Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Transport phenomena in food engineering:

basic concepts and advances
J. Welti-Chanes *, F. Vergara-Balderas, D. Bermudez-Aguirre
Departamento de Ingeniera Qumica y Alimentos, Universidad de las Americas, Puebla, Santa Catarina Martir, Puebla, 72820, Mexico
Received 10 October 2003; accepted 1 May 2004

Abstract
Food Engineering development is related to the knowledge advances of dierent areas of Chemical Engineering and other engineering elds. One of these areas is Transport Phenomena, and the advances in mathematical analysis and computer tools help to
solve complex problems involving momentum, heat and mass transfer. Transport Phenomena applied to food processing presents
special challenges regarding the complexity of biological material and how it changes during the application of dierent transformation or preservation treatments. Study of the basic concepts of Transport Phenomena and their applications to analyzing, predicting and designing any process is an important step in the advance of Food Engineering. Some of those basic concepts and
examples of recent applications and research orientations are presented in this paper.
2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Transport phenomena; Food engineering; Rheology; Heat transfer; Mass transfer

1. Introduction
In the chemical, food and biological processing
industries, many similarities exist in the manner in which
the entering materials are modied or processed into the
nal chemical and biological materials. These dierent
chemical, physical, or biological processes can be separated into distinct steps that were originally called unit
operations. However, in Chemical Engineering the term
unit operations has largely been superseded by the
modern and descriptive term separation processes
(Geankoplis, 2003), but in Food Engineering there are
some preservation processes (sterilization, pasteurization, salting, refrigeration, etc.), which are not exactly
a separation, in this way the concept of unit operation
or process is applied in a more ample sense.
Many of these processes have in common certain fundamental principles or mechanisms; for example, the
*

Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 2 229 2005; fax: +52 2 229 2009.
E-mail address: jwelti@mail.udlap.mx (J. Welti-Chanes).

0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.05.053

mechanism of diusion or mass transfer occurs in drying

of foods, gas transfer in exible packages, osmotic processes, and membrane separations, while heat transfer occurs in thermal treatment, drying, evaporation,
pasteurization, cooking and other food preservation
processes. These processes are denominated in a general
way as transport phenomena.
Transport phenomena of food and other important
biological materials is a signicant link between the
processing of these materials and the quality and safety
of the products. Unfortunately, this link, although
important, is not given the attention it deserves in practice. The consequence is that bio- and food industries
are still dominated by empiricism, or so-called
pragmatic approaches. Possible reasons for this situation are (1) transport phenomena per se are poorly
understand, due for example, to dicult mathematics;
(2) classical transport phenomena theory, even when
understood, is dicult to apply to biological materials
due to the peculiar character of the latter: structure,
properties, etc.; (3) individuals working in the industry

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J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

Nomenclature
Symbols
Ci
molar concentration of component i (mol/m3)
Cp
specic heat at constant pressure (J/gC)
D
mass diusivity (m2/s)
f
friction factor
h
heat transfer coecient (W/m2 C)
Ji
mass ux of component i (kg/m2s)
K
thermal conductivity (W/m C), or consistence index (Pa sn)
km
mass transfer coecient (m/s)
n
ow behavior index ()
Ni
molar ux of component i (mol/m2s)
q
heat ux (J/m2 s)
T
temperature (C)
v
velocity (m/s)
Z
position 0 distance (m)

are not convinced of the importance of transport phenomena, possibly because of how the subject is taught
in the universities (Gekas, 1992). In addition to those
reasons, other aspects must be considered when applying the classic transport phenomena concepts to Food
Process Engineering, for example: the need to obtain
specic transport properties for a lot of food materials
and new products, the understanding of new technologies (high pressure, electric pulses, ohmic heating, etc.)
and their relationship with the transfer phenomenon to
be applied in each case, and the generation of specic
software and computational modeling or adaptation of
that used in Chemical Engineering to the needs of food
preservation processes.
In this paper some basic concepts of transport phenomena and examples of the present situation of applications and research in Food Engineering using these
basic concepts and the advances to resolve and to understand better this knowledge area are discussed.

2. Fundamental aspects of transport phenomena and their

analogies
The three fundamental mechanisms of transport involved in some way in each process are: momentum,
heat and mass transfer. The rst one is concerned with
the momentum transfer which occurs in moving media;
heat transfer is concerned with the exchange of heat; in
the case of mass transfer, mass is transferred from one
phase to another distinct phase; the basic mechanism
is the same whether the phases are gas, solid or liquid.
The three mechanisms of transport have some similarities and dierences, but the similarities or analogies
are useful in understanding their origin and applica-

Greek symbols
a
thermal diusivity (m2/s), or aspect ratio ()
D
gradient
c_
shear rate (s
1)
g
viscosity (Pa s)
gp
apparent viscosity (Pa s)
l
viscosity (Pa s)
s
shear stress (Pa)
s0
yield stress (Pa)
q
density (kg/m3)
t
kinematic viscosity
U
volume fraction of walls ()

tions. The basic laws governing the ux of momentum,

heat and mass transport due to molecular motion or
vibration are the Newton (1), Fourier (2) and Fick (3)
Laws and they have the form:
l d
d
s
qv v qv
1
q dz
dz
q

k d
d
qC p T
a qC p T
qC p dz
dz

dC
3
dz
All three processes are quite dierent at a molecular level. However, there are certain analogies between them.
In eect, kinematic viscosity (m), thermal diusivity (a)
and diusion (D) have the same dimensions (L2/t). In
Ficks law, the molar ux varies with the gradient in
mol per unit volume; in the Fouriers law, the energy
ux is proportional to the gradient of energy per unit
volume (qCpT); and the momentum ux, given by the
rewritten Newtons law, varies with the gradient of the
momentum per unit volume (qv) (Cussler, 1984). These
analogies are shown in Table 1 (Welti-Chanes, MujicaPaz, Valdez-Fragoso, & Leon-Cruz, 2003a), together
with additional information about the kind of food
transport properties that are very important to evaluate
the phenomena to be studied for any process conditions.
The corresponding equations for momentum, heat and
mass ux in the particular case of convective motion are:

  
1 2
fv
sf
qv
qv
0
4
2
2
J i
D

q hDT

h
DqC p T
qC p

J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

115

Table 1
Analogies between momentum, heat and mass transfer
Analogous form

Variable
Molecular diusivity
Transfer coecient
Dimensionless number

Momentum transfer

Heat transfer

Mass transfer

qv (momentum/volume)
m (kinematics viscosity)
f (friction factor)

qCpT (energy/volume)
a (thermal diusivity)
h (heat transfer coecient)
Pr am
h=qC
St v p

C (mol/volume)
D (diusion coecient)
km (mass transfer coecient)
m
Sc D
St kvm
Le Da

N i k m DC i

6
fv
2

h
qC p

and
where the transfer coecient is equivalent to
km. Note that the driving forces in the momentum,
heat and mass ux are volume concentrations: (qv
0)
(expressed in momentum per volume), D(qCpT) (expressed in energy per volume) and DCi (mol per volume)
(Table 1).
Since the molecular diusivities have the same dimensions, a ratio of any of two of these leads to dimensionless numbers: the Prandtl (Pr) number for heat transfer
and the Schmidt (Sc) and the Lewis (Le) numbers for
mass transfer. Likewise, the ratio transfer coecients
to the ow velocity leads to the Stanton (St) number
for heat transfer, and the Stanton (St) number for mass
transfer (Table 1), numbers which are very important
for modeling and analyzing dierent food preservation
processes.
In addition to the previous mathematical models, a
useful and simple analogy relating all three types of
transport simultaneously is the ChiltonColburn model,
which is written as
k m 2=3 h=qC p 2=3 f
7
Sc
Pr
2
v
v
The group kvm Sc2=3 is called the jD factor for mass transh=qC
fer and v p Pr2=3 St Pr2=3 denes the jH factor for heat
transfer. The ChiltonColburn analogy agrees well with
a wide range of experimental data for ow and geometries of dierent types in forced convection systems.
Therefore, when an engineer is concerned with the
calculation of heat and mass transfer coecients, the
analogies are very useful. In this way, when heat transfer
and mass transfer occur by the same mechanism, the results of experiments on heat transfer may be used to calculate diusion processes, or vice versa. Also,
information obtained from a small-scale model can be
used to scale-up the process, or information obtained
with one substance can be extended to another substance. In very specic cases, Pr = Sc = 1, which means
that m = a = D, and heat and mass transfer measurements may be used to predict momentum transfer or
vice versa (Sherwood, Pigford, & Wilke, 1975; Treybal,
1981). But to apply the aforementioned concepts to evaluate or design any preservation process on food it is

necessary to have information about the transport

phenomena properties, in this way the need to evaluate
these properties in dierent systems and under dierent
process conditions is at present a prior research activity.
Dierent studies have been developed in the last years
oriented to obtain more information about the transport
properties. Some examples of these studies are presented
in Tables 24 for momentum, heat and mass transfer,
respectively. The way information is shown in tables is
oriented to evaluate the changes of dierent properties
as a function of factors such as composition, solids concentration and type of food, temperature, pressure,
process or storage time, and other preservation factors.
The tables show in some way the research evolution of
this eld in the last 20 years.

3. Momentum transport
Momentum transfer is present in several processes of
the food industry in association with ow and involves
convection mechanisms between molecules (or groups
of molecules). On the other hand, foods are complex
systems, frequently with non-Newtonian behavior and
subjected to several conditions. Under these situations,
equations to describe momentum transfer are complicated. For this reason, empirical and numerical methods
have been developed to solve these equations, using a
practical approach. Equations used to describe momentum transfer are similar to those used for other transport
phenomena (mass and heat transfer) and they are mentioned in the transport analogies section. Among the
situations in which momentum transfer phenomena are
important, we can emphasize: uid mechanics (statics
and dynamics), and several unit operations such as mixing, uidization, pneumatic transport, sedimentation,
ltration, ultraltration, etc.
Specic examples of research orientation and applications on momentum transfer are presented in Table 5.
Sterilization, drying, extrusion, and packaging are some
of the examples presented in which momentum transport is an important phenomenon to be evaluated. Some
of these situations have been suciently studied as
the case of uid mechanics and we can nd several

116

Table 2
Examples of evaluation of momentun transfer properties in food systems
Product

Magnitude

Flow index (n) (dimensionless)

Banana puree

0.460
0.477
0.486
0.478

Flow index (n) (dimensionless) and

consistency coecient (K) (N * sn/m2)

CMC solutions (0.5%)

0.735 and 0.151 @ 30 C

0.747
0.747
0.748
0.780

Flow index (n) (dimensionless) and

consistency coecient (K) (N * sn/m2)

Concentrated milk @ 25 C

@
@
@
@

22
32
40
50

and
and
and
and

C
C
C
C

0.123
0.103
0.081
0.060

@
@
@
@

40
50
60
70

Study

Reference

Eect of temperature on consistency of banana pure

Barbosa and Peleg, 1982

Eect of temperature on viscosity of solutions

of CMC with dierent concentration

Fito et al., 1983

Study of rheological properties as a function

of concentration, temperature and storage time

Velez-Ruiz and
Barbosa-Canovas, 1998

Eect of yield stress value in four dierent purees

on rheological parameters

Costell and Duran (1979)

Eect of temperature

Nogueira et al. (2001)

Eect of storage time

Carneiro et al. (2001)

C
C
C
C

1 and 0.002 with 12.6% w/w

1 and 0.003 with 17.2% w/w
1 and 0.003 with 19.6% w/w
1 and 0.004 with 22.3% w/w
0.95 and 0.007 with 24.9% w/w
0.94 and 0.011 with 30.5% w/w
0.89 and 0.069 with 42.4% w/w

Flow index (n) (dimensionless) and

consistency coecient (K) (N * sn/m2)

Apricot puree

0.59 and 1.65 (puree 1)

0.79 and 0.96 (puree 2)
0.62 and 0.82 (puree 3)
0.66 and 1.29 (puree 4)

Flow index (n) (dimensionless)

and consistency coecient (K) (N * sn/m2)

Chicory extract

0.65 and 0.48 @ 25 C

0.47 and 0.83 @ 40 C
0.50 and 0.46 @ 55 C

Flow index (n) (dimensionless) and

consistency coecient (K) (N * sn/m2)

Fresh assai pulp

0.53 and 0.66

J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

Property

Table 3
Examples of evaluation of heat transfer properties in food systems
Property

Magnitude

Study

Reference

250300
150165
0.230.09
3.362.19
3.293.79

Eect of frying time before water evaporated

Eect of oil temperature (50100 C)
Eect of frying time
Eect of moisture and oil content
Specic heat predictions based on composition

Moreira et al. (1995)

Moreira et al. (1995)
Moreira et al. (1995)
Moreira et al. (1995)
Rahman (1993)

Specic heat (kJ/kg C)

Meat patties
Meat patties
Raw tortilla and tortilla chips fried
Raw tortilla and tortilla chips fried
Fresh seafood (calamari, cuttle,
prawn, octopus and squid)
Cornish pasty

3.3076

Peralta Rodrguez et al. (1995)

Specic heat (kJ/kg K)

Surimi

1.64 @ 20 C
3.67 @
40 C

Study of thermal properties in prepared foods

with a calorimetric method
Study of thermal properties of surimi with dierent
cryoprotectan concentration and temperature

Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

Surimi

392.6 @ 20 C

Thermal conductivity (W/m C)

Potato

0.545 @ 50 C
0.957 @ 100 C

Thermal diusivity (m2/s)

Specic heat (kJ/kg K)
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Enthalpy (kcal/kg)
Specic heat (kJ/kg K)

Melon, papaya, banana and

watermelon
Concentrated reconstituted milk
Spray-dried whole milk powder
Orange juice
Apple, avocado and tomato

1.4667E
7, 1.8410E
7,
1.406E
7 and 1.2990E
7
3.3502.0
0.03650.0929
101.518.7
3.64, 3.39 and 3.94

Thermal conductivity (W/m K)

Cooked rice

0.1670.306 @ 800 kg/m3

0.1700.331 @ 900 kg/m3
0.2440.383 @ 1000 kg/m3

Gelanization enthalpy (cal/g)

Corn our

2.79

Heat transfer coecient (W/m C)

Heat transfer coecient (W/m2 C)
Thermal conductivity (W/m C)
Specic heat (kJ/kg C)
Specic heat (kJ/kg K)

Study of thermal properties of surimi with dierent

cryoprotectan concentration and temperature
Study of thermal conductivity in potato
during frying
Evaluation of physical properties of
dierent fruits
Eect of temperature and concentration
Eect of temperature and bulk density
Eect of temperature
Eect of moisture content in dehydrated
pulps of fruits
Eect of bulk density

Eect of heating rate, water to our

ratio and particle size

Wang and Kolbe (1991)

Wang and Kolbe (1991)

Califano and Calvelo (1991)

Velez and Torres (1994)

Reddy and Datta (1993)
MacCarthy (1985)
Chen (1985)
Alvarado (1991)
Chun et al. (2001)

J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

Product
2

Ojeda et al. (2001)

117

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J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

Table 4
Examples of evaluation of mass transfer properties in food systems
Product

Magnitude

Study

Reference

Eect of frying temperature

Moreira et al. (1995)

Eect of moisture content and baking temperature

Eect of high pressure on diusion

Marcotte and Baik (2001)

Rastogi et al. (2001)

Property (diusivity coecient (m /s))

Tortilla chip fried
9.348E
8 @ 190 C
5.408E
8 @ 150 C
Cake
8.95E
114.36 E
8
Potato
0.31E
90.67E
9 (solute)
0.37E
90.84E
9 (water)
Potato starch gel

4.97E
104.07E
10 @ 30 C
7.62E
106.36 E
10 @ 45 C
10.1E
108.19E
10 @ 60 C

Eect of air temperature and composition material

Al-Muhtaseb et al. (2004)

Papaya

4.32E
5 @ 80 C, 1 m/s
4.56E
5 @ 80 C, 2 m/s
4.77E
5 @ 80 C, 3 m/s

Eect of air velocity in uidized bed

Laguna-Cortes et al. (2004)

Nisin in agarose gel

4.2E
112.5E
11

Eect of agarose and fat content

Carnet-Anne and Issam (2004)

Table 5
Examples of operations related to momentum transfer in food processes
Application

Comments

Reference

Sterilization of canned liquid foods in

a spin-cooker

Use of dimensional analysis for

the identication of ow regimes
during heat treatment
The process is modeled by considering
the rheological properties of the components
Study of rheological properties of rice
dough using a farinograph and a rheometer
Convective heat transfer coecient is related
to ow behavior
The rheological properties of edible lm-forming
dispersions containing corn starch, methylcellulose
and glycerol were studied
The model is based on the momentum, mass and
energy balances of each element of the dryer
The use of on-line viscometry for extrusion is reviewed
Power consumption with non-Newtonian uids is
studied in the laminar mixing regime
The eect of temperature on rheological properties
is required for a good sterilization process
Estimation of the critical ow conditions at which
transition-to-turbulence occurs
Flow and heat transfer modeling in a single
screw extruder is used for the scale-up of
mixing and heat transfer
Simulation of velocity and temperature distribution
in a tubular heat exchanger using physical and
rheological properties of product
Thickness of the lm was related to ow behavior
and velocity of cylinders
Rheological behavior of components aects
properties of lms

De Freitas and Kieckbusch (2003)

Snack production by coextrusion-cooking

Rice bread production
Cooling of stirred yoghurt in a plate
heat exchanger
Starchmethylcellulose based edible lms

Modeling of uidized bed drying for

paddy rice
The role of rheology in extrusion
Mixing of non-Newtonian uids
Continuous sterilization of nonNewtonian uids
Flow of complex diluted fruit purees in
circular ducts
Wheat dough extrusion

Aseptically processed soybean milk

Drum drying of non-Newtonian uids

Edible and biodegradable packaging materials

references with a detailed description of these phenomena. In other areas a better understanding of the phenomenon is intended and the study of food rheology
and rheological properties of food systems are the basis
to improve the knowledge in this eld.

Cindio et al. (2002)

Sivaramakrishnan et al. (2004)
Afonso et al. (2003)
Peressini et al. (2003)

Izadifar and Mowla (2003)

Campanella et al. (2002)
Brito-De la Fuente et al. (2002)
Guariguata et al. (1979)
Perona (2003)
Dhanasekharan and Kokini (2003)

Son and Singh, 2002

Daud (1989)
Guilbert et al. (2002)

4. Food rheology
As it is well known there are several mathematical
models used to describe the rheological behavior of liquid foods. For example:

J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

Newtonian model

s l_c

Power law model

s K_c

Bingham model

s s0 gP c_

HerschelBulkley

s s0 K_c

6. Heat transfer

Heating and cooling are common activities in food

processing. Operations involving heating of foods are
performed with dierent purposes such as to reduce the
microbial population, inactivate enzymes, reduce the
product moisture, and modify the functionality of certain compounds and, for cooking. But in other processes
(cooling and freezing), heat is removed from foods to reduce or avoid deteriorative chemical and enzymatic reactions and to inhibit microbial growth. Heat transfer
plays a central role in all of these operations; therefore,
its understanding is essential for those involved in food
processing, in order to have better control and to avoid
under- or over-processing which often result in detrimental eects on food characteristics. In practice, heat transfer to or from foods can be attained either by indirect or
direct methods (Sepulveda & Barbosa-Canovas, 2003).
The rst step in understanding heat transfer is to dene
what heat is and how it diuses through a single body or is
transferred from one body to another. The temperature
gradient is the driving force in heat transfer processes,
and several models have been developed to describe heat
transfer behavior in dierent systems under dierent conditions, taking into account the transfer mechanism involved (conduction, convection and/or radiation).
Besides the physical state or relative position, other physical properties of the bodies involved in these processes
inuence the heat transfer rate (Table 3). Characteristics
such as form, size, structure, thermal conductivity, specic heat, density and viscosity, among others, are of paramount importance in the denition of the behavior of a
system (Sepulveda & Barbosa-Canovas, 2003).
The study of heat transfer in food engineering involves more than one mode of heat transfer simultaneously, and frequently some of the physical
characteristics of food, such as density, form or viscosity, change as heat modies the chemical structure,
aecting its thermal behavior. Furthermore, foods usually have neither a regular form nor a homogeneous or
isotropic behavior. Finally, some particular features of
food being heated, such as non-uniform evaporation
of water, crust formation or closing or opening of pores,
are of such complexity that it makes the modeling of
these processes dicult or impracticable. Nevertheless,
some of these drawbacks have been overcome and the
modeling of several specic practical situations is possible, mainly due to the development of knowledge of
empirical relations that properly suit these specic processes. Present-day analytical techniques, such as the
nite element method (Wang & Sun, 2002), allow the
modeling of situations characterized by non-uniform
thermal properties that change with time, temperature
and location, so that great developments can be
expected in the modeling of heat transfer processes
in foods (Sepulveda & Barbosa-Canovas, 2003). Food

10
n

119

11

There are other more complex or more specic models

for dierent uid materials. In addition, there are models that consider time as another variable, so we can
handle thixotropic and rheopectic behavior, besides,
models in which concentration and temperature are included as variables. All these models are important tools
to evaluate the behavior of food systems in dierent
processes, and allow us the quantication of power
requirements in the design of pipelines, mixing or dierent separation processes. However, before applying
them, it is required to know the magnitude and evolution of rheological properties under dierent process
conditions; in this way the determination of such properties follows as an important research activity
nowadays.

5. Rheological properties and their relation to food

process operations
The importance of rheological properties in several
unit operations has been treated in several studies (Table
2). There are papers in which pipeline transport, mixing,
pumping, mechanical separations, heating, cooling,
evaporation, drying, fermentation, etc. are tied to the
knowledge of rheological properties of the foods handled in these processes. Some recent works combine
the concepts of rheology and glass transition (Sopade
et al., 2003) to understand the relationships between viscosity and temperature. In other cases, knowledge of the
rheological properties of dierent food systems as aqueous solutions of food additives (Gomez-Daz & Navaza,
2003), semisolids foodstu (Abu-Jdayil, 2003), solutions
of glucose and sodium chloride (Moreira, Chenlo, &
Pereira, 2003), starch/meat complexes (Li & Yeh,
2003), nixtamalised maize (Nunez-Santiago, Santoyo,
Bello-Perez, & Santoyo-Gutierrez, 2003), soluble coee
(Sobolk, Zitny, Tovcigrecko, Delgado, & Allaf, 2002),
olive oil (Resa, Gonzalez, Fanega, Ortizde Landaluce,
& Lanz, 2002), chocolate-milk beverages (Yanes, Duran, & Costell, 2002) concentrated beverage emulsions
(Buo & Reineccius, 2002), yogurt (ODonnell & Butler,
2002), or the use of modied viscometers to describe the
behavior of uids in specic processes (Campanella, Li,
Ross, & Okos, 2002; Shi & Keum, 2003), are the key
component to improve the design of equipments and
processes. The design of new food products and processes make necessary the study of the evolution of rheological properties in this context.

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J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

composition, shape and size (food or container), mechanisms for heat transfer in dierent process systems,
and application of new mathematical and computational tools are some priorities in heat transfer research,
oriented to improve quality, stability and security of
foods and some examples of advances and applications
of heat transfer phenomena are now presented in those
areas.

7. Numerical dierence models applied to heat conduction

in foods with irregular shapes and non-homogeneous
thermal properties
Foods commonly have irregular shapes, and heat
transfer analysis is usually avoided because of the dicult mathematical treatment and numerical solutions
(Erdogdu, Balaban, & Chau, 1998). Many of the studies
in this area are made with circular cylinders, and therefore it is important to study and develop knowledge
about heat transfer with dierent geometries of foods.
With this intention, Manson, Stumbo, and Zahradnik
(1974) used a nite dierence model to predict the temperatures in conduction heating of pear-shaped objects,
and Simpson, Aris, and Torres (1989) applied a nite
dierence approximation to the dierential equation
for transient heat conduction in three dimensions to
evaluate thermal processing of foods in oval-shaped
containers. The method of nite dierence has been used
by other researchers to simulate heat conduction in
irregularly shaped foods (Califano & Zaritzky, 1993;
Sheen, Tong, Fu, & Lund, 1993; Akterian & Fikiin,
1994; Kim & Teixeira, 1997). More recently, Erdogdu,
Balaban, and Chau (2003) reported results using a volume element based approach to nite dierence model
for heat transfer in elliptical cross sections by using
power curves; an important contribution of this work
was the use of dierent boundary conditions at the surface and non-homogeneous thermo physical properties
inside the food. Using a Windows-based software it
was possible to calculate the temperature distribution
in an innite elliptical cylinder, knowing the outside
temperature (constant or variable), product properties
(homogeneous or heterogeneous), and heat transfer conditions at the surface (constant through the surface or
variable). As Erdogdu et al. (2003) proposed, this kind
of mathematical analysis of heat transfer is a powerful
tool, which can be used for the analysis of thermal
processing of foods with non-homogeneous thermal
properties.

8. Transport phenomena during contact cooking of foods

The analysis of heat transfer in cooking of some
foods related to microbial, textural and sensory as-

pects is not well understood; simplications of that

analysis or overestimation of the process generate
microbiologically unsafe products on one side or overcooked with undesirable characteristics on the other.
One example of this problem is the estimation of heat
transfer during beef patty cooking applying two heating plates. In this case the cooking method in restaurants involves placing frozen patties between the hot
plates and as the heat penetrates the patty, a thawing
process begins. After that, higher temperatures cause
protein denaturation and reduction of water holding
capacity, water and fat may be partially squeezed
out, and near the patties surface browning reactions
occur. The combination of all those processes promotes the formation of a crust (Dagerskog &
Bengtsson, 1978; Lawrie, 1991).
Dierent mathematical models have been developed
to describe the aforementioned heat transfer process,
considering the internal mass transfer and the other
physicochemical changes. Dagerskog (1979a, 1979b)
presented a heat transfer model based on solving the
heat conduction equation by nite dierence methods
without good results to predict experimental values of
the process. Ikediala, Correia, Fenton, and Ben_Abdallah (1996) modeled the process of cooking using singlesided pan frying with the assumptions: heat conduction
with no heat generation, negligible shrinkage or swelling, cylindrical geometry and heat removed by moisture
loss. The model was solved by a nite element model
with good results. Pan, Singh, and Rumsey (2000) developed a model for cooking a frozen patty based on: the
enthalpy formulation, the eect of mass transfer, variable heating temperature and heat transfer coecient;
they showed that taking into account the mass transfer
did not improve the prediction of the heat process.
Finally in recent studies, Zorrilla and Singh (2000a,
2000b) and Zorrilla, Wichchukit, and Singh (2003),
showed that mathematical models based on classic
transport phenomena equations are excellent for predicting the temperature proles inside hamburger patties
during double-sided contact cooking, and they teach us
that, in some cases, complex modeling of a transport
phenomena is not necessary. Results showed that the
use of a model considering a one-dimensional geometry
is appropriate to predict temperature proles at the geometric center, (enough information to evaluate the
microbial destruction in the product); while a model
for a two-dimensional cylindrical geometry provides a
temperature history at regions close the circumferential
edge of the patty (history which is important to evaluate
the global cooking quality of the product). The importance of contact heat transfer coecients was showed
by Zorrilla et al. (2003), and the solution of the system
of equations was obtained numerically using nite dierence methods. In addition, Zorrilla, Rovedo, and Singh
(2000) related textural and cooking parameters as an at-

J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

tempt to relate physical results and any change with the

heat transfer mechanism.

9. Computational uid dynamics and modeling of sterilization processes with natural convection
Optimization of canning requires an estimation of the
heat transfer rate, and in the case of solid or semisolid
foods which are usually assumed to be heated by pure
conduction a lot of analytical or numerical solutions
to the heat conduction equation have been presented
by dierent authors taking account of dierent parameters or process variables (can wall temperature, can
shape, boundary conditions, etc.), (Datta, Teixeira, &
Manson, 1986; Dincer, Varlik, & Gun, 1993; Akterian
& Fikiin, 1994).
Analysis and simulation of heat transfer in liquid and
semi-liquid foods (that show natural convection) is more
dicult and some eorts have been made to describe this
kind of heat transfer related to the sterility level and the
loss of quality (sensory and nutritional) (Rao & Anantheswaran, 1988). Datta and Teixeira (1987, 1988) predicted transient temperature and velocity proles
during natural convection heating of canned liquid
foods. They showed that the slowest heating zone is a
doughnut-shaped region located near of the bottom of
the can at about one tenth of the can height. Kumar
and Bhattacharya (1991), and Kumar, Bhattacharya,
and Blaylock (1990) carried out a simulation of the sterilization of a viscous liquid food in a metal can. Their
results showed that natural convection tends to push
the slowest heating region to the bottom of the can.
Ghani, Farid, and Chen (2003) showed that observation of the slowest heating zone is a dicult task and requires knowledge of detailed transient ow patterns and
temperature proles, due to the complex nature of heat
transfer in natural convection partial dierential equations used to describe this kind of heat transfer need
the application of numerical techniques, and for this
purpose the use of computational uid dynamics
(CFD) techniques seems to be a good decision. The
application of CFD could assist in a better understanding of the complex physical mechanisms that govern the
thermal, physical and rheological properties of foods
(Ghani, Farid, & Zarrouk, 2003; Grijspeerdt, Hazarika,
& Vucinic, 2003).
Ghani et al. (2003) evaluated the thermal process of a
canned liquid food (carrotorange soup) using CFD.
Results were presented in the form of transient temperature, concentration (microorganisms and vitamin C),
and velocity proles. They used PHOENICS code based
on the nite volume method developed by Patankar and
Spalding (1972). Then the governing equations for continuity, momentum, and energy conservation were
solved together with those for bacteria and vitamin C

121

concentrations. The results of the simulation showed a

recirculating ow inside the can, and the location of
the slowest heating zone through all the process, and
the relationship of the bacteria and vitamin C concentrations with both temperature and ow pattern. CFD
seems a good alternative to resolve complex transport
phenomena.

10. Dimensional analysis applied to convection heat

transfer in food systems containing solid particles
Heat transfer by convection is one of the most important problems studied in the last years oriented to improve sterilization processes of dierent food systems,
and new concepts and applications are generated in
the industrial sector processing foods with this kind of
processes. A basic concept that has been used to analyze
this kind of transport phenomena problems is the
dimensional analysis (Welti-Chanes, Gomez-Palomares,
Vergara-Balderas, & Alzamora, in press). Dimensional
analysis is a useful technique for generalization of data,
as it reduces the number of variables that must be studied by permitting the grouping of physical variables that
aect the process of heat transfer. In the dimensional
analysis of convection heat transfer, the Nusselt number
(Nu), a dimensionless measure of convective heat transfer coecient is correlated with other dimensionless
numbers such as the Reynolds (Re), Prandlt (Pr), and
Grashof (Gr) numbers (Ramaswamy & Zareifard,
2003). That coecient and data on residence time distribution are necessary to design dierent processes, such
as those in which particles are moving through a heat exchanger and holding tubes sections (as is the case of
aseptic processing systems). Dierent correlations to
predict uid-to-particle heat transfer coecients (hfp)
for processing of particle foods owing in tubes have
been developed recently to solve this kind of problems
(Sastry & Zuritz, 1987; Chandarana, Gavin, & Wheaton,
1990; Zuritz, McCoy, & Sastry, 1990; Mwangi, Datta, &
Rizvi, 1992; Balasubramaniam, 1993; Zitoun & Sastry,
1994a, 1994b; Astrom & Bark, 1994; Bhamidipati & Singh,
1995; Awuah & Ramaswamy, 1996; Chakrabandhu &
Singh, 1998).
Ramaswamy and Zareifard (2000, 2003), and Zareifard
and Ramaswamy (2001) developed correlations for
experimental data obtained from two techniques allowing
particle motion during the heating process: a calorimetric
method (CM) in which the particle was free to move and
rotate along the length of holding tube, and a particle
oscillatory motion method (POMM) in which particle
was allowed a controlled movement in an oscillatory
fashion. The CM involved an indirect measurement of
particle temperature, instead of recording the particle center point temperature, the mass average temperature of a
freely moving particle (which is not attached to any

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J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

thermocouple), was estimated using a calorimeter. The

POMM involved direct measurement of center point temperatures of thermocouple-equipped particles xed at the
center of a set of circular holding tubes of dierent radii
cut out in quarter lengths. A multiple regression analysis
with a backward elimination procedure was used to
obtain the best model with statistically signicant parameters associated with hfp. Heat transfer to the particle (aluminium, nylon or aluminium epoxy spheres) from the
carrier medium (water or aqueous solutions of CMC),
was modeled using Re, Pr and Gr numbers, and other factors as the particle/tube diameter ratio, thermal diusivity
between uid and particle and the velocity ratio (particle/
uid).Their relationships were attributed to the carrier
uid and various parameters aecting the boundary condition. The Nusselt number estimated from the developed
models showed good agreement with experimental
conditions.

11. Mass transfer

Mass transfer can be dened as the migration of a
substance through a mixture under the inuence of a
concentration gradient in order to reach chemical equilibrium. Biochemical and chemical engineering operations, such as absorption, humidication, distillation,
crystallization and aeration involve mass transfer principles. In food processing, mass transfer phenomena are
present in freeze-drying, osmotic dehydration, salting
or desalting, curing and pickling, extraction, smoking,
baking, frying, drying, membrane separation and the
transmission of water vapor, gases or contaminants
across a packaging lm. Food stability and the preservation of its quality are also aected by mass transfer of
environmental components that can aect the rate of
reactions. Among the components involved in these
mass transfer processes are water, sugars, salt, oils, proteins, acids, avor and aroma substances, oxygen, carbon dioxide, residual monomers or polymer additives,
and toxins or carcinogens produced by microorganisms.
Furthermore, mass transfer phenomena are important
in the scale-up of processes to pilot or commercial scale
plants, and in the control and optimization of the
processes.
To understand mass transfer, initially, the study of
the variables that occur in mass transfer is important
(Table 4); then, the mechanisms of mass transfer (diusion and convection), their magnitude and the method
of determining the convective mass transfer coecients
and, nally, it is necessary to apply the concept of transfer units.
There are many processes of industrial importance
where food solids are subjected to batch processes and
unsteady-state transfer conditions arise. In such unsteady-state situations the food concentration distribution

varies with both time and position. Mass transfer under

unsteady-state plays a key role in drying, freeze-drying
(George & Datta, 2002), lixiviation, infusion, osmotic
dehydration (Mauro, de Queiroz Tavares, & Menegalli,
2003; Moreira & Sereno, 2003; Sablani, Rahman, & AlSadeiri, 2002), salting or desalting, and frying processes.
The transfer process of compounds from the packages
into the food (Nobile, Fava, & Piergiovanni, 2002;
Risbo, 2003), and controlled release of active compounds
can also be considered as unsteady-state systems.
Solutions derived from Ficks law are necessary to
analyze the unsteady-state diusion process (WeltiChanes et al., 2003b). Those equations are used to nd
the concentration of a solute as a function of time and
position, and are mainly applicable to diusion in solids
and to limited situations in uids. The analysis of unsteady-state systems, however, is frequently simplied
by reducing the problem to considering only one-dimensional diusion. The analysis of unsteady-state diusion
problems involves the solution of partial dierential
equations, which have more than one independent variable. The techniques for solution of those equations include analytical solutions (transformation of variables,
separation of variables or Laplace transforms), numerical and graphical methods (Welti-Chanes et al., 2003a,
2003b). Many of the actual research publications on
mass transfer in food engineering are oriented to solving
Ficks Law or other derivation of this law for some specic process. However, some non-Fickian approaches
have been discussed as an alternative way to understand
new concepts of these transport phenomena. As in the
previous section of heat transfer, a general overview
and some specic examples of advances and applications
of mass transport are discussed.

12. Mass transport phenomena and food structure

The diusion coecient (D) is the main parameter in
Ficks law, and application of these mathematical models to solid foods is a common way to calculate the eective or apparent diusion coecient (De) for
characterization of the mass transfer phenomena in very
dierent processes (drying, lixiviation, absorption, permeation, etc.) considering most of them as homogeneous continuum approach (Aguilera, 2002). However as
Gekas (1992) commented, values of De vary by several
orders of magnitude for the same material and process,
and this variability may be due to structural changes in
the food material during the dierent stages of the
process.
Aguilera (2002) proposed a simple form for evaluating the eect of structure on mass transfer to compare
the D of a molecule A moving through a continuum
medium B at high dilution (DAB) with the De determined from experimental data. A rst approximation

J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

is that applied to porous solids in which DAB is corrected

by the ratio of porosity to tortuosity. Taking this concept, Aguilera (2002) calculated the ratio between De
and DAB for soybean akes being solvent-extracted by
considering the product structure as a composite of
impermeable walls arranged perpendicular and staggered to the ow and uniformly distributed through a
continuous permeable matrix containing the oil. The
model proposed (Eq. (12)) depends on the volume fraction of walls (U) and their aspect ratio (a) and, with it, it
is possible to show the variation of De/DAB from 0
(when the volume fraction of impermeable walls and
the aspect ratios are high) to near 1 (when walls are largely absent).
Deff =DAB f1=1 a2 U2 =1
Ug

12

The previous consideration shows that in most cases

where diusion is the main mechanism of mass transfer,
the architecture and properties of the intervening elements may explain the magnitude of De, and this aspect
must be taken into account for the analysis and design
of processes controlled by the diusion mechanism.

13. Non-Fickian and cellular approaches for modeling

mass transfer
The state of the art of mass transport phenomena is
dominated by the Fickian approach. However, for
transport in living tissues, the cell structure plays a major role in the transport mechanisms. Evidence supplied
from food-processing have shown changes in the pattern
of mass transfer in some species with temperature and
environmental conditions that may be intimately related
to phenomena at cell level and the mechanisms of transport of the biological membrane (Gekas, Oliveira, &
Crapiste, 2002). In many of food processing situations,
in which convection phenomena due to turgor and to
buoyancy, and agitation eects, passive membrane
transport, and active membrane transport, a non-Fickian behavior is present. As Gekas et al. (2002) proposed,
mass transfer elucidation requires knowledge of structural aspects and driving force aspects. Also, if a nonFickian model is intended to be applied, they proposed
to consider structure aspects such as the cell wall working as an ultraltration membrane, allowing water, sugars and salts to pass freely through it, while
macromolecules are hindered (except in the case of the
symplastic mode of direct cell-to-cell transfer of macromolecules through the plasmodesmatta). On the other
hand, they considered the application of the irreversible
thermodynamics and the concept of chemical potential
depending on temperature in the case of driving force
aspects. The determination of the membrane deterioration temperature (Td) is an important aspect to be considered in this type on analysis.

123

Le Maguer, Mazzani, and Fernandez (2002) have

been working on modeling osmotic dehydration with a
similar orientation to that of Gekas et al. (2002). They
considered the cellular properties of the material (diusivity, tortuosity and porosity), the properties of the
solution (viscosity, diusivity and density) and process
conditions (temperature and shape of the material). In
this case, transport phenomena models were developed
to calculate water ow and advance of the solute front,
as well as to estimate the average concentration and
equilibrium conditions inside the cells. The models also
considered the eects of the boundary layer solution to
compute uxes using overall mass transfer coecients.
According to Le Maguer et al. (2002) the most dicult
challenge for modeling the operation is introduced by
the complexity of the solid (the insoluble solids, the extra-cellular solution, and the extra-cellular air), and
therefore the tortuous route that the substance travels
inside the tissue constitutes an important parameter
for the modeling. Results using these concepts showed
that the proposed models could be applied for the
integration of the experimental work with the
engineering design of industrial equipment. The proposed models oer new ways for the interpretation of
mass transfer in osmotic dehydration. By accounting
for the cellular nature of the materials and the interaction with the surrounding solution, it is possible to estimate the main parameters of the tissue so as to predict
its behavior.
Fito, Chiralt, Barat, and Martnez-Monzo (2002) presented another approach to the interpretation of mass
transfer in osmotic processes taking account of the inuence of porosity on the response of the fruit tissue to
solid-uid systems (SFSs). In their studies, hydrodynamic mechanisms (HDMs) have been used to describe
the mass transfer phenomena when changes in temperature or pressure take place. During HDM action, the
occluded gas inside the product pores is compressed or
expanded according to pressure or temperature changes,
and the external liquid is pumped into the pores in line
with the gas compression. The vacuum impregnation
(VI) promotes the exchange of the internal gas from
the product with the external liquid, by using vacuum
conditions during short time and then reestablishing
the atmospheric pressure with the product immersed in
the liquid all the time. At same time, HDM usually occurs with deformation-relaxation phenomena (DRP) of
the food structure. Using all these concepts Fito et al.
(2002) have proposed a series of mathematical models
to calculate the volume fraction of the initial sample
which is impregnated by the external liquid as function
of the compression ratio, sample eective porosity,
and sample volume deformation. Such models and concepts are being applied to improve the classical osmotic
process and to develop operations such as the vacuum
osmotic dehydration (VOD) and pulses vacuum osmotic

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J. Welti-Chanes et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 67 (2005) 113128

dehydration (PVOD) (Fito, Chiralt, Martnez-Monzo,

& Barat, 2003; Alzamora, Nieto, & Castro, 2003;
Mujica-Paz, Valdez-Fragoso, Lopez-Malo, Palou, &
Welti-Chanes, 2003), improve the salting process of
cheese (Chiralt, Fito, Gonzalez-Martnez, & Andres,
2003) and develop a new generation of functional foods
through the use of the porosity of some fruits
(Welti-Chanes et al., 2001).
On the other hand, the use of new preservation factors results in the modication of the behavior of food
tissues during storage or nal transformation, as AdeOmowaye, Rastogi, Angersbach, and Knorr (2002);
Knorr, Heinz, Angersbach, and Lee (2002) Taiwo,
Angersbach, and Knorr (2002) have shown when they
used high intensity eld pulses or high hydrostatic
pressures.

14. Application of articial neural network in mass

transfer
As mentioned in a previous section, the use of De
provokes some mistakes in the simulation of
transport phenomena; then, other computational and
mathematical approaches are necessary. Using this
idea, some research in transport phenomena has been
done by applying articial neural networks (ANN).
ANN enables direct modeling of nonlinear processes
without requiring a prespecied detailed relationship,
as could be the relationship of De and the variables
studied in a specic mass transport process Examples
of the ANN application are the works of Ramesh,
Kumar, and Rao (1996) (rehydration of dried rice),
Balasubramanian, Panda, and Rao (1996) (drying in
uidized bed), Baroni, Menezes, Adell, and Ribeiro
(2003) (modeling cheese salting), and HernandezPerez, Garca-Alvarado, Trystam, and Heyd (2003)
(drying with shrinkage of mango and cassava).
The modeling of Pratto cheese salting (Baroni et al.,
2003) is a good example of the steps to follow in order
to obtain a good prediction of the transport phenomena
studied. They constructed an ANN using multilayer perceptron architecture. The network had two inputs, brining time and brine concentration, because (in opinion of
the authors) these variables have a greater eect than
other process variables on salt diusion, and one output,
the average salt concentration of the cheese. This rst
step is important to train the algorithm, determine the
number of hidden neurons and nodes and dene the nal topology of the network. Final results showed that
the best prediction of the average salt concentration
on salt was reached with the use of an ANN in a comparative evaluation with other phenomenological and
mathematical analyses. In this research, the Ficks law
solution for a rectangular geometry was used to determine an average concentration of salt within the cheese.

15. Final comments

The study of the basic concepts on Transport Phenomena is an import element to understand the analysis, simulation and design of food preservation
processes. Determination of transport properties in
foods is a prior research area to support the development of the new era in Food Engineering. Original food
structure and that modied by the dierent process variables must be considered for any analysis of transfer
phenomena. It is necessary to study the transport
mechanisms in the traditional preservation process
but is more important for the emerging technologies
(high pressure, electric pulses, ultrasound, membranes,
etc.) to dene the real potential of their applications.
New mathematical and computational tools must be
evaluated to improve the application of the transport
phenomena basic concepts, and all research advances
in this eld must be oriented to improve the quality,
stability and safety of foods.

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