‘THE NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER eee L The input voltage V; is applied to the non- inverting terminal (+). This produces an output Vp that is in phase with the input. Negative feedback is obtained by feeding back a fraction of the output to the INVERTING input(.). The voltage across Ris equal to V;-0 =V,. The potential at the non-inverting inout is Ve. For a large open loop gain, V, 2V; 0 in the derivations, we use V, instead of V, because V, can be expressed in terms of a resistance, ie. Vp = IR, whereas V; has no expression in terms of a resistance. Our aim is to get an expression for the GAIN in terms of the resistances that are available in the circuit. The voltage across (Rrt Ri) = Vo Since Rrand Ri are in series the same current flows through them to the earth; Vee IR; and Vo = (Ry +R) Vo _ Rp +Re Ry ae = Lt = 1 + 1 = GAIN for NON INVERTING OP AMP Vass Ri R Gain of INVERTING op amp = —>~ 139‘Aouanbayy yay UIeB Jo UoReVen OU SI 2194} UleB doo] Uado ay axiUN (€) ‘sa1ouanbayy 40 aBUEL JapIm e J8AO ueIsUOD 5} UIeB ayr Tey? sueDLI YoIyM 49,2919 s! AyNIGEIS (z) “alqerorpaud 61 ures au (r) rasneoaq ajqessap asow 5131 4ng w1e8 doo] uado o42 UeYR ss9j sheme s1 Wle doo] pasop ayy yeIR smOYs WesBEIp ay "aa 3 uey2 peqpaay sow si aval ‘G9 ay “wle8 doo] uado 3" uasaid s| xoeqpaa) ou usym UleB aug squasoido gy aul) parue|s ayy “ules doo] pasos “21 “quasaud s] xeqpeay uaym jes ayy quasaidas 43 pue QD SOUI] jeuoZIOY oY, 2H/Rouanbasy OT ,OT OT OT OF ,O Or or OF T 2 or + #pmpueg —__}-— taisgor ‘uapimpueq Foes 00. fem e oe (aete 0 > v ‘NIV9 4001 Nado auR paleo s 2104 ued ain pue ypeqpeay ~~ 0u Jo vores ayn 51 uoRog sig ure) “sexe A pue x au} Uo siajawered ayy uaemyaq LOReLeA seDUll e santS 21 (2) Pasn aq 02 sanjen jeaiiauunu sajjewis smojfe 3} (T) :SUOseaJ Om 404 pasn sj ydeu8 Bo] sIYL “panoid si ydeud wuaue89] e “Aouanbay pue ule usamraq diysuonejas e AeidsIp 03 9ps0 Ul HLGIMGNV€ GNY SHave9 AININDAYS-NIVDBANDWIDTH; The difference between the upper and lower frequencies for which the gain is constant, is called the BANDWIDTH of the amplifier for a particular gain. For example, on looking at the previous graph, for a gain of 10, the Bandwidth is (10° -1)Hz, and for a gain of 1000 the bandwidth is (10°-1)Hz. In order to have greater bandwidth, the negative feedback must be greater, but this causes the gain to drop. To compensate for this lower gain two or more op amps can be coupled or typically referred to as CASCADED CASCADED AMPLIFIERS When the two op amps are cascaded as shown above, the resultant gain A= A: xAy ilarly for 3 op amps that are cascaded, the resultant gain A= A: x Az x As 14“wueje ayy uo 49881.) 0} uNOW. ||ewS e AIO Aq a8ueys 03 spaau aumeraduior ayn pue seuss angisuas Alan ase ssoxeredwio ‘parennre 2g jm Jazznq 10 dive] aun pue ‘oraz ueyR 2032043 2g jim anduy aya re aouarayip aBeyon ‘ayy ‘saseauouy aumesaduiay 4p se UOOS sy “yo aq jm sazznq 40 due} ay pue ‘o192 aq ways jm SaBedjOn ong ays uaamiag souarayyp ay, Indu Burien -Uou aup ie yey, se awes aus! ndul BuRLaAU! auR ye aBeyon aup 1eUA 195 51 JaYoWONUEIOd ay, “uajauonusiod et ‘yp Aq 9s st 3nduy Buyyianut aya ze adeyon ays. Babe ewana, | “(ioysiussayp adh 3u9}94}909 annysod e Bujwinsse)sasu Joys|ULioN) 24 jo 2ouersisou aun se ‘s9se0.0u1 nd SuROAU “Uou 42 2e aifexjon ayy ‘sas aumeseduios ayy sy 3nduy Suyianu-uou -ynd419 we]e Ue UI YIM e sy (2) up ye 8eyon aun saxty yoIym J9pIApp jenuarod 2 wuioy y Joasisou poxy a4 pue sorsiuHOyy a4, YOLVUWAINOD SHE “ARoUs paure|dxa aq im pue J2yydwe Buiyoxews 40 sayjng e se pasn 51 49Mo|I0J aBe200 a3 -YIMOTIOS IOVLION & SV (€) “seus@Auco anBojeue 0} [e1/8ip e se osje pue 2Isnw Ul spseog SUuIXILH UL pasn st sIyL “4eytIdwe BujaAU! Ue se pasn SI! UBYM YaLITdINY ONIINININS 2 SY (Z) “sJeudis anem aienbs 0} sjeusis anem US 30 JaUBAUOD e Se 40 31ND.!9 LUJE|e UE UI YDqIMS e se pasn aq Udy Ued JoyeJedWOD ay, vsanduy omy ay 40 20uaJ244Ip a4 UO spuadap indyno sy! pue sinduy oma ayy sesedui0> 3] -s0yeseduI0D e sy (T) dV dO 3H 4O SNOLLWONady‘THE SUMMING AMPLIFIER OR ADDER When the op amp is used as a multi-input inverting amplifier, it can be used to add a number of voltages, both a.c. and dc. Circuits such as these are used in the music industry to combine outputs from microphones, electric guitars, keyboards, voice etc. A four input summing amplifier is shown below: a ve 7 = a When Kirchoff's current law is applied to the junction at P, the total current entering P is equal to the total current leaving. Hence: htht+hth=1 143qwupia anQO1vNY “eyep ay2 siuasosdad @BeYON a42 Jo WHOJBAEM 2 °2"! sanjea Jo a8ued & 1200 Alsnonunuod salsen yeu2 aBe3]0n & 0} paSueyD si eyep ‘sjeusls anBojeue U} “(Mo}) 0 pue (ySiy) T “"| seieis omy AU aAeY IeYR Sasind Je919a]9 02 parJaAUOD S| eIep ‘s|eUSIS |e1/SIP U “uaUeAuod y/d e se pareinaigge Aljensn s| JoLanuod Jo adAt SIU “sjeusIs anojeue 0} SjeuSis |eq2Ip Jo UOIsJaAUOD aU S! Yad ONIWINNS 2u2 Jo UoNedI|dde queyodul su ao eg esta 8 ont g cg hy eq hy yg (razt+ Ajy + AZ + az) casojaraup st saylidue SuuuUns a4 40} NOLLYMDS TYY3N39 24k, (unuenu! st sayydwe h ‘ay aouls UBls snuIW e s} z042) a = [Aq uanis 5] sorsisau yoeqpeay aur ysnosys queins ayLAnalogue signals are subjected to noise and distortion, while digital signals are extremely clean and undistorted. However, there are many applications which can only operate on an analogue basis e.g. those which involve the human senses such as hearing and seeing. The human ear can detect continuous variations in the intensity and pitch of sound; if it were to operate on a digital basis then would either detect or not detect sound but it would not be able to distinguish changes in intensity and pitch. The same type of reasoning is used for the human eye to detect changes in light intensity and changes in colour. Hence for radio and television broadcast, it would be logical to convert an analogue signal from the radio announcer to a digital signal that then leaves the transmitter, and then back to analogue at the radio receiver. The reason for using the digital signal for transmission is that it is free from noise and distortion and would therefore give a better quality of sound at the receiver. In practice, D/A converters incorporate a SUMMING AMPLIFIER The input signals are typically 5V for a binary input of 1 and OV for a binary input of 0.Agte-0- = 5x UIE var aszao- = $x 228 _ ay vit- ¥ Wa Pe te Se yt ig ti yt Ny A Ty “Dy ‘sayyjdwue Sujwuuns ayy Jo yndyno ayy 404 ejnwusoy essuad ayy Woy °A rst | °n °A ow yndut yea 01 payidde s| jg yo ‘p'd wnwixew v ranBojeue 02 [2u181p Jo voIsianuod ayy smoys ajdusexe Suimojio; SULThe minimum voltage output that is non zero is called the LEAST SIGNIFICANT BIT (LSB) and in the above example, the LSB is equal to 0-313V. The calculations show that while the input is only 0 or 5V, the output ranges from 0 through a series of voltages up to a maximum of ~(2-5+1-25+0-625+0-313) =- 4-688V. termediate outputs can be obtained from the following binary digits: 0001 i.e only output from Va, 0011 = Va +V9 = 0101 = Ve +V4= -{ 1-25 + 0-313} 1011 = Vp #V+Vq=-( 0-313 +0-625+2.5) 0111 =VctVetV, = 1111 =Vp+VctVp#Va = (0313 + 0-625 + 1-25 + 2:5) 0100 =V¢ = - 1:25 The above calculations show that there can be a series of different binary digits to give a wide range of output voltages and in this way, the input digital states of “on and off” can be converted to an ANALOGUE SIGNAL. u7Imolag UMoYs se aq a10J2,043 |I!M J9MO|IO} BBeYOA ay 10} INDI BY “suum 'y Supfew or wajeninba si sy, “unoai9 uado ue ane9} o1 panowias s|'y atp pue “O18? apew SIFY “YIMOTIOS JOVITOA 243 U fa y, tt=v fa 24g en 5} NID aut “eyl|dwe Bu.aAUI-UoU a4p J04 2eya j1e9y ‘ONLLYIANI NON s! Jayidwe aya souy “Teujuay Supsenut-uou ayy 0} payidde s1 a3e3I0n e ajlym “yysee 04 paysauUDd S| jeulUay SuJARU! YL no o-td “veytidure Suganul-uou 343 Jo uoIsian Jejdwis e st siyL ¥AMOTIOS FDVLION 3HLSince the gain A= 1+ £5, then in this, . case, Ast+ 2 ‘The gain of the voltage follower =1. The voltage follower is not used as a voltage amplifier, but instead it is used as a VOLTAGE BUFFER . The voltage buffer acts to isolate an input signal from a load , while allowing the voltage output to be identical to the input in magnitude and in polarity. i.e. Vo = Vin The voltage follower has a high input impedance so that it draws only a minute current, and at the same time, it has a low output impedance thus producing a sufficiently large current at the output. (Recall that / = © so that when Ris small, | would be sufficiently large.) Consider the following circuit: Avvoltmeter is connected to measure a p.d. of 1V across a 1M resistor. A typical voltmeter has a resistance of 100k0 and in this circuit, the voltmeter will draw most of the current and give an inaccurate reading. ama Fe The voltage follower can be used as shown below. agers ecm - a wma S The op amp input draws far less current than the voltmeter, but the OUTPUT provides enough current for the voltmeter to operate. SS | 1 ama’ The input current is about 1pA(10"A), while the output is a few milliamps (107A). This circuit is also useful for determining the currents through very high resistances, i.e. very small currents when a very sensitive ammeter is not available. In this case the p.d. is measured as before, and the current is calculated from I 149(orice 10 WrEZE ‘NZS'C 40 ABT'Z ‘ONEZE ‘AY’? “UOST= ¥) (leujuie) Bunsanu-uou aya ye suolzIpuos lepiuy ewes 243 aunssy)guoneunies sayseas isn{ duie-do ayy yeu os aisnipe aq yesoayy ayy jo aouersisay ayy ysnus aoueysisad Jo sanjen 1eym OL. uoneames yeas 02 duze-do ‘yp sasnea asn yeyy jeulwa3 SurianU! ayp re s/jenua}od ayy aq Asn Jey, ‘N8E‘Z JO onjen e ulene ov induy Bunssnut Yn 2e JenuaIod ayy mojje jm 3eUR yeISOBYI ay2 Jo aoUEISIS91 ayy aTEINDIED anduy Suranut-uou ayp ze jenuarod ays arejnoje> payeimes, S| dwwe-do ayy uaym ‘y soysisos annooioid at Jo anjen ayy aumuajag +} nO wang jen duse| axa “‘yuugy spaaoxe quaLaND ays “YUIOe ‘AZ ¥8 paves si duie| 243 pue oF Jo wle8 doo} uado ue sey due-do aya “yna.19 anoge aya ul SdIN¥-dO NO T¥IHOLNLIn the above circuit, the op-amp has an open loop gain of 10*and the lamp is rated at 1.2V, ‘80mA. If the current exceeds 80mA, the lamp will burn out, |, Determine the value of the protective resistor R, when the op-amp is saturated ji, Calculate the potential at the non-inverting input Calculate the resistance of the rheostat that will allow the potential at the inverting input to attain a value of 0.8V. What must be the poter ference across the input terminals that just causes the ‘op-amp to reach saturation. The resistance of the rheostat is set initially at 200kO and then at 1800k0. Determine at which setting of the rheostat will the lamp operate and explain how you arrived at your conclusion, (22.50 ; 1.2V; 1036K0 ; 300nV ; 200kA)