily
and quickly mass produced making the unit cost significantly lower
due to bulk buying of raw materials and speed of manufacture.

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Life Cycle Analysis
Carbon Footprint

Study of the effects a product can have on the environment and

society from the acquiring of raw materials, manufacture, use and
disposal/recycling.
is a measure of the amount of carbon dioxide or CO 2 emitted through
the combustion of fossil fuels; in the case of an organization, business
or enterprise, as part of their everyday operations; in the case of an
individual or household, as part of their daily lives; or a product or
commodity in reaching market.

Types of Motion
Linear motion is the most basic of all motions. Uninterrupted
objects will continue to move in a straight line indefinitely.
Under every day circumstances gravity and friction conspire to
bring objects to rest.
Measurement:
Linear motion is measured in two parts. Speed, and direction.
Together these make up the velocity.
Linear motion, is not often used as a starting point for
mechanisms.
Reciprocating motion is back and forth motion.
Measurement:
Reciprocating motion is measured by its throw (the distance
between the two extremes of motion) and by its period (the
length of time for each cycle)

Rotary motion is motion in a circle. The starting point for many

mechanisms.
Measurement:
Rotary motion is measured in either angular velocity, the
number of degrees turned in a given time, or in revolutions per
minute (rpm).
The direction of turn, either clockwise or anti-clockwise is also
part of the measurement of rotary motion.
Oscillation is back and forth motion about a pivot point.
Measurement:
It is measured in terms of both the angle of throw (amplitude)
and the period of time for one complete cycle (periodic time) or
the number of cycles in a given time (frequency).
Oscillation tends to be an ending point for a mechanism rather
than the starting point, however some mechanisms are
available to convert or transform oscillations.

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Linear motion
In this example you will see that rotary motion
is being converted into linear. This mechanical
system is called a rack & pinion and is
commonly found in pillar drills and car steering
systems.

Reciprocating motion
In this example you will see that rotary motion
is being converted into reciprocating. This
mechanical system is called a crank and is
commonly found in the piston assembly of
internal combustion engines.

Rotary motion
In this example you will see that rotary motion
is being transmitted between two separate
components. This mechanical system is called a
gear system and is commonly found in many
mechanical systems/products.

Oscillating motion
In this example you will see that rotary motion
is being converted into oscillating. This
mechanical system is another example of the
crank and is commonly found in systems like
windscreen wipers.

Cam and follower

Cams are used to convert rotary motion into
reciprocating motion. The motion created can be
simple and regular or complex and irregular.
As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the
cam follower traces the surface of the cam
transmitting its motion to the required mechanism.
Linkages
Linkages are an essential part of many
mechanisms. They can be used to change
direction, alter speed and change the timing of
moving parts.
In this example two linked linkages are used to
convert the small linear movement of the drive
shaft into first a rotational body movement and
secondly a fast hammer movement.

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Circuit Symbols

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Formulae

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Materials Classification
Category
Plastics

Sub Category
Thermoformi
ng

Thermosettin
g

Metals

Pure

Alloy

Woods

Ferrous
Non ferrous
Softwood

Hardwoods

Manufactured

Composite
s

Smart

Examples

Processes

Acrylic
HIPs
ABS
Nylon
PVC

Injection moulding
Blow moulding
Vacuum forming
Strip heating
Extrusion

Urea-formaldehyde
Melamine
Polyester resin
Epoxy resin
Aluminium
Iron

Injection moulding
Compression moulding
Lamination

Copper
Tin
Solder
Brass
Mild steel
High Carbon or tool Steel
Stainless steel
magnetic - containing iron
non magnetic - containing no iron
Pine
Cedar
Spruce
Larch
Fir
Oak
Birch
Ash
Beech
Teak
Plywood
Chip board
Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF)
Block board
Mahogany
Fibre Glass
Carbon Fibre
Kevlar
Concrete
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)
Liquid crystal
Photochromic glass - react to light
Electrochromic - react to electrical
current
Thermochromic - react to heat

Die casting
Machining (lathe, milling, drilling)
CNC machining (above + laser &
plasma)
Pressing
Stamping
Folding
Hardening
Case hardening
Annealing
Welding, brazing & soldering
Extrusion
Machining (lathe, router)
Lamination
Planning
Cutting

Lamination
Compression moulding
CNC machining (laser, milling)
Die casting
Specialist processes and coatings

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Physical Properties of Materials

o Hardness ability to withstand point impact or loading.

o Brittleness - ability to shatter or snap easily.
o Malleability ability to be deformed using impact or pressure.
o Ductility ability to be drawn out into wire or extruded.
o Conductivity ability to conduct electricity or heat.
o Insulatory Ability to withstand conduction.
o Elasticity ability to stretch and then return to original shape.
o Durability ability to withstand wear and tear/frictional forces.

Production Processes
Mass or Volume production huge quantities of the product produced
using large scale automation and production processes i.e. injection
moulding, die casting etc. Low unit cost but high set up costs. Expense of
setup returned through high volume sales.
Batch or Flow production limited runs of production in the hundreds or
thousands lower level production with less automation and greater
reliance on manual labour. Higher cost due to manual labour and fewer
sales.
Bespoke or one off production custom design and manufacture based on
the needs of the client. High tech production involving CNC machining or
manual manufacturing skills. High labour and manufacturing costs leading
to high product prices.
Examination Technique.
Please avoid using generic or weak terminology like cheap or strong as
this indicates a lack or knowledge and is associated poor understanding of
the subject. Always try to use the correct terminology and express your
thoughts in a technological fashion. Make good use of bullet points where
appropriate together with clear and concise annotation of drawings &
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diagrams. Also use block diagrams and flow charts to explain/demonstrate
systems or processes.
Example Block Diagram - Flow chart
Input

Control

Output

Feedback

start
process

decisio
n

Input/out
put

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