Design Info

Structures should be designed and constructed to resist loading combinations under these limit
states.
ULS = ULS is used to design for safety of the building's users and occupants and for structural
stability. ULS limit states include stability (overturning, sliding), deformation, rupture and
fracture.
SLS = SLS is used to design for the structure's performance, structural appearance, and the
comfort of the structure's users and occupants. The structure should be checked
against deflection limits, durability, and vibration and noise effects so that the building finishes,
ceilings, cladding systems, and the performance and comfort of the building will not be
damaged.
We have listed the most common values used for weights and densities and material properties
and types required for the use of scheme designs.
Weights & Densities
Water = 10 kN/m^3
Soil = 20 kN/m^3
Mass concrete = 20 kN/m^3
Lightweight concrete = 18 kN/m^3
Stone cladding = 1.2 kPa
Facade (curtain walls) = 1.0 kPa
Services attached to ceiling = 0.5 kPa
Partitions = 4.5 kPa
Car parking (mostly for kerbs) = 0.5 kPa
Partial Safety Factors
m = 1.50 for concrete
m = 1.15 for steel
Concrete
Grade 40
Strength fcu = 40 N/mm^2
Density = 24.5 kN/m^3
Reinforcement
Type II high yield deformed bar
Grade 460
Strength fy = 460 N/mm^2

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Mild Steel
Grade 250
Strength fy = 250 N/mm^2