NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHOD

ULTRASONIC TESTING

Presented By
Eng. Mohamed El-Sayed

Basic Principles of Sound

Sound

is produced by a vibrating body

and travels in the form of a wave.
We need two conditions to be satisfied:
1.Mass
2.Elasticity
ball on a spring

pendulum

Basic Principles of Sound

Oscillation

The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed and the

oscillation will decreases and decelerate until it has used all its
kinetic energy.

Basic Principles of Sound

Understanding wave propagation

Ball = atom

Spring = elastic bonding force

Basic Principles of Sound

Sound

waves travel through materials by vibrating the particles

that make up the material.

T
distance travelled

Basic Principles of Sound

Atomic structures
gas

low density
weak bonding
forces

liquid

medium density
medium bonding
forces

solid

high density
strong bonding
forces

Basic Principles of Sound

Movement of the ball over time
displacement
Time

Cycle:

The complete sequence of movements.

Period: The time required for moving one complete
cycle.
Wave length: The distance a wave travels during one
complete cycle. ( )
Frequency:

time . (

The number of cycles in a given period of

Basic Principles of Sound

Typical velocities of propagation in different materials

Basic Principles of Sound

Spectrum of sound
Frequency range Hz

0 - 20
20 - 20.000
<20.000

Description

Infrasound /subsound
Audible sound
Ultrasound

Example

Earth quake
Speech, music
Bat, Quartz crystal

Basic Principles of Sound

Why we use Ultrasound waves?
displacement
Minimum discontinuity can be
detected should be loated at
/2

discontinuity

for steel V=5920 m/s

using Audible sound waves at f =20.000 cps
using Ultrasound waves at f =5000.000 cps

/2= 150 mm
/2 = 0.5 mm

Sound propagation
1. Longitudinal wave (Compressional wave)
Direction of
oscillation

Direction of propagation

Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.

Sound propagation
2. Shear wave (Transverse wave)
Direction of oscillation

Direction of propagation

Transverse waves only propagate in solid

bodies.

Sound propagation
3. Surface wave (Rayleigh wave)
- The wave travels with an elliptic
particle motion.
- Penetrate only )1 ( so, its used to
detect surface cracks.
- Can follow the surface contour as long
as the contour does not sharply change.

- Surface waves only propagate in solid

bodies.

Sound propagation
4. lamb wave (Plate wave)
We Can not propagate neither shear nor Surface waves in parts thinner
than (3/2(

Properties Of Sound Wave

We use sound waves in flaw detection because they will
reflect when they encounter a sudden change in acoustic
impedance in material.

Acoustic Impedance

Behaviour at an interface

As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material characteristics ,

e.g. the surface of a workpiece wave propagation will change too:

Medium 1

Medium 2

Incoming wave

Transmitted wave

Reflected wave
Interface

Reflection and mode conversion

Reflection

occurs due to sudden change in

Acoustic Impedance.

Reflection and mode conversion cont.

S
L

Couplant
We use substance to provide suitable sound path between the
transducer and the test surface.
There are some items should be found in the couplant:
1.
It must exclude all air between the transducer and test surface.
2.
Fills in and smoothes out irregularities on the surface of the test part.
3.
Aids in the movement of the transducer over the surface in contact
testing.
4.
Must be easy to apply and easy to remove and not to be harmless to
the tested part.
Types of couplant used:
1.
Oil.
2.
Water mixed with glycerin with ratio 2:1
3.
Heavy oil or grease for rough or vertical surfaces.
4.
Thin rubber.

Refraction and SNELLs law:

Occurs

due to the difference in sound velocity

between two mediums

Perspex - Water

Perspex - Steel

Refraction and SNELLs law :

We can summarise refraction and reflection
and mode conversion as following:

S
L

r S

Medium 1 - Perspex
Medium 2 - Steel
SNELLs law:

i r L

Interface
RL
RS
L
S

Refraction and SNELLs law :

If we increase i, RL will increase until it reach 90 and still have a

shear wave in medium 2.

i at this time called First Critical Angle and equal 28 for Perspex to
Steel and equal to 15 for Water to Steel.

Medium 1 - Perspex
Medium 2 - Steel

Interface
L

RL
RS
S

Refraction and SNELLs law :

If we still increase i, Longitudinal wave will Reflected and
reach 90 then we produces surface wave.

RS increases until

i at this time called Second Critical Angle and equal 58 for Perspex to Steel .

Medium 1 - Perspex
Medium 2 - Steel

i r
L
RS

Interface
S

The Generation Of Ultrasonic waves

Transducer And Piezo Electric Effect

Piezoelectric Effect

The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the

conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy.

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)

+
Battery

Piezoelectric Effect
An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

Reception of ultrasonic waves

A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces
crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages
at the crystal surfaces.

Electrical
energy

Piezoelectrical
crystal

Ultrasonic wave

Types Of Crystal materials:

Crystal
items

Quartz
(SiO2)

Lithium
Sulphate
(Li2 SO4)

Types

Polarized Ceramics

1.Lead Metaniobate
2.Barium Titanate
3.Lead Zirconate/Titanate

Generator

2.3 10

-12

m/v

15 10

-12

m/v

Receiver

4.9 109

v/m

8.2 109

v/m

-12

125 10

1.5 109

m/v
v/m

Curie

576 C

130 C

120 C

Advantages

Very stable
frequency c/c

Long life time

The best generator

Disadvantages

Poor generator

Soluble in water

Have a tendency to wear

Crystal Cutting:
Crystal cutting methods which have responsibility of generate either
Longitudinal or Shear waves.
1. Cutting Perpendicular to X-axis Produce longitudinal waves.
2. Cutting Perpendicular to Y-axis Produce shear waves.

Crystal size is a contributing factor in its

Performance

Input data
With decreasing diameter.

D
With D
With

and
and

f
f

Results

Spread of sound beam

Can detect small defects
Penetration

Probe Design:
1. case: consist of metal housing
That contains all the following parts.
2. Backing Material:
Provide damping of the transducer
Oscillations (made of epoxy, rubber
or Plastics).
3.Electrodes: Are primarily silver
or gold deposited on the piezoElectric element.
4.Crystal (piezo Electric element)
5. Wear face: Thin layer made of

Lucite, Ceramic or Quartz wear plate..

Types of Probe according to the refracted

wave introduced
Normal Probe
In normal beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at 90 degree to
the surface.

1.

2. Angle Probe
Angle

beam transducers
incorporate wedges to
introduce a refracted shear
wave into a material.

The

incident wedge angle is

used with the material velocity
to determine the desired
refracted shear wave according
to Snells Law)

Transducers

can use fixed or

variable wedge angles.

Common

application is in weld
examination.

Types of Probe according to crystal which

housing
Single
1.
2.

3.

Element:

Sender only
Receiver only
Sender and Receiver

Double Element:

Two single mounted side by side or stacked

(one sender and the other receiver)

Single crystal probe

The Capability Of Transducer:

1. Sensitivity: The ability to detect small discontinuities.

2. Resolution: The ability to separate the sound reflections from two

discontinuities close together in depth or time.

3. Efficiency: Energy conversion effectiveness.

Propagation of Ultrasound
Attenuation

The decay rate of the wave as it propagates through material.

This further weakening results from :

Absorption-of energy due to moving the vibrating molecules.
Scatter-of sound waves reflecting from the grain boundaries.
Interference effects- close to the transducer
Beam spread

1.
2.
3.

4.

Propagation of Ultrasound
Beam spread
Since the ultrasound originates
from a number of points along the
transducer face, the ultrasound
intensity along the beam is
affected by constructive and
destructive wave interference .
This wave interference leads
to extensive fluctuations in
the sound intensity near the
source and is known as the
near field. Because of acoustic
variations within a near field,
it can be extremely difficult to
accurately evaluate flaws in
materials when they are
positioned within this area.

Propagation of Ultrasound
Beam spread
Secondary lobes

Crystal

Focus Accoustical axis

Angle of divergence

Near Zone
(Fresnel)

Far Zone (Fraunhofer)

Ultrasonic Basic Testing Methods

A) Contact Testing Method
Using Transducers With Frequency between (1 to 5 MHZ)
To

get useful levels of sound energy into a material, the air between the
transducer and the test article must be removed. This is referred to as
coupling.
In contact testing a couplant such as oil, grease or a gel is applied
between the transducer and the part.

The Basic Test Techniques

1.

Pulse Echo Technique

A transducer sends out a pulse of energy and the same or a second

transducer listens for reflected energy (an echo).
Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the surfaces
of the test article.
The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, which
provides the inspector information about the size and the location of
features that reflect the sound.

Straight beam probe

1. Pulse-Echo Testing (cont.)

Digital display showing
signal generated from
sound reflecting off back
surface.

Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector
midway through material, with
lower amplitude back surface
reflector.

The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only

one side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined.

2. Duel Crystal Technique

There are two crystals One act as a Transmitter
and the other as a receiver.
There are may be side by side or may be stacked.

3. Pitch-Catch Technique

Its acts as duel crystal technique but with separate two

transducers.

Transmitter Transducer

Receiver Transducer

4. Through-Transmission
Two transducers located on opposing sides of
the test specimen are used. One transducer
acts as a transmitter, the other as a receiver.

11

Discontinuities in the sound path will result in a

partial or total loss of sound being transmitted
and be indicated by a decrease in the received
signal amplitude.

Through transmission is useful in detecting

discontinuities that are not good reflectors, and
when signal strength is weak. It does not
provide depth information.

11

10

4. Through-Transmission (cont.)

Digital display showing

received sound through
material thickness.

Digital display showing

loss of received signal
due to presence of a
discontinuity in the
sound field.

5. Tandem Technique
Acts as Through Transmission but with angle transducers

Transmitter Transducer

Receiver Transducer

B) Immersion Testing Method

Using

Transducers With Frequency between (10 to 25 MHZ)

In immersion testing, the part and the transducer are place in a
water bath. This arrangement allows better movement of the
transducer while maintaining consistent coupling.
With immersion testing, an echo from the front surface of the part
is seen in the signal.

Immersion testing

B) Immersion Testing Method cont.

Immersion test with propagate

Longitudinal wave

Immersion test with propagate

shear wave

Defect

IP

FWE

IP

BWE

8 10

FWE
DE

BWE

8 10

Immersion Transducers
Immersion

transducers are
designed to transmit sound
whereby the transducer and
test specimen are immersed in
a liquid coupling medium
(usually water).

Immersion

transducers doesnt
need protective layer.

Immersion

transducers
are manufactured with
planar, cylindrical or spherical
acoustic lenses (focusing lens).

Advantages Of Focussing Lens

1.

2.
3.

Increasing The intensity.

Greater width of length (for spherical lens) greater
sensitivity.
Used with rough surfaces.

Display Ultrasonic Indications

Types of Scanning
Information

from ultrasonic testing can be presented

in a number of differing formats.

Three

of the more common formats include:

A-scan
B-scan

C-scan

Types of Scanning
A-scan presentation
displays the amount of
received ultrasonic energy
as a function of time.

Relative discontinuity size

can be estimated by
comparing the signal
amplitude to that from a
known reflector.

Reflector depth can be

determined by the position
of the signal on the
horizontal sweep.

Time

Signal Amplitude

Signal Amplitude

A-scan

Time

Types of Scanning

B-scan
B-scan

presentations display a
profile view (cross-sectional) of a
test specimen.

Only

the reflector depth in the

cross-section and the linear
dimensions can be determined.

limitation to this display technique

is that reflectors may be masked by
larger reflectors near the surface.

Types of Scanning

C-scan
The

C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of

the test specimen and discontinuities.
C-scan presentations are produced with an automated
data acquisition system, such as in immersion
scanning.
Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary
when depth determination is desired.

Photo of a Composite
Component

C-Scan Image of
Internal Features

Calibration Methods

The user must "calibrate" the system, which includes the equipment settings,
the transducer, and the test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision
and accuracy are achieved.
standards also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo
type setup, signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw and the
distance between the flaw and the transducer.
By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from the
actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.
The type of standard used is dependent on the application and the form and shape
of the object being evaluated.

The IIW Type Calibration Block

IIW

"type" blocks can be commercially

obtained in a selection of materials.
IIW "type" blocks usually have English units.
IIW "type" blocks include additional
calibration and references features such as
notches, circular groves, and scales .
There are two full-sized and a mini versions
of the IIW type blocks.

IIW Type US-1 (V1-Block)

IIW Type US-2 (V1-Block)

The IIW type US-2 block was developed for US Air Force applications.

IIW Type Mini

Used for setting metal-distance and sensitivity
settings, determining the sound exit point and
refracted angle of angle beam transducers, and
evaluating depth resolution of normal beam
inspection setups.

The Miniature Angle-Beam or ROMPAS Calibration Block (V2-Block)

block is much smaller and lighter than the IIW
block but performs many of the same functions.
The miniature angle-beam block can be used to
check the beam angle and exit point of the
transducer. The block can also be used to make
metal-distance and sensitivity calibrations for both
angle and normal-beam inspection setups.

AWS Shear wave Distance/Sensitivity Calibration (DSC) Block

This block is used to determine the beam exit point and
refracted angle of angle-beam transducers and to calibrate
distance and set the sensitivity for both normal and angle
beam inspection setups.

AWS Shear wave Distance Calibration (DC) Block

The DC AWS Block is a metal path distance and beam
exit point calibration standard that conforms to the
requirements of the American Welding Society (AWS)
and the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

AWS Resolution Calibration (RC) Block

The RC Block is used to determine the resolution
of angle beam transducers per the requirements
of AWS and AASHTO. Engraved Index markers are
provided for 45, 60, and 70 degree refracted angle
beams.

30 FBH Resolution Reference Block

The 30 FBH resolution reference block is used to
evaluate the near-surface resolution and flaw
size/depth sensitivity of a normal-beam setup. The
block contains number 3 (3/64"), 5 (5/64"), and 8
(8/64") ASTM flat bottom holes at ten metaldistances ranging from 0.050 inch (1.27 mm) to
1.250 inch (31.75 mm).

Miniature Resolution Block

The miniature resolution block is used to
evaluate the near-surface resolution and
sensitivity of a normal-beam setup It can be
used to calibrate high-resolution thickness
gages over the range of 0.015 inches (0.381
mm) to 0.125 inches (3.175 mm).

Step and Tapered Calibration Wedges

Step wedges are typically manufactured with
four or five steps but custom wedge can be
obtained with any number of steps.

Distance/Sensitivity (DS) Block

The DS test block is a calibration standard used to
check the horizontal linearity and the dB accuracy
per requirements of AWS and )AASHTO (American
Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.

Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks
Distance/area amplitude correction blocks typically are
purchased as a ten-block set.
Sets can be purchased in Aluminum or titanium.

Each block contains a single flat-bottomed, plugged hole.

The hole sizes and metal path distances are as follows:
3/64" at 3"
5/64" at 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 11/2", 3", and 6"
8/64" at 3" and 6"

Normal Beam Inspection

)Compression wave Technique)
Calibration To ensure proper positioning of zero and time base linearity
A) Distance Calibration

Normal Beam Inspection Cont.

B) Resolution

Normal Beam Inspection cont.

Normal Beam Inspection Cont.

Normal Beam Inspection Applications

Plate testing

IP
BE

Plate

lamination

IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo

10

Normal Beam Inspection Applications

Flaw Detection - Delaminations

Contact, pulse-echo inspection for delaminations on 36 rolled
beam.

Signal showing multiple back

surface echoes in an unflawed area.

Additional echoes indicate

delaminations in the member.

Normal Beam Inspection Applications

Wall thickness measurement

s
s

Corrosion

10

Normal Beam Inspection Applications

Thickness Gauging

Ultrasonic thickness gauging is

routinely utilized in the
petrochemical and utility
industries to determine various
degrees of corrosion/erosion.

Applications include
piping systems, storage
and containment
facilities, and pressure
vessels.

Angle Beam Inspection

(A) IIW Determination of the beam exit point.

(B) IIW Determination of refracted angle of angle-beam.

Angle Beam Inspection

(C) Distance Calibration Using (V2-Block)

Angle Beam Inspection

Angle Beams I

Angle Beam Inspection Cont.

Angle Beam Inspection Cont.

Angle Beams II

Angle Beam Inspection Cont.

Angle Beam Inspection Applications

Flaw Detection in Welds

One

of the most widely

used methods of
inspecting weldments is
ultrasonic inspection.
Full penetration groove
welds lend themselves
readily to angle beam
shear wave examination.

Movements of Transducer to scan

Longitudinal or Transverse discontinuities

For Transverse discontinuities

For Longitudinal discontinuities

Rotational movement

Transverse movement
Lateral movement

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

AWS D1.1 Code

D=A-B-C

D: Discontinuity Severity
A: Indication Level
B: Reference Level
C: Attenuation Factor
C=(S-1)2
Where S in inch

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

AWS D1.1 Code Cont.

Using V1-Block to get the

reference level.
From the reference hole
indication and Rising The
Amplitude To 80% Of CRT.
Get (B) in dB.

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

AWS D1.1 Code Cont.

During scanning any indication appears

should be evaluated by rising the max
amplitude to 80% of the CRT.
From this indication we get (A) in dB
and (C) in inch.
where, C=(S-1)2

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

AWS D1.1 Code Cont.
Using all previous data we get (D) Which is the discontinuity severity.
From AWS D1.1 acceptance criteria.

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

AWS D1.1 Code Cont.

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

AWS D1.1 Code Cont.

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

AWS D1.1 Code Cont.

Note the relation D=A-B-C

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

ASME Code
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will have different amplitudes at
different distances from the transducer. Distance amplitude correction (DAC)
provides a means of establishing a graphic reference level sensitivity as a function of
sweep distance on the A-scan display.

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

ASME Code Cont.

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

ASME Code Cont.

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

ASME Code Cont.

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

ASME Code Cont.
From ASME Code acceptance criteria

Where indications are interpreted to be

cracks, lack of fusion, or incomplete
penetration, they are unacceptable
regardless of discontinuity or signal
amplitude.

All indications which produce a

response Smaller than 20% of the
reference level , they are acceptable
regardless of the length of discontinuity

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

ASME Code Cont.
From ASME Code acceptance criteria

All indications which produce a response

greater than 80% of the reference level ,
they are acceptable
regardless of the length of discontinuity

Interpretation And Evaluation Of Defects According To

ASME Code Cont.
From ASME Code acceptance criteria
Defect
Length

Weld
Thickness

Acceptance

6 mm

Up to
19 mm

Reject

t/3

From 19 mm
To 57 mm

Reject

19 mm

For t over
57 mm

Reject

Instrumentation

Ultrasonic equipment is usually purchased to satisfy

specific inspection needs, some users may purchase
general purpose equipment to fulfill a number of
inspection applications.

Test equipment can be classified in a number of

different ways, this may include portable or
stationary, contact or immersion, manual or
automated.

Further classification of instruments commonly

divides them into four general categories: D-meters,
Flaw detectors, Industrial and special application.

Instrumentation (cont.)
D-meters

or digital thickness
gauge instruments provide
the user with a digital
(numeric) readout.
They are designed primarily
for corrosion/erosion
inspection applications.

Some instruments provide the user with both a digital readout and a
display of the signal. A distinct advantage of these units is that they
allow the user to evaluate the signal to ensure that the digital
measurements are of the desired features.

Instrumentation (cont.)
Flaw

detectors are
instruments designed
primarily for the inspection
of components for defects.

However,

the signal can be

evaluated to obtain other
information such as material
thickness values.

Both

analog and digital

display.

Offer

the user options of

gating horizontal sweep and
amplitude threshold.

Instrumentation (cont.)
Industrial

flaw detection
instruments, provide users
with more options than
standard flaw detectors.
May be modulated units
allowing users to tailor the
instrument for their specific
needs.
Generally not as portable
as standard flaw detectors.

Instrumentation (cont.)
Immersion

ultrasonic scanning
systems are used for automated
data acquisition and imaging.
They integrate an immersion
tank, ultrasonic instrumentation,
a scanning bridge, and computer
controls.
The signal strength and/or the
time-of-flight of the signal is
measured for every point in the
scan plan.
The value of the data is plotted
using colors or shades of gray to
produce detailed images of the
surface or internal features of a
component.

Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing

Sensitive

to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

Depth

of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is

superior to other methods.

Only

single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo

technique is used.

High

accuracy in determining reflector position and

estimating size and shape.

Minimal

part preparation required.

Electronic
Detailed

Has

equipment provides instantaneous results.

images can be produced with automated systems.

other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition

to flaw detection.

Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

Surface

must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

Skill and training is more extensive than with some other
methods.
Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of
sound energy into test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to
inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration, and characterization of flaws.

Thank you