This book deals with the theoretical foundations of physical education and its intimate

relationship with values and sports. It is written in a pedagogical manner, clear and easy
to understand.
It is an excellent book for anyone interested in sports, a magnificent work for those who
want to know and understand the reasons for physical activity.
It is a reference book on physical activity and motor functions.

PHYSICAL Education

PHYSICAL Education

PHYSICAL
Education

Jos Manuel Prez Feito

Daniel Delgado Lpez
Ana Isabel Nez Vivas

PHYSICAL
EDUCATION

They call me Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra and in 1605 I sent a certain little
book to the printers that earned me a lot of fame but little fortune. The first
year saw the fruits of my ingenuity released in five more editions by thieving
criminals, who caused great misfortune to my honour and no less suffering to
my decimated property.
In those days intellectual property rights were not as common as they are today.

Our gratitud to the IES Alpedrete

Editor in chief:
Marco Pila
Design and layout
Claudia Romero, Juan Magaz
Translation of :
Physical Education
Translated into English by:
Wilhelmina Tweneboa-Kodua
minatweneboakodua@yahoo.com

Pila Telea; 2013

C/ Pozo Nuevo, 12
28430 Alpedrete (Madrid)
Cel.: 609 25 20 82
e-mail pilatelena@pilatelena.com

Printed in Spain by
ISBN: 978-84-95353-03-0
Legal deposit: M-20975-2013
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or introduced into any retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means, mechanical, electronic, photocopying and distribution of copies
through loan or rental, without prior written permission of the copyright owners.

PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
Jos Manuel Prez Feito
Daniel Delgado Lpez
Ana Isabel Nez Vivas

TABLE OF CONTENTS
First block. Physical fitness ........................................................

1. Physical Activity ...................................................................

8
22
32
48
60
72
88
100

2. Warm-Up.............................................................................
3. Stretching Exercises ..............................................................
4. Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills ................................
5. Strength .............................................................................
6. Stamina ...............................................................................
7. Speed .................................................................................
8. Flexibility .............................................................................

Second block. Coordinated Movement ........................................

9. Motor Skills .........................................................................

112

11. Coordination .......................................................................

114
124
134

Third block. Physical Education and health ..................................

146

12. The Human Body: Anatomical and Physiological Bases ..........

150
172
190
206
220
250

10. Balance ...............................................................................

13. Body Posture .......................................................................

14. Nutrition and Training ..........................................................
15. Relaxation ...........................................................................
16. First Aid ...............................................................................
17. Designing a Training Programme ..........................................

Fourth block. History of Physical Education ..................................

18. History of Physical Education ................................................
19. Physical Education and Sports ..............................................
20. The Olympic Movement........................................................

Glossary ..............................................................................

268
270
284
296
330

First block. Physical fitness

Physical Education in your life

Professional Sports
In 1989, UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization),
stated that sport is a specific competitive activity, in which the practice of physical exercises
is highly valued, with the view of improving the morpho-functional and psychic abilities of
individuals, connected with a record of improving themselves or on their opponents.
The current concept of sport is very different from the meaning it had in ancient times. The
difference is in the ethical and religious meaning it had in the past and does not have today.
Modern sports were born in the 19th Century in England, as a status symbol and a distinction
of the most privileged, with amateurism in the background. In contrast, the 20th Century
witnessed the birth of professional sports through the mass media.
In the 50s, the first live broadcasts of sporting events started and won the fans that were
not reached before. Through the giving of so-called licenses, the money boxes of the clubs
whose sporting activities were possibly going to get live coverage began to fill up.
Today, sport is the worlds most important hobby, as is clear in the increased number of
participants and the time and space devoted to it by the media, as well as the growth in the
sports industry.
Athletes are no longer volunteers as they were in the past since they consider sport as a
job. The entertainment nature of sport has experienced dramatic changes with the focus on
professionalism today.

First block. Physical fitness

Also, objectives that have been designed for job prospects and efforts are made to stretch the
human potential to its limit. The important thing in sport now is to win. The status of athletes,
coaches and managers within the sports structure depends on records.
Some of the people taking close interest in professional sports act like their speculators and
do not care at all about the athletes. They focus mainly on names, records, victories and titles
that protect and stimulate a way of thinking and acting at any cost, at the expense of other
peoples reasoning.
In professional sports, the benefits of the achievements and successes prevail over humanity
as there is no time to consider the human being as such, but only as a product that can be
manipulated based on the superficial building of victory.
Given the short duration of professional sports careers, the risk of suffering from the aftereffects resulting from repeated injury does not make the path of a professional career as
idyllic as it seemed at first. We can say that if any professional career lasts between 40 and
50 years, sports professionals will spend between 10 and 20 years to earn the money needed
to survive for the rest of their lives.
The popularity of the sports media, the increase in the number of international
competitions and the emerging development of the economic dimension of the latter,
have led to increasingly negative consequences about the meaning sport in society
and in education in general.

Physical Activity

Picture
Any type of physical activity usually responds to the intrinsic motivations of those who practice it,
in addition to promoting interpersonal relationships, amongst others.
Studies conducted through surveys in recent years on the Spanish population indicate that the
number of people who practice any kind of sport has risen from about 22% to 37% today. 66% of
them identify health as the main reason for doing physical activities. These studies also highlight
that, today, people prefer to exercise on their own (66%), rather than in schools (7%) or clubs (25%).
To address the issues raised in these surveys, we can say that, today, our society has succumbed
to a way of living in which a sedentary lifestyle prevails. The new technologies, among other
developments, provide unquestionable advantages, but their misuse can lead to such problems.
This sedentary lifestyle brings with it the risk of illnesses, such as obesity, hypertension, high
cholesterol and unhealthy habits, such as alcohol and tobacco consumption, which can all lead to
heart attacks and strokes. We must remember that two million deaths are attributable to physical
inactivity. A study published by the World Health Organization (WHO) states that sedentary
lifestyles are among the ten major causes of death and disability in the world.
We can say that a healthy lifestyle is everyones desire and thats the way we want to live and
physical activity can certainly help us to achieve this. Regular physical activity promotes good
feelings, increases body temperature which reduces muscle tension, and promotes relaxation,
regulates biorhythms, and improves sleep, has antidepressant and tranquilising effects, brings
feelings of wellbeing, eliminates stress, and helps to gain increased autonomy and self-confidence.
Faced with stereotyped physical activity, with specific facilities that are subject to rules, activities
are naturally enhanced where all the inherent advantages of urban physical activity are improved
to develop the various natural settings.
As a result of the mass exodus to the cities during the 60s, man was
alienated from nature and a large majority of the population has felt
the need to be reconciled with it. This is why, compared with more
standardised and common activities, there is a spectacular increase
in sports and activities in the natural environment. Another aspect
to highlight in the development of physical training in nature is its
adventurous and recreational spirit. Unlike track sporting or competitive
events, the main motivation for outdoor activities is based on adventure,
the new, the exciting...these are the kinds of activities the population do.
This group of outdoor tasks may be considered as sports for all, unlike
competitive sports, where some win and others lose, since they are
marked by cooperation, where everyone wins. On the other hand, its
recreational nature does not make it less demanding from the physical
and technical point of view.
There are many activities that we can practice in the natural
environment, from a simple stroll in the fields or camping with friends,
to diverse activities such as rock climbing, rappelling, kayaking or
paragliding, amongst many others. The level of complexity, as well as
the extent and richness of physical activities in the natural environment,
requires comprehensive organisation to avoid any sudden malfunction
in their performance. For the development of more complex activities,
we should always count on the presence of a professional for solutions
to the various adversities that could happen.

Physical Activity

INTRODUCTION

Physical activity refers to any type of voluntary bodily movement (however

small it may be) performed by a person in a given period of time: walking,
writing, speaking, stair climbing, running, etc. This activity may take place
during working or leisure time...
We must distinguish the concept of physical activity from two others that are
usually considered as synonymous, even though they are not:
Physical exertion: it refers to any physical activity of varying levels of
intensity (low, moderate or high) involving an increase in respiratory rate,
heart rate, body temperature, energy consumption, basal metabolism...,
which leads to sweating, muscle fatigue, etc.
Physical exercise: it refers to any type of physical activity that meets the
following requirements:
It must involve the performance of physical exertion.
It must be carried out systematically, that is, continuously.
It must be planned beforehand to achieve objectives.
It must be designed to improve health.
The intensity of the physical exertion has an individualistic tendency. What
may be too intense for one person may be too low for others. Moreover, the
body is able to adapt gradually to exertion and what may seem too intense
in the beginning may end up becoming low. This adaptation to exertion is
achieved through exercise.

10

Physical Activity

FACETS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Physical exercise promotes health, and must therefore be integrated into the
scheme of life, more as a habit, without becoming a sacrifice or obligation, but
rather lead to an entertaining and more rewarding experience.
Gymnastics: it is a form of physical exercise characterised by activities
and systematic exercises which pursue specific therapeutic, educational
and competitive purposes.
Sports: it is any physical activity that has a competitive purpose and is
subject to fixed rules. Different outdoor recreational activities such as
mountain climbing and diving are also included in this category.

Physical exercise
promotes health, and
must therefore be
integrated into the
scheme of life, more
as a habit, without
becoming a sacrifice
or obligation, but
rather lead to an
entertaining and more
rewarding experience.

Physical Education: it is the discipline that deals with the teaching and
learning of the different fields of physical activity. Its purpose is to promote
the development of the body and spread the benefits derived from its
practice.
The modernisation of our environment has improved our quality of life
but it is also a determining factor in the decline in our physical activity.
Performing moderate exercises regularly is beneficial to health and helps
to fight a sedentary lifestyle. Numerous studies emphasise that a sedentary
lifestyle facilitates the emergence of diseases as well as physical and mental
disorders.
The solution to this problem is quite simple: sedentary people have to change
their habits and become more active, by increasing the frequency of their
physical activities (see Table 1). In fact, the practice of any kind of physical
activity is gradually becoming increasingly
common in our society. There is a paradox
because the increase in physical activity is
the result of that sedentary lifestyle which has
caused many people to exercise as a way of
improving the quality of their life.
But, although more people are practising sports
activities or going to the gym regularly to keep
fit, it does not mean that the great majority
of the population maintains some minimum
level of physical activity. According to a report
published by the National Center for Chronic
Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, in
USA, almost a third of the youth and up to 60%
of adults are found to be in this situation.

11

Physical Activity

I have no time

If health is important, we can always take out 20-30 minutes to do

something, even if it is just walking. We probably devote more time to
watching TV.

Exercising is boring

It is clear that if you do the same thing over and over again, it becomes
boring. Activities carried out must be varied: walking, cycling, swimming...
In addition, if you set short term goals, the motivation will even be greater.

Slim people also need to do physical activity to tone their muscles and
I am slim, I dont need take proper care of their bodies. The fact that you are slim does not mean
to exercise
you are healthy, and being too slim is considered an illness: anorexia.

I work out
occasionally

Playing football with friends sometimes or taking a bike ride is not doing
regular physical activity, which is the best way to keep fit and avoid injury.

I need to go with
someone

You dont need a partner to exercise. Although that may be more

entertaining, it is essential only in some cases: tennis, climbing, diving
Moreover, if you get used to exercising, it will be easy to share your
enthusiasm with a friend in the end.

Even if you are less than 30 and you are physically well, working out now
Im young and Im fine will benefit you and lead to good health in future.

Gym is expensive

There is a little bit of everything and most packages are offered every
now and then. .And if its not possible, you can always exercise outdoors:
parks, walks, beaches...
Table 1 : Most common excuses for not exercising

BENEFITS OF
PHYSICAL EXERCISE

The direct objective for performing physical exercise is to improve fitness

and adapt to stress. However, many people who perform regular physical
activity set other indirect objectives, which can basically be grouped into
four reasons: improve physical fitness, have better health, improve aesthetic
appearance, take care of the body and be seen to have better physical health
and better use of leisure time.

12

Physical Activity

Exercise and fitness

The main reason why many people exercise is to keep fit,
as this is the way to maintain the physical abilities of the
body in an optimum state throughout life. In fact, keeping
fit has become the main slogan of companies related to
physical exercise.

When we perform physical

exercises, our bodies
release endorphins,
substances responsible for
the sensation of pleasure
and well-being achieved
after the activity.

When we talk about staying or keeping fit, we mean

performing any light activity as a conscientious training
for one or two hours between three and five times a
week. For these people, physical activity is more than an
obligation. It is a pleasure, a time that helps them to feel good, younger
and more confident.
Although we cannot say categorically that being in good shape ensures
perfect health, it is certain that, in general, physical fitness and health are
often discussed along parallel lines.

Physical exercise and health

The human body is designed to move and a sedentary life usually leads to
diseases and even premature death.
There are many health benefits in performing regular physical activity and its
impact can be seen at many levels:
Cardiac: reduces the risk of coronary heart disease, because it increases the
size of the heart and reduces heart rate so that the organ gets less tired.
Vascular: the number of red blood cells, leukocytes and lymphocytes,
increases and improves blood circulation and elasticity of the arteries.
Respiratory: increases lung capacity and decreases the number of breaths
per minute.
Muscular: muscles gain strength and endurance, increase in size and
elasticity and improve motor coordination.
When we perform physical exercises, our bodies release endorphins,
substances responsible for the sensation of pleasure and well-being
achieved after the activity.
Bone: increases bone density, vascularisation and bone mineral retention.
Articular: strengthens the elements constituting the joints, that is, cartilage,
ligaments...

13

Physical Activity

Metabolic: increases the level of good cholesterol (HDL) and lowers

that of bad cholesterol (LDL), maintains glucose at adequate levels and
facilitates the removal of toxins.
Mental: brings a sense of general well-being, improves mood and
emotions and increases self-image, reduces anxiety and stress, helps
to fight depression and reduces the risk of its appearance.
Other benefits : in addition to the above, physical exercise reduces the
risk of some cancers and diabetes, helps to control obesity and excess
weight, increases stamina to perform physical tasks...
Regular physical activity is a long term investment in health and quality of life.

Physical Exercise and Aesthetics

The body allows us to move, express ourselves and relate to our surrounding
environment... It is necessary to devote some time to our body and give it due
attention. This involves feeding ourselves properly, maintaining appropriate
behaviour patterns (getting enough sleep, not consuming any harmful
substances...) and doing proper physical activity, which are some of the ways
to take care of our body and mind.
In todays society, the body is linked to a persons image, making
it an essential part of the identity of each person. In many cases,
body care is considered as an objective in which much effort is
invested: diet, exercise, plastic surgery and make up...
Media pressure, both in aesthetics and fashion, drives many
people to perform physical activities with the sole purpose
of obtaining a body acceptable to society. Many people
are actively taking measures to change their bodies, mould
them, feel comfortable with them and please others and feel
personally fulfilled to have obtained bodies that meet the
standards of health and beauty in the modern society.

Physical exercise and leisure

Physical exercise is linked to leisure when it is performed just to have fun and
entertainment. In this case, its purpose is merely pleasure and the intention is
to pleasantly pass the leisure time with any non-competitive and unregulated
physical activity, which does not involve major technical demands for spaces
or unconventional equipment, etc.
Physical activity which is considered as leisure does not only imply fun but
it also requires effort and motivation to look for new challenges and achieve
them: climbing a mountain, taking a hiking route....

14

Physical Activity

SPORT AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

An activity is usually considered as a sport

when it is integrated into a sports federation.
Some federations include various sports disciplines: for example the Tennis Federation
includes paddle tennis, and the Winter Sports
Federation also includes skiing, snowboard,
etc. The prerequisites for forming a sports
federation is to get a specified number of
licensed practitioners.
The influence of sport on society and todays
culture is undeniable as is evident in areas
such as clothing and accessories (sun glasses, shoes, sportswear...), in the use of leisure time (watching sporting activities...), in
advertising (at sporting events, ads by key
athletes...), at work (sports coaches, masseurs, physiotherapists, sports journalists...),
in the economy (sale of sportswear, energy
drinks...), and in sports fanaticism (ultragroups...), etc.
Sports can be classified according to various criteria:

Professional sports vs. amateur sports:

In professional sports, we are charged for the sport. It is
a job and as such brings obligations such as training at
specific times, not choosing team mates, etc. amateur
sports is performed merely for enjoyment and it never
demands any obligation.
Opposition sports vs. sports without opposition:
In opposition sports, there is a direct influence of the
rival or rivals on the results of the sports player or team,
while sports without opposition, on the contrary, have
no influence on the performance of the athlete nor the
team.

15

Physical Activity

Individual sports vs. team sports:

An individual sport refers to sports in which the athlete performs alone,
without team mates, for example, cyclo-cross, judo, weightlifting or
skiing. In team sports, the athlete cannot participate as an individual but
must have team mates and be part of a team, for example, basketball,
handball, football...
There are some sporting events that belong to both classifications:
individual and team, as in tennis doubles or relays in athletics and
swimming. There are also some sports disciplines classified both as
individual and teams as in karate, gymnastics- cycling or archery.

Sports with direct contact vs. sports without direct contact:

Move, for sure,

Before starting any
physical activity, it is
always necessary to
have a prior medical
check-up. This is
to determine the
physical condition
of the person and
discard the existence
of any pathology that
may get worse with
exercise.

In sports with direct contact, players share a pitch and play simultaneously,
for example, hockey, skating or water polo, while in the sport without
direct contact, the playing field is not shared but rather divided and
used alternatively, as in badminton or volley ball.

Water, terrestrial and aerial sports:

Water sports such as swimming or surfing are performed in water.
Terrestrial sports such as football and basketball take place on land
and can be distinguished as limited spaces. There is also the unlimited
space such as golf or cross-country skiing. Aerial sports such as hang
gliding and balloon flight competitions are performed in the air.

HOW MUCH PHYSICAL EXERCISE DO WE NEED?

Although regular physical exercise is a source of health, it can cause

problems if not done with minimum advice and control (see Table 2).
Many people, in spite of their ignorance about the basic aspects of physical
exercises, start without seeking the necessary information to find out if they
run any risk in doing it.
For any physical activity to translate into better quality of life and health, it is
necessary to consider how it can be carried out, meaning, the type, intensity
and duration of the activity.

16

Physical Activity

To avoid injuries

1
2

Table 2

Practice physical activities on a regular basis.

Perform a good warm-up, begin gently and increase the
intensity gradually without forcing.

Wear comfortable clothes and shoes made with the

appropriate material.

Do stretches at the end of the physical activity.

Drink water or isotonic drinks whenever you are thirsty.

Avoid physical activities after eating or on a full stomach.

Know the limits of your body to know when you are

pushing too much.

People who do not perform regular physical exercises

They must start gradually by taking a few minutes each day to do some kind
of aerobic exercise. This should be up to about half an hour daily, which is
the minimum time recommended.
To be more active, it is enough to change some habits of everyday life, for
example:
Climb stairs at (home, work, etc.) and avoid the elevator.
Walk the dog.
Ride a bicycle.
Wash the car by hand.
Walk to work.

17

Physical Activity

Get off a couple of stops ahead of the bus, metro, etc.

Play games that require physical effort with children
Replace TV with activities that require movement.
People who perform minimum physical exercise
The next step is to perform new activities that are stimulating and facilitate the
maintenance of regular physical activity throughout life; for example:
Walk between 30 and 60 minutes five times a week, at a fast rate.
Go to the pool to swim.
Go to the beach to walk or run barefoot
Attend dance classes
Go for field trips
Go hiking
Go to the gym
In general, these activities should mobilise large muscle groups, include
periods of intensity and be performed between 3 and 5 times a week.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STARTING

It is not always easy to know the type of physical exercise that is best for
each person.
Here are some criteria for taking that decision:
Fix clear and realistic objectives.
Know your personal physical and psychological limitations.
Gather all possible information on the activities that interest you.
Once you decide the kind of physical exercise you want to perform, it is
necessary to consider a series of recommendations that will help you to
create a habit and also help you to continue to practice. Do not make it very
common in order not to cause early abandonment of activity:

18

Physical Activity

Begin exercising slowly, without haste, then increase the intensity and
duration of the activity gradually.
Organise your time: if most people dedicate time every day to watching
TV, how can they not have time to exercise, which is healthier?
Motivate yourself to exercise. When people have a good time, they tend
to repeat the activity.
If an activity becomes boring, it should be changed to another more interesting
one. There are many possibilities and the most important thing is to enjoy it.
Set personal precise and clear goals and achieve them gradually and
establish new ones when you achieve the first ones.
It is important to be aware of the progress and improvement you have
made with the passing of each day..
Finally, it is worth noting that there are a number of myths and beliefs
related to physical exercise that are not true. Some of them are illustrated
in the table below:
Misconceptions

LSE

FA

LSE

FA

LSE

FA

SE
AL

Taking water with sugar removes stiffness: when performing

strenuous physical exercises, micro-cracks are produced in the
muscle fibres causing some discomfort known as stiffness. The
sugar water does not repair these tears, nor relieve pain.

Taking sugar before exercise improves performance: the

result is rather the contrary as this initially raises blood sugar
levels and then produces a rebound effect which generates
hypoglycaemia, which increases fatigue.
Sweating excessively makes one lose weight: many people believe
that when they sweat they lose a lot of fat, but the truth is that what
is lost is water. Moreover, in order to prevent dehydration, the body
sounds an alarm in the form of thirst and the water that was lost is
recovered when you drink.
Abdominal exercises help to lose belly fat: it is impossible
to lose fat in any particular area. Fat loss is always general
when we exercise but the areas with a lot of fat lose more fat.

19

Physical Activity

EXERCISES
1

Comment briefly on the characteristics of sports.

Distinguish between physical exertion and physical exercise.

Point out the differences between opposition sports and sports without opposition.
Give two examples of each.

List four health benefits of physical exercise.

Define the term gymnastics.

Make a table showing the problems associated with a sedentary life and the benefits
of physical exercise.

Explain the following statement: Physical fitness and health are always discussed
along parallel lines.

Indicate the purpose of physical exercise linked to leisure.

Explain the main characteristics of regular physical exercise.

10

List some recommendations for beginning physical exercises.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

In Shape Authors: Martnez de Haro, Vicente and Sanz de Lara, Rosa. Publisher:
Alianza. Madrid 2003.
Physical Activity, Sports and Health Author: Devs Devs, Jos (coordinator).
Publisher: INDE. Barcelona 2000.
Is Sports Good for Health? Questions and Answers on Physical Exercise. Author:
Cascua, Stphane. Publisher: Paids. Barcelona 2003.

20

Physical Activity

IF I DO NOT READ IT, I DO NOT BELIEVE IT

Physical activity must have a significant place in our everyday
life. Through movement, we discover wellness.

On the World Challenge Day, everybody must move for 30 minutes with the aim of motivating
people to engage in physical activity and thus improve their health and quality of life. On 31 May
2006, the World Challenge Day was celebrated for the fourth time in Cuba. It was a day when
all those who wanted to participate in long walks, races, outdoor exercises and games for 30
minutes were given the chance to do so. The World Challenge Day began in England in 1993.
It is said that age is a handicap for the performance of physical activity but George Blair,
better known as Banana George, won a Guinness record award for being the oldest person
to have done a tour on water skis. When Banana George won the Guinness record award on
20 February 2005, he was 90 years 29 days.The Ocellated Megapode or Mallee fowl (Leipoa
ocellata), of Australia, builds a nest of 4.5 meters high and 10 meters long from a mound of earth.
It is estimated that the bird has to move 250 cubic meters of vegetation and 300 tons of earth in
order to build it.
The larvae of the eel, (Anguilla anguilla) born in the Sargasso Sea, complete a 7,500 Kilometer
journey to reach the European shores during the years after their birth.
On 24 June 2005, Sergio Laus entered the Guinness Book of Records after travelling 10.1
Kilometers on his surf board in 33 minutes 15 seconds, in the Araguari River (Brazil).
Do you have arthritis problems with your knees? Then you must know that you should not stand
still. Physical exercise, among other therapies, improves the quality of life and independence
of people with arthritis of the knees. According to a study carried out by San Diego University,
programmes combining walking, stationery bike and strength training with relaxation, along with
a good diet, are the most effective remedies against arthritis.

Did you know that your eyes do not stop blinking? They do
about 415.000 million times throughout life

21

2 Warm-Up

Picture
Warm-up is a set of exercises or games performed at the beginning of any training session,
Physical Education class or even a competition. It is done in such a way that the body moves
from a state of relative rest to a particular state of activity. It prepares the body for subsequent
demanding efforts, promotes performance, prevents possible injury and provides maximum
energy for use by the body and ensures total enjoyment of the activity.
The primary objective of warm-up is to gradually involve the athlete or student in the activity
to be performed at a desired level, to allow the heart and respiratory tract to adjust, exercise
the tendons and muscles and also ensures proper blood circulation. Warm-up raises the
temperature of the muscles and tendons, improves the neuromuscular unit, increases local
blood flow, metabolic exchange, improves the enzyme activity and decreases muscle viscosity.
If at some point we raised the issue of why we should warm up, the answers would be many: first
of all, to avoid injuries of the locomotor system, such as sprains, contractures, fibril breaks, etc.,
and secondly, to avoid injuries of the respiratory system, because by slightly increasing the heart
rate and blood circulation, the body prepares for greater effort. It also improves performance by
improving physical abilities and qualities and finally, it improves concentration and motivation of
the athlete or the student by encouraging knowledge of the body and surrounding environment,
etc. A proper warm-up should respect a generic phase of between 10 and 15 minutes, in which
the most important muscle groups of our body are moved, and a specific phase where exercises
directly related to the sport or activity to be carried out are performed.
There is no specific time duration for warm-up but we can generally say that it lasts between 10
and 40 minutes. Obviously, the greater the effort to be made, the longer the time that must be
devoted to warm-up. Also, we need to spend more time warming up the injured and those who
have not been performing physical activities for a long time.
Warm-up must be personal, since it is directly influenced by factors such as age, physical
condition of each person, ambient temperature or even
the time of the day that it is done.
The exercises during warm-up must be progressive
and start from approximately 50% up to a total of 90%
of efforts, but under no circumstances must we reach
oxygen debt or lack oxygen.
In addition to physical warm-up, we can speak of the
psychological warm-up which comprises motivation,
concentration and the knowledge of the outcome of
the event to be carried out as well as the goals to
be achieved by the athlete. This is mainly used in
competitive sports but it is also used as motivation to
excel at any level.
We conclude this section by emphasizing that many
injuries are unpredictable, but several others could be
avoided by adequate warm-up exercises related to the
activity to be developed. This principle is fundamental
to the practice of any physical activity because as
mentioned earlier, it prepares the body before it
performs greater dynamic exercises. Therefore, warmup should never be omitted.

23

Warm-Up

INTRODUCTION

Before starting any sporting activity it is always necessary to do a warmup. However, though it is an essential part prior to any Physical Education,
training or competition session, on several occasions, students and athletes
do not give it the attention it deserves.
Its name is due to the most obvious effect produced by doing it because
it increases body temperature. But that is not the only thing. Warm-up
produces many changes in the body that are used as preparation for
subsequent efforts.

THE CONCEPT OF WARM-UP

A complete definition of warm-up must include five important distinctions.

Warm-up is:
A series of simple physical exercises
carried out in a smooth and progressive way
before starting any sporting activity to tone
the muscles and prepare them f
or further intensive effort.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF WARM-UP?

There are three basic objectives to be

achieved by warming up: prepare:
To reduce the risk of injuries; when
the muscle is cold, it is much easier
to break.
To improve performance in physical
activity to be carried out subsequently as it prepares all the respiratory,
muscular, cardiovascular and nervous systems...
To prepare the student or athlete
psychologically for training, competition or the main part of the class.

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Warm-Up

EFFECTS OF WARM-UP

Warm-up has numerous effects on the various body systems. The most
important are summarised below:

Respiratory system
The respiratory rate increases while at rest. It takes
between 6 and 8 litres of air per minute and in some
areas, air hardly enters the lungs. During exercises, the
body increases the respiratory rate because it needs
greater amounts of oxygen and it reaches values up to
100 litres of air per minute.
The set of respiratory changes that occur during physical
activity is known as respiratory adaptation to exercise.

Cardiovascular system
It activates the hearts workload. While resting the heart
pumps about 50 cubic centimetres of blood with each
contraction, warm-up causes the heart to enlarge to
allow more blood to enter the cavities, thus making it
pump up to about 180 cubic centimetres of blood per
contraction.
In addition, the heart beats faster to supply more food
and oxygen to the muscles so that the latter can step
up their efforts. It also increases arterial blood pressure
which facilitates blood circulation.
All these sets of changes are referred to as cardiovascular
adaptation to exercise.

Muscular system
When the muscles are at rest, the temperature varies between 36.5 and
37 degrees, and with warm-up, the temperature increases to about 38.5
degrees, thus, allowing the muscles to increase their strength, speed and
resistance.
It also improves elasticity of the muscles, favouring the speed of muscle
contraction and relaxation as well as muscle coordination, allowing for better
movements that require precision.
All these changes are referred to as muscular adaptation to exercise.

25

Warm-Up
Nervous System
By increasing the body temperature, all the nervous processes are
accelerated. This causes an increase in the speed of perception of stimuli
and that of transmission of information which in turn reduce the reaction
time. These changes make the performance of exercises faster and more
accurate.
All these processes are known as nervous adaptation to exercise.

Dermal-Perspirant System
Increased body temperature can be dangerous if it is excessive. For this
reason, it is necessary to reduce body heat which is achieved through
sweating. Sweat plays a key role in the human organism by avoiding excess
heat in the body.
Sweat removes water and toxins, mainly lactic acid, generated by muscle
fatigue. As the loss of water can lead to progressive dehydration, it is
important to replenish with liquids lost regularly during physical activities
Psychological Level
Warm-up facilitates the passage from a state of rest to another state
of physical activity, while enhancing attention span, causing attention
to be focused on the activity to be performed later.
It also increases the motivation of the athlete to perform the
subsequent activity, whether it is a class, training, competition,
etc. In addition, when warm-up is done prior to a competition, it
helps to reduce the state of anxiety (nervousness, fear...) involved
in many cases

TYPES OF WARM-UP

There are two basic types of warm-up: general and specific.

General Warm-Up
It is the type in which the exercises performed affect all the major muscle
groups of the body. It must always be performed since it is independent of
the subsequent activity which must be carried out. It is suitable for all types
of physical activities.

26

Warm-Up

General warm-up normally includes various movement exercises: movement

of legs, trunk and arms, strength and stretching...

Specific Warm-Up
This should be done when going to play a sport. It affects the body parts
that are going to participate in the sport that is going to be performed. It is
necessary to always do general warm-up first.
Specific warm-up should be similar to the activities to be carried out
during the particular sport; for example, backhand swings (tennis), short
sprints (athletics), passes (handball), serves (volley ball), basketball layouts
(basketball).

PERFORMING WARM-UP

To warm-up properly, a set to of rules must be followed:

It must be progressive, from a slow start to high intensity, without
causing fatigue.
Start with light and gentle jogging.
Exercises should be simple and familiar and performed in the right way.
It is necessary to workout all the muscle groups of the body.
It should be done from bottom to top, in succession of muscle groups.
Dynamic exercises must be performed rather than static ones.
More intense exrcises must be performed at the end.
After warm-up, pulse should range between 100 and 130 per minute
After warm-up, it is advisable to start the physical activity to be
performed not later than 5 minutes.

DURATION OF WARM-UP

Warm-up does not have a specific time. Its duration depends on whether
it is performed before a Physical Education class, training session, or
game...

27

Warm-Up

Warm-up for a Physical Education class should not be too short or long. Any
duration between 5 and 10 minutes is considered as normal.
Warm-up before a training session or a game should last longer. It should
normally be between 20 and 40 minutes. Then, after the general warmup its necessary to perform a specific warm-up related to that particular
sporting activity.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WARM-UP

We can distinguish between two types of factors that influence warm up:
External and internal.
External factors
These refer to environmental factors as well as
those related to the activity to be carried out.

Internal factors
These are those of the person
performing warm-up

Ambient temperature: in cold weather, warmup must last longer and vice versa.

Level of training: a person who does little

training gets tired easily and must not warm-up
for too long nor should it be intense.

Time of the day: warm-up in the morning

must be longer and more progressive than the
afternoon because the body needs more time to
adapt to the effort.

Age: children and young people require less

warm-up than adults, because with age, the
muscles and joints need more time to adjust to
the effort.

Activity to be performed later: the more

intense it is, the longer the warm-up time.

Food: never do intense physical exercise after

eating, because at that time, there is a large
supply of blood to the digestive system and
warm-up may cut it.

EXAMPLE OF GENERAL WARM-UP

Following the basic rules mentioned before a warm-up, many different ones
can be performed. The following is just one possibility.

28

Warm-Up

Alternate jumping drills

Light jogging

Heel lifting

Knee lifting

Lateral movement

Walking exercises

Front butt

Trunk flexion extension

Arms lifting

Arm circumduction

Static exercises

Leg curl

Lateral trunk extension

Trunk rotation

Lumbar

Strength exercises

Side butt

Lower abdomen

Upper abdomen

Plates

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Warm-Up

EXCERCISES
1

Explain the basic objectives to be achieved by warming up.

State the difference between the cardiovascular system at rest and after warming up.

Define the term warm-up.

Explain what is meant by respiratory adaptation to exercise.

List four rules to follow for proper warm-up.

Indicate some situations where it is necessary to perform specific warm-up.

Describe the external factors that influence warm-up.

Give examples of five exercises that can be performed during warm-up

Explain the sentence, more intense exercises are performed at the end.

10

Indicate how warm-up influences the athlete psychologically.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Warm-Up. A Path to Self-Mangement of Physical Activity. Author: Blzquez Snchez,
Domingo. Publisher: INDE. Barcelona, 2004.
Warm-Up. Motivating Games and Exercises to Start Classes and Training Sessions.
Authors: Surez Rivera, Rafael and Surez Rivera, Francisco. Publisher: Gymnos.
Madrid,1999.

30

Warm-Up

IF I DO NOT READ IT, I DO NOT BELIEVE IT

We must bear in mind that the primary objective for warming
up is to raise temperature.

Bats lose so much heat through their wings that when they are asleep, they stay completely cold,
so when they wake up, they have to perform some warm-up exercises before they fly.
Dragonflies need to warm up before they fly either by staying in the sun or performing some
exercises. The biggest species cannot take off flight till they reach 20 C.
Red alert: the earths temperature continues to rise. The current climate is the result of the
link between several factors: atmosphere, oceans, sheets of ice (cryosphere), living organisms
(biosphere) and soils, sediments and rocks (geosphere). For several years scientists have
been warning governments that this balance is crumbling. What are the causes of climate
change? Greenhouse gas concentrations (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and
chlorofluorocarbons), which are causing an increase in the earths temperature and changes in
global rainfall patterns.
The lowest temperature on the earth is 89.2 C. It was recorded at Vostok Station (Antarctica)
on 21 July 1983.
The coldest place on the universe is Boomerang Nebula. It is an authentic cosmic freezer, with
a temperature of - 272 C. This immense cloud of gas and dust is considered as the coldest
place in the universe.
The high levels of sunlight can increase the risk of developing cataracts in the lens cortex by 2.5
and even quadruples the possibilities of developing mixed cataracts. If you want to continue to
preserve your sight, do not train during the hottest hours of the day and protect your eyes with
proper goggles.
What heat !!. The body temperature of animals varies
from one to the other. So, monotremes have a body temperature of 30 C, armadillos 32 C, marsupials 35 C,
man 37 C and cats 39 C.

31

Stretching Exercises

Picture
You have certainly heard about the great importance of stretching after performing any type of
physical activity. The importance of stretching is not only based on the improvement of physical
performance but also on the health of the locomotor system.
We can define this as tensions kept in the muscles in the opposite direction to their contraction. Its
purpose is to reduce muscle tension generated through sports and daily life. Throughout the day,
we adopt postures which can cause muscle pain or problems in the long term. The most appropriate
action to prevent this from happening is to adopt a good posture during the performance of any
activity. Notwithstanding the above, and due to the time most people spend sitting, stressing and
the little movement they usually make during the day, they tend to have problems with their backs,
heaviness in shoulders and legs etc. By doing stretching exercises on a regular basis, we can
avoid common injuries such as sprains, tendinitis or joint discomfort, reduce muscle tension and
relax the body, improve the coordination of movements, know our own body better and facilitate
smoother mobility. This is because stretching contributes to vasodilation to a certain extent.
Stretching exercises act as the bridge between a sedentary lifestyle and an active life. They make
the muscles flexible and prepare them to move, helping them to make daily changes from inactivity
to activity. Learning how to stretch is easy, but if we do not stretch in the proper way, we can harm
our muscles and tendons instead of protecting them.
How should we stretch? We have to do this through a gentle tension, making sure the muscles
stretch by adapting the exercises to the muscle structure, flexibility and degree of tension in each
one. When we stretch, we should avoid rebound pain and never pull the muscles excessively to a
degree of pain because that can cause muscle contraction.
Breathing during stretching should be slow, rhythmic and controlled. If a stretching position inhibits
your natural way of breathing, it is obvious that you are not relaxed.
Whenever we perform physical exercises, we must follow with stretching exercises. The best
time is to do it immediately after the workout since the muscle is already warmed up and higher
amplitudes can be obtained without discomfort and with minimal risk of injury.
We must be cautious regarding pre-exercise stretching because there is great controversy among
authors concerning this, as many of them recommend stretching only after completing an activity.
On the other hand, they advise that we start the workout
session with light jogging, lateral movements, skipping
and increased mobility, and then stretching the muscle
since they are no longer cold. If we can ask, who should
perform stretching exercises? We can say that everyone,
regardless of age, gender or flexibility. We do not need to
have an excellent physical form or specific qualities but
daily stretching can improve our quality of life.
We can stretch in the morning before starting the day,
at work as a means of relaxation, after sitting down or
standing on our feet for a long period of time, when we
feel our body is tensed, etc.
We must remember that we may end up injuring
ourselves during stretching, if we do it too quickly, force
the muscle too much or without paying attention to
stretch sensations.

33

Stretching Exercises

INTRODUCTION

Stretching is a natural impulse we all perform unconsciously on numerous

occasions, for example, when we stretch after getting up from bed.
Although we tend to regard the American Bob Anderson as the one
who introduced stretching in sports, the truth is that even in antiquity,
stretching exercises were performed in some Eastern cultures, such as
China and India.
In high performance sports, stretching exercises have been the normal
thing for years. The same cannot be said of amateur athletes or people who
perform physical activity as part of their leisure time to stay in shape since
they do not do any type of stretching exercise.
This forgetfulness originated basically from the lack of information on
the workout effects on muscle elasticity because there is no noticeable
improvement with training, unlike what happens when we train the basic
physical qualities,, especially stamina and strength.
However, muscle elasticity should be improved by stretching if we want to
achieve maximum physical potential, because if they are not worked out,
sports performance is reduced.

THE CONCEPT OF STRETCHING

Stretching is muscle tension maintained in
the opposite direction of muscle contraction.
It is intended to elongate muscle structures and
connective tissue to improve extensibility in muscle.
Its purpose is to achieve lower muscle tension
when performing a physical activity, which increases
muscle elasticity while preventing injuries at the
same time.
Stretching must be done both before and after exercises.
It is not a sport in itself but it is a warm-up, part of the
physical activity to be performed.
It is important to note that each person is different,
therefore, stretching exercises must conform to the level
of flexibility and body structure of the athlete performing
them.

34

Stretching Exercises

FACTORS LIMITING ELASTICITY

Although muscles have a high capacity to elongate and contract, their

elasticity is limited by several factors:
Muscle tension: the degree of muscle tension affects its capacity to
stretch; the greater it is, the more difficult it will be to stretch it. Therefore,
to facilitate the stretching of a muscle, it is necessary to reduce its
maximum tension.
Elastic connective tissue: there are two types of connective tissues:
fibrous and elastic. The latter is abundant in the muscle fibres and its
quantity determines the degree of extensibility of the muscle cells.
Fibrous connective tissue resistance: the fibrous connective tissue is
made up of collagen fibres which are said to be very resistant and least
extendable, so they offer a great deal of opposition to stretching. It is the
dominant tissue in the fasciae, ligaments and tendons.
Ageing of the fibres: both the collagen and elastic fibres suffer physical
and biomechanical changes with age. They occur in various dehydration,
mineralisation and fragmentation processes which lead to gradual loss of
elasticity.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU STRETCH?

The stretching of a muscle fibre begins in the sarcoma, which is the most
basic part of the contraction of muscle fibres ( See Topic12). By contracting
the muscle, the contact area between the actin and myosin filaments
increases. And when the contact area between both filaments is stretched,
the latter decreases, so allowing the muscle fibres to lengthen.
When the muscle fibre reaches its maximum length,
that is, when all the muscles are stretched completely,
you can even stretch further by forcing the tissue
surrounding the connective tissue. To increase
tension, the collagen fibres of the surrounding
connective tissue align in the same direction in which
the tension force is exerted, so creating an increase
in the space that allows you to stretch a little more.
When a muscle is stretched, not all the fibres are
stretched, some remain in their normal position. The
length of the muscle depends on the total number of
stretched fibres (just like the muscle strength, which

Myosin
Actin

35

Stretching Exercises
depends on the total number of activated fibres which contract), such that
the greater the number of fibres stretched, the greater the length developed
by the stretched muscle. There are two types of muscle fibres: the red fibres
(also called type 1 fibres or slow-twitch muscle fibres) and the white (referred
to as type II or fast twitch muscle fibres). Each of them has a different function
when performing a stretch.
The red fibres are the only ones that contain myofibrils with actin
filaments and myosin and they are those that really do the stretching.
The white fibres, placed parallel to the red ones, contain several nerve
endings that are sensitive to the change in muscle length as well as the
magnitude and speed of this change. They also transmit all the information
about the changes to the nervous system.
When the red fibres are stretched, the white also do so, and record
the change in length and transmit the information quickly through the
nervous system to the brain. This activates the stretch reflex, also known
as myotatic reflex, which is simply an attempt to resist change in the
muscle length, forcing the stretched muscle to contract.
The more rapid the change in muscle length, the stronger the contraction
of the muscle (this fact is based on the work of plyometrics discussed in
Topic 5, section on Strength Training Systems).
The stretch reflex is a defence mechanism to protect the muscle, avoiding
a possible muscle rupture when stretching excessively and it is activated
basically for three reasons:
When you are forcing too much during a stretch
When you are holding tension for too long
When there are sudden rebounds.
By maintaining the muscle in a stretched position, the white fibres get used to
the new length and reduce the signals they send to the nervous system. Static
stretching, which will be discussed later, is based precisely on maintaining
the stretch during a medium period of time.

EFFECTS OF STRETCHING

Performing stretching exercises, as in any physical activity, has a series of

effects detailed below:
Improve joint mobility, which allows easy movement since less force is
needed to move them..

36

Stretching Exercises

Enable greater contraction of the antagonist muscle, for example, full

stretching of the biceps brachii causes maximum contraction of the
antagonist muscle, the triceps.
Cause increased blood supply to the area which leads to better blood
circulation inside the muscle and increase cellular metabolism.
Improve the elasticity of the tissues to facilitate the slippage of fibres and
muscle bundles.
Counteract the loss of elasticity after an injury.
Optimise recovery from fatigue caused by exercise by favouring the
removal of waste and replenishment of energetic substances.
Increase the capacity of athletic performance and improve the status of
the athlete to perform subsequent physical activity.
Reduce the risk of injuries because the muscles are capable of reacting
in a rapid, energetic and coordinated manner.
Although stretching exercises are generally beneficial, they can be counterproductive in certain cases (See Diagram 1).

Side effects
Muscle injury not healed completely.
Recent bone trauma: fractures, cracks, dislocations...
Inflammation: tendinitis, bursitis, arthritis...
Muscle hypotonia.
Acute or chronic instability.

TYPES OF STRETCHING EXERCISES

Stretching exercises can be classified basically into two groups: dynamic

and static. The latter is subdivided in turn into active and passive (see
Diagram 1). It is worth noting that there is considerable confusion when
it comes to their classification depending on the source consulted. In
some cases, this leads to errors stating that dynamic and active stretching
exercises are the same.

37

Stretching Exercises
Dynamic stretching are exercises which produce alternating contraction
and relaxation of the muscle. They are characterised by movement of part of
the body in a smooth and controlled speed until it stops at the joint involved.
They should never be done when there is muscle fatigue because tiredness
will prevent the muscle from achieving total range of movement.
Diagram 1: Types of stretching exercisess

Stretching excercises

Dynamic

Ballistic

Static

Active

Passive

Isometric

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular
Facilitation (PNF)

Ballistic stretching exercises: are a variant of dynamic stretching in

which part of the inertia of the body is used to force a joint beyond its
limit of normal movement, through repeated rebounds. An example is:
bouncing the body down to the ground to touch the ground with the palm
of the hand. This type of stretching is not recommended because, despite
its effectiveness, it is dangerous and can cause injury.
Static stretching exercises are the ones in which the muscle elongation
is not interrupted during stretching. It involves carrying the body gradually
to the stretching position, until you reach a point where you feel the
tension, and then you maintain that position.
Active stretching exercises: consists of assuming a position and
maintaining it with only the help of the antagonist muscle. An example is:
raising a foot in front of you and keeping it extended with no kind of help,
relying only on the strength of the antagonist muscles. These are used
a lot in sports because they develop flexibility and strength at the same
time, since the tension of the antagonist muscles helps them to relax and
thus increase their elasticity while strengthening them.

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Stretching Exercises

Passive stretching: consists of assuming a position and maintaining it

with the help of another part of the body, a mate or equipment. An example
is: raising your leg in front and keeping it extended by holding it with your
hands. They are best for reducing muscle fatigue after a physical activity..
Isometric stretching: is a type of stretching in which
muscle group resistance is achieved through isometric
contractions (without moving) the stretched muscles. The
use of isometric stretching is one of the fastest ways to
improve flexibility. A more detailed discussion will be done
in Topic 8.
Neuromuscular Proprioceptive Facilitation (NPF): it
is a technique that combines both passive and isometric
stretching exercises. This is a method adopted from a
rehabilitation system and it is considered as the best way
to increase flexibility. This will also be studied further in
Topic 8.

METHODOLOGY OF STRETCHING

In view of the positive effects of stretching exercises described in the preceding

section, it is clear that an elastic muscle allows for better coordination and
greater ease of movement which is essential in any sport.

Stretches should
never be performed
without first
warming up

When should we stretch?

Stretching should be part of any physical exercise we perform, whether it is
a class, training session or competition.
Stretching can be included at various times but it is usually done after warmup or the end of a physical activity. In each case,
the goal is different and the intensity with which it
must be performed is different.
It is important at this point to emphasise two things:
Whenever we exercise, stretching must be part
of it, at least at the final stages just to finish the
activity.
Stretching should be performed only when
the area to be stretched has sufficient blood
supply, meaning it has to be warm.

39

Stretching Exercises
Stretching during warm-up
The purpose of this is to provide the muscle with enough elasticity to perform
subsequent activity without problems. It does not involve increasing the
elasticity of the muscle but rather preparing it to achieve what it already has
due to previous workout done.
Stretching is always performed after warm-up since the muscles
are warmer and more flexible at that time. The intensity of
stretching should also not be too great because it is just required
to improve the elasticity already achieved in previous activity.
Also, they will be limited to the muscles that will be directly
involved in the physical activity to be performed later.
It is a mistake to consider warm-up as the only basis for
stretching because the latter does not raise the temperature of
the muscles but it only provides sufficient preparation towards
the subsequent physical activity. On the other hand, stretching a
muscle that is cold may cause injury.
After stretching, it is advisable to start the physical activity that
must be performed immediately or at the latest, within 5 minutes.

Stretching after physical activity

Stretches are recommended after the completion of a physical
activity. This is intended to reduce muscle fatigue and encourage
blood flow to improve the elimination of waste. It also makes it easier for
muscles to recover after exertion.
Stretches performed after physical activity must be done gently with average
intensity. It must be remembered that the muscles are tired, therefore, they
should not be stretched to their extreme limits after intensive efforts, since
their stretching capacity is reduced.

How to perform active stretching

Active stretches are the most commonly used, because they have two
major advantages: no friends are needed and it is a static method so it
does not require support. It is also safe and effective for improving muscle
elasticity.
To perform this type of stretching, certain rules must be followed because
stretching must be done slowly and always accompanied by good breathing
techniques:
It is necessary to always perform warm-up before stretching. The muscle
is better prepared to stretch when it has the right temperature.

40

Stretching Exercises

To perform a stretch properly, attention must be focused on the muscle

being stretched.
When stretching, you should never make rebound movements, nor stretch
yourself till you feel pain. Though these methods are beneficial, they can
cause muscle injury.
The first step is to bring the body
gradually to the correct position and
stretch the muscle until you feel a mild
tension.
Then hold the position for a period of 10
to 15 seconds and relax the muscle in a
way that you feel the tension reducing,
whilst you hold the position. If you
cannot achieve the desired relaxation,
you must reduce the tension gradually
until you feel comfortable.
Finally, you must force a bit to hold
the position, without causing pain and
maintain it again between 10 and 15
seconds.
This sequence can be repeated 2 to 5
times with 15 to 30 seconds rest between the repetitions.
Proper breathing helps to relax the body and facilitates the performance
of stretching. You should breathe slowly, maintaining a constant and
controlled respiratory rate. Never hold your breath while maintaining
tension, as this limits the supply of oxygen to the muscles.
If you are in a position that you cannot breathe naturally, it is obvious that
you are not relaxed, so the best thing is to reduce the tension gradually
until you can breathe comfortably.
Stretching exercises are usually done with parts of the body (arms,
trunk, legs) and each part can perform between 4 and 8 different
stretches.
Finally, it is worth noting that there is no fixed time for the duration
of a stretch. Some sources suggest that it must be maintained for
30 seconds, or even one minute. If there is consensus with the time
indicated above, that is 10 to15 seconds, it is the most appropriate for
children and youths.

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Stretching Exercises

EXAMPLES OF STATIC ACTIVE STRETCHES

Stretching of arms
Stretching the: triceps and upper shoulder.
Position: stand and bend your arm behind your
head and hold the elbow with the other hand.
Action to be performed: Push the elbow slowly
towards the back of the neck and hold the
position.

Stretching the: forearm and wrist.

Position: Rest on your knees and hands, with
the thumbs out and the rest of the fingers facing
the knees.
Action to be performed: move body backwards
without removing the palms of your hands from
the floor and maintain that position.

Stretching the: shoulders, external muscles of

the arms, wrist and fingers.
Position: extend your arms forward, to the
height of the shoulders, with the palms of the
hands outward and fingers intertwined
Action to be performed: stretch your arms
forward and maintain the position.

Stretching the: sides, shoulders external

muscles of the arms.
Position: extend the arms above your head with
palms together.
Action to be performed: stretch your arms up
and back slightly and hold the position.

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Stretching Exercises

Stretching the: triceps, shoulders upper back.

Position: place your arm bent up to the level of
the opposite shoulder and the other arm on your
elbow.
Action to be performed: push the elbow with
your arm towards the opposite shoulder and
hold that position.

Stretching the: side of neck and upper

shoulder.
Position: take the opposite arm with your hand
behind your back.
Action to be performed: pull the arm downwards
and outwards whilst you lift your head towards the
shoulder on that side and hold that position.

Stretching the trunk

Stretching the: shoulders, central and upper
part of the chest.
Position: stretch your arms behind you, holding
your hands together at your back.
Action to be performed: with your hands at
your back, lift them upwards until you feel the
stretch, then hold that position.

Stretching the: shoulders and part of the chest.

Position: you must position yourself in front of
any fixed element (bar, iron rod...) and raise one
hand to shoulder level; then place the other arm
at your back.
Action to be performed: move your body
forward and hold that position.

43

Stretching Exercises

Stretching the: back.

Position: You must place your back at a
distance of approximately half a meter from a
wall or fence...
Action to be performed : turn your body to touch
the wall with both hands and keep the position.
You must repeat this with the other side.

Stretching the: shoulders and upper back.

Position: bend your body forward and touch the
top of a wall or fence with open hands, with your
knees slightly bent
Action to be performed: bend the upper part of
the body down and hold that position.

Stretching the legs

Stretching the: back of raised leg.
Position: lift one leg to the height of the trunk,
place your heel on a bar or fence and bend the
body forward with the head facing forward.
Action to be performed: hold the leg forward
with both hands, until you feel the stretching and
hold the position.

Stretching of the: muscles of the front part of

the hip: iliopsoas muscles.
Position: place one leg forward until the knee is
placed above the ankle. Let the other knee rest on
the ground and place your arms on the side of the
forward leg, touching the ground with your fingers.
Action to be performed: lower your hip as
much as possible and hold that position.

44

Stretching Exercises

Stretching the: muscles at the lower part of the

back and sides of the hip.
Position: sit with one leg extended and the
other bent and with the foot of the latter on the
outside of the other knee. Fold the other hand
on the bent leg, with the elbow on the knee; the
other arm should rest on the floor behind the
body.
Action to be performed: push the knee with the
elbow, rotate the body in the opposite direction
and hold that position. Repeat on the other side.

Stretching the: calf and ankle muscles.

Position: place foot against the wall, support the
forearms with your head on the wall. Move one
leg forward and bend it. Repeat the stretching at
the other side.
Action to be performed: move your hips
forward keeping your back straight, without lifting
your heel off the ground. Hold that position and
repeat with the other leg.

Stretching the: quadriceps, knee and front of

the leg.
Position: stand with one leg bent backwards
and take your foot with the other hand. Support
yourself by holding a wall, bar or fence with the
other hand.
Action to be performed: pull your leg slowly
towards your buttocks and hold that position.
Repeat it with the other leg.

45

Stretching

EXCERCISES
1

Show the situations in which stretching exercises should be performed.

Identify the factors limiting the elasticity of the muscles.

Explain what is meant by reflex stretching.

List three effects of stretching.

Discuss the differences between dynamic and static stretching.

Explain the sentence, ballistic stretching is not recommended because, despite being
effective, it can cause injuries.

Describe the conditions under which stretching should be performed.

Give two examples of stretching exercises recommended for the arms.

Give advantages of performing stretching exercises after physical activity.

10

Make a chart to show how to perform static stretching.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Stretching: Complete Guide to Stretching for Toning, Flexibility and Relaxation of
the Body. Author: Anderson, Bob. Publisher: Integral. Barcelona, 2004.
Stretching Exercises: Author: Blum, Bruno. Publisher: Hispano Europea. Barcelona,
1998.
Stretching Exercises Encyclopedia: Author: scar Morn. Publisher Pila Telea,
Madrid 2009.

46

Stretching

IF I DO NOT READ IT, I DO NOT BELIEVE IT

We need to know that stretching are muscle tensions held
in the opposite direction to their contraction and they are
performed to reduce muscle tension generated through sports.

Stretching exercises are normally included in many routine warm-ups as a means of preventing
injury. Well, a recent study indicates that doing intensive warm-up prior to training can have
negative consequences on strength-resistance training of the muscles responsible for bending
the knees. If there is a substance we all know that stretches and have ever consumed before, it is
chewing gum. It was observed that a 9,000 year old piece of chewing gum that was discovered
recently in Sweden still had teeth marks of an adolescent in the Stone Age on it. The candy
was a piece of birch resin.
The tongue of the chameleon is prodigious and can expand to a length of 25 centimetres, whereas
at rest, it is folded like an accordion. The chameleons tongue launches in just 4 centimetres to
hunt and it folds back in half a second. After food is chewed in the mouth, it passes through the
digestive tract into the stomach. However, this is not done by using the slop down, but rather
through the walls of the digestive tract, which contract and stretch to push the alimentary bolus
into the stomach. This is referred to as peristaltic movement.
When a goose sees an egg outside the nest, it stares at it and stretches its neck till its beak
touches the other side of the egg and then it gently picks it up and sends it back to the nest.
At first glance, this appears as a normal behaviour and intelligent as well, but in reality it is a
mechanical pattern of behaviour. Almost any smoothly rounded object causes the same response
in these animals. Moreover, if you take the egg away from the goose once the response pattern
has begun, the latter continues to stretch its neck and carefully carries a non-existent object into
the nest.
Robert Hooke was the one who formulated the law of elasticity which bears his name. This
law establishes the direct proportionality relationship between a stretch suffered by a solid body
and the force applied to produce that stretch.
We must remember that stretching exercises should be
performed in a sustained way and concentrated in the
muscle or muscle group that we want to relax.

47

Physical Fitness and

Basic Physical Skills

Picture
Physical skills are basic components of physical fitness so they are essential elements of motor
and sports performance. Therefore, in order to improve physical performance, exercises to be
developed should be based on the training of the various skills.
Physical form should be improved through physical exercises or general fitness based on the
development of the various physical skills and their different components. The success of the
training will be based on the optimal combination of these components, depending on the
characteristics of each individual (age, gender, level of training, etc.) as well as objectives and
requirements of each sport or activity.
It is very complex to train specifically for a particular skill since most of the tasks we perform
involve all or most of them, although some predominate over others.
Despite the fact that there are many known classifications to determine basic physical skills, the
most generic way to do it is through stamina, strength, speed and flexibility. Thus we must have:
Strength: it is the ability to move or the degree of tension the muscles develop during workout.
Speed: it is a particular skill used to improve sports performance. It is involved in all sporting
events and it is the ability to perform one or several movements in the shortest possible time.
Stamina: it is the physical ability to sustain prolonged effort.
Flexibility: it is maximum range of movement in a joint.
The individual status of these skills will determine the personal level of fitness. This term is
colloquially known as being fit. Every skill can be improved through training. When we train in a
reasonable and systematic way, we can improve our physical weaknesses and move from fitness
to a state of harmony in order to reduce the time needed to recover from physical exhaustion.
Physical fitness has always been understood and analysed from the perspective of sports performance.
However, from the 60s, it was given a new focus and it began to be considered in the field of health
and quality of life. According to a recent report by the International Labour Organization (ILO), one
out of every ten adults suffers from stress, depression or exhaustion, caused by the prevailing and
demanding life style that has relegated all personal hobbies to the background.
The human body is physically and psychologically prepared to deal with pressure and stress,
but you must adapt your rhythm of life
to proportional systems and never do
more than you can handle. In order to
do this, you must find compensation
mechanisms, such as physical exercise.
This has caused more and more people
seeking to free themselves from the
hustle and bustle of daily life, to look for
organised activities in special centres
like gyms which provide freedom to their
bodies and minds.
The current lifestyle is setting the
standard of living. Leading a fast pace of
life should not be considered as exercise.
Physical activity should be prescribed,
just like medicine.

49

Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

INTRODUCTION

Physical fitness is the ability of human beings to perform some physical

activity such as walking, running, jumping, lifting, bending ...with maximum
efficiency.
Everyone possesses a number of physical skills which enable them to
perform different movements both in everyday life and during their sporting
activities.
These skills are responsible for human movement and every individual has a
different degree of development of their skill. The state of each of these skills
is what is referred to as physical fitness.
Physical fitness is determined by physical skills which vary depending on the
age of the person and the type and amount of physical exercise they perform.
Through constant and daily training in physical fitness, it is possible to
improve ones physical condition. What is colloquially referred to as being fit
is just a way of saying that the degree of physical fitness is good and that the
level of skills required to perform physical exercise is adequate.

FACTORS INFLUENCING MOBILITY

Movement depends on different factors involved in its performance which

also determine its results. The various authors discussing this issue have
expressed diverse opinions about it. There are therefore various names and
similar classifications.
In this book, we are going to follow the most common method used today,
according to factors that can be divided into two main groups: basic physical
skills and motor skills (see Chart 1).
Basic physical skills: they are skills that generate and facilitate
movement. They are essential in most physical activities and directly
influence their result.
They are quantitative in nature, that is, they are feasible and measurable.
Everybody has them and they can be improved to a greater or lesser
extent through adequate training programs.
Within this group can be found strength, stamina, speed and flexibility
(some authors do not consider the latter as a basic physical skill). They
will be studied in Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8.

50

Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

Motor skills: tthey are also involved in every physical activity, but they
are not indispensable. They are responsible for the processes that direct
and regulate movements and they depend on the central nervous system.
These include balance and coordination. They are qualitative in nature and
are not directly measurable. They will be studied in Topics 9, 10 and 11.
As a result of the combination of some of the basic physical skills and
the motor skills mentioned above, the derivative skills such as power and
agility are obtained.
Table 1

Mobility factors

Motor skills

Basic physical skills

Strengh
Stamina

Speed
Flexibility

Balance
Coordination

Derivare skills
Power
Agility

BASIC PHYSICAL SKILLS

Basic physical abilities, also known as basic physical skills, are essential
components of physical fitness since physical performance can be improved
through their training.
These skills are not presented in their pure form but they are
interdependent. Several or even all of them are involved in all the
physical activities we perform, although normally, there are always some
that predominate over others. For example, in a workout involving 45
minutes continuous running, stamina will be the outstanding physical
skill, while in races involving high frequency movements, speed will be
the main component.

Strength
Strength is a basic skill of human beings, from a health perspective as well
as performance in physical activities.

51

Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

Of all the physical skills, strength is considered as the
foundation that supports the rest since all sporting gestures
need it for their effectiveness.
Strength is the ability that enables us to overcome resistance
or oppose muscle tension (muscle contractions) and it is
perceived as a functional skill of human beings.
In sports, strength normally appears to be associated
with other basic physical skills, speed and stamina,
in particular. Strength can be classified into three
different categories: maximal strength, speed strength
and stamina strength.
From the perspective of training, strength can be classified into three different
types according to the way it is manifested:
Maximal strength: it is the ability of the muscles to develop maximum
potential tension to perform activity using the greatest possible strength.
For this purpose, large loads are mobilised regardless of the time taken to
do it. It is also called slow strength or absolute strength. This is the kind
of strength used in weightlifting or wrestling.
Speed strength: it establishes a relationship between strength and
speed. It is the ability of the muscles to perform movements that require
strength at the highest possible speed. It is also referred to as explosive
strength and muscle power. This kind of strength is used in sports
gestures such as a serve in tennis, a thrust in fencing, a taekwondo kick,
a block in volley ball, penalty in handball...
Stamina strength: it establishes a relationship between strength and
stamina. It is ability of the muscles to perform movements that require
strength for a long period of time. Neither the load nor the speed of
performance are great, therefore, many repetitions can be made. This
type of strength is needed for physical activities that require long and
continuous effort, such as middle distance running in athletics, rowing
tests, cross-country skiing, canoeing, cycling, swimming...
These last two types of strength are the most needed in almost all sporting
activities.
Strength is a skill that is acquired gradually and it does not undergo great
changes, as in the case of stamina
There are many strength training systems (See Topic 5). They are classified
according to the type of strength one wants to train. These are body building,
plyometrics, weight training, isometrics, weightlifting, circuits...

52

Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

Stamina
Stamina is also a basic ability of human beings that allows us
to sustain prolonged effort and withstand fatigue. When it is
developed, it will help to delay the start of fatigue and keep the
feeling of tiredness as low as possible.
Stamina is the skill used to perform efforts during the longest
possible time, withstand the state of progressive fatigue caused by
the efforts and recover from them quickly.
From the point of view of training, stamina can be classified into two
different types, based on the supply of oxygen to the muscles:
Aerobic stamina: it is when oxygen supply is sufficient to
meet the needs of our body. It is the kind of strength needed
for activities such as jogging, rowing, skating, playing football,
dancing...
Anaerobic stamina: it is when the supply of oxygen is insufficient due to
higher demand for oxygen than the body can supply. This happens when
the intensity of exercises increases. It can be subdivided into alactic and
lactic (see Topic 6). This kind of stamina is needed for activities such as
sprinting, long jump, or weightlifting.
Stamina is a skill that can undergo rapid decline if you do not train, but if you
work at it regularly, it increases in a short period of time.
There are numerous systems to improve both types of stamina (see Topic
6). They can be divided into two main groups:
Continuous systems, in which exercises are performed without lengthy
breaks: continuous run, fartlek, complete workout...
Fractional systems, in which pauses and breaks are made between the
different exercises: interval-training, tempo runs, circuit-training...

Speed
Speed is a physical skill used to determine sports performance. It is involved
in one way or the other in many sporting events such as jumping, throwing,
hitting.... These are actions which normally last for a short time, do not cause
tiredness and use little stamina or small loads.

53

Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

Speed is a determining factor in explosive sports, such as, long jump. In
sports disciplines where stamina is predominant, it is of minor importance.
Speed is defined as the ability to perform motor actions in the
shortest possible time.
It is a skill that depends heavily on the central nervous system
and for its quick development training should start at an early
age. In sports, speed is usually classified into three types:
Reaction rate: it is the ability to respond in the shortest
possible time after the start of a stimulus. This is seen,
for example, in a response to a pitcher throwing a ball
in baseball, a starting gun in swimming or athletics, an
attempt at immobilisation in judo or a handover in relay
race. It is possible to measure the reaction time.
Movement rate: it is the ability to cover a short distance
in the shortest possible time, such as, a 100 meter race in
athletics, 50 meter backstroke in swimming or running to
win a base in baseball.
Gesture rate: is the ability to perform rapid movement with part of the
body, for example, backhand stroke with racket in tennis, batting in
baseball or a shot in volleyball.
Just like strength, speed is a skill which is not lost as fast as stamina. Its main
characteristics is that it increases gradually until there comes a time when the
change stagnates and begins to decrease gradually.
There are different training systems for each type of speed (see Topic 7):
the simple or partial reactions system work on the reaction rate; that of high
speed works on the progressive or short series which are used to improve
the movement rate; the gesture and gesture repetition systems train the
gesture rate.

Flexibility
It is now time to discuss flexibility to conclude the study of the various
basic physical skills. Although it is not considered as a basic physical skill
by some sports specialists, they all agree that it is of great importance in
sports training, since it is an element that has a positive influence on the
other physical skills.
Flexibility is essential in many activities that require large joint movements,
such as taekwondo, rhythmic gymnastics and sports, ballet or trampolining,

54

Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

Also, in sports that require explosive strength, the more flexible you are the
greater the distance and the higher the momentum achieved.
Flexibility is defined as the ability of a given joint or a
group of joints to perform movements with maximum range
of motion. Flexibility is determined by joint mobility and
muscle elasticity.
There are various systems of flexibility training (See Topic
8). They are grouped into two classes:
Dynamic system: it uses joint mobility exercises.
Static systems: in these systems, you have to perform
and maintain a position with maximum range of motion for
a few seconds, as in the case of isometric stretches and
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

FACTORS INFLUENCING B. P. S.

There are several factors that directly or indirectly influence basic physical
skills. Most of them can be improved and consequently they can be trained
to facilitate their development.
The factors that determine basic physical skills can be categorised into two
groups: intrinsic and extrinsic.

Intrinsic factors
These are internal factors, that is, they originate from inside the body and
they are related to the muscular, skeletal, respiratory and cardiovascular as
well as the nervous systems
In this group are found the muscle structure, muscle fibre arrangements,
bone structure of a person, emotional factors, nervous system function,
mobility of each joint, coordination of movements, muscle mass, fat tissue...
among others.

Extrinsic factors
These are external factors produced from outside.
Some of the most important are age, gender, heredity, diet, training, ambient
temperature, habits, fatigue, inactivity, time of the day...

55

Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

EVOLUTION OF B.P.S. WITH AGE

The physical condition of each person varies throughout their life because physical
skills are not static or permanent. They vary and undergo changes with age.
Each physical skill evolves according to its own characteristics:

Strength

100%

0%
20%

30%

Age

Strength: it evolves naturally until age 10.

From 11 years old it develops more rapidly and
reaches its peak between 20 and 25 years old.
From 30 it can be maintained through proper
exercises, but in sedentary people who do not
work on their strength, there is a slow decline.
Between 50 and 60 we start losing physical
strength due to progressive muscular atrophy.

Stamina

100%

0%
18%

30%

Age

Stamina: Up to 12 years old there is a growing

maintenance of the skill to resist moderate and
continuous strength. Between 18 and 30 is
the ideal age to develop the maximum level of
stamina. From 30 this skill decreases gradually.

Speed

100%

Speed: Up to 12 years old there is a gradual

improvement in all types of speed. From this age,
it increases and it can reach its peak between
20 and 25, depending on the type of speed. With
proper exercise you can maintain a high level, at
most, up to 30 or 35 years old.

0%
20%

30%

Age

Flexibility

100%

0%
Age

56

Flexibility: is a physical skill, which unlike the

previous ones, is lost continuously from the
moment we are born, meaning, it is a complete
degenerative skill. During infancy, children are
very flexible, but if you do not exercise regularly,
you lose flexibility gradually due to loss of muscle
elasticity.

Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN

There are differences between men and women in terms of basic physical skills,
due mainly to biological, physiological and genetic characteristics of both sexes.
During childhood, the differences between boys and girls are of little
importance. They include two aspects:
Children always tend to have more strength, especially, in the upper body.
Children often have a somewhat higher level of stamina, due to
maximum VO2 (maximum amount of oxygen). The maximum amount
of oxygen that girls can carry in their body per minute) is at least
between 15 and 20 %.
In adolescence, physical skills gradually reach their full development and the
differences between men and women are seen clearly:
Boys gain strength much faster than girls due to the greater increase of
muscle mass in boys
Boys develop stamina much faster than girls due to the increase in muscle
mass in boys while body fat increases in girls.
Girls gain speed faster than boys in the first part of this stage because
they mature earlier but in the second half, boys gain more speed.
Girls are more flexible than boys and the greatest differences are found in
the ankles, knees, hips and trunk.
In adulthood, if regular physical activity is not performed, physical
skills begin to suffer progressive deterioration. It is a crucial stage for
maintaining them through an active lifestyle and there are significant
differences between both sexes:
Men maintain a greater level of strength than women because the latter
have smaller muscle mass and consequently, gain less muscle mass.
The stamina level of men is normally higher than that of women because
men have greater muscle mass and bigger aerobic, heart and lung
capacity than women.
Men are usually faster than women because they have more muscle
mass and strength than women.
Women are more flexible than men because they have less muscle tone
on one hand and their joints are more relaxed on the other, which allows
for greater range of motion.

57

Physical fitness and basic physical skills

EXERCISES

Explain how aging reduces the strength of a person.

State the main distinction between aerobic and anaerobic stamina.

Define the term physical fitness.

Give three examples of activities where flexibility is essential.

Compare and contrast the differences between the basic physical skills of boys and
girls during adolescence.

Draw a diagram representing the ratio between strength, stamina and speed.

Identify the three types of speed and explain them.

Mention some strength training systems.

Explain the sentence: basic physical skills have a quantitative trait.

10

Show the differences between basic physical skills and motor skills.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Physical Qualities. Authors: Gonzlez Barragn, Carlos and Sebastin i Obrador,
Enric Mara. Editorial: INDE. Barcelona, 2000.
Fitness Training. Author: Los Santos i Poquet, Carles. Editorial: Wanceulen, S.L. Sevilla,
2004.

58

Physical fitness and basic physical skills

IF I DO NOT READ IT, I DO NOT BELIEVE IT

Everyone has strength, stamina, flexibility, coordination and
speed. The individual state of these skills is what determines
physical fitness

This is the slowest marathon world record. Lloyd Scott, 41 years old, former fire-fighter who
had a bone marrow surgery as a result of leukaemia, walked 42 Kilometers of the Edinburgh
Marathon in 6 days 30 minutes and 56 seconds. He ran 9 hours a day, wearing a spectacular
diving suit of 60 kilograms. His aim was to raise funds for children with problems of leukaemia.
In the Sahara desert, an international solidarity sporting event, a marathon, is held to sensitise
the world about the situation of the Saharawi population. It held its seventh edition this year.
The Apnea competition between animals: Sea lions dive down to 1500 meters deep and can hold
their breath for 10 minutes. Meanwhile, emperor penguin can dive to 483 meters deep without
breathing for 18 minutes. Finally, we have the sea serpent, which can remain submerged up to
60 minutes, thanks to the long lungs running through its body.
According to a study published in the Annals of Internal Medicine, older adults who perform
physical exercises three or more times a week, have between 30 and 40% lower risk of
developing dementia than those who lead a sedentary life style. It appears that exercise delays
the start of dementia by increasing blood flow in the brain regions associated with memory.
It is clear that to become an ironman, it is not necessary to be iron, but you should rather have
an iron spirit, as in the case of Sarah Reinertsen, the first lady with a physical disability who was
able to complete the Hawaii Ironman with a record of 15 hours and 5 minutes

The record for StepUps in one hour is 4135. This record

was set by Manjit Singh on 4 April 1999, on a step height
of 38.1 centimetres in Leicester (England)

59

5 Strength

Picture
Generically, any action capable of modifying the state of rest or movement of the body by imparting
acceleration to it is referred to as strength.
Moreover, strength as a basic physical skill is defined as the ability to generate intramuscular
tension against resistance with or without motion.
Periodic and systematic strength training allows us to obtain various physical benefits, such as
muscular enlargement (hypertrophy) or increased energy consumption when not physically active,
which helps to reduce body fat. In addition to this, it favours increased bone mineral content and
makes it stronger and resistant, increases the strength of non- contractile structures, like tendons
and ligaments, prevents bad posture habits, enables significant neuromuscular adaptations,
improves athletic performance and it is an essential component of any rehabilitation program.
It is important to train and improve strength. Both men and women seem to have the ability to
increase their strength during puberty and adolescence. It reaches a peak between 20 and 25 years
old, but decreases significantly after this. Thus, at 25 years old, a person loses about 1% of their
maximum strength each year, so at 65, a person will have only approximately 60% of the strength
they had at 25 years old. This means that, if we do not work adequately on our strength, when we
get to 75 years of age, our legs and arms will be so weak that it will cost us even to get up from a
chair or bed, implying that we cannot look after ourselves.
The loss of muscular strength is related to individual levels of physical skill and personal habits.
The most active people or those who continue to do strength training are less likely to lose
muscular strength.
We must note that each individual is conditioned by a variety of factors. Knowing and taking them
into account will help us to better understand how to train them, and give us the opportunity to
understand why we can sometimes generate more or less strength.
There are biochemical factors that influence the development of strength, such as genetics or the
constitution of the person. Moreover, there are physiological factors such as muscle length, muscle
tone or neuromuscular efficiency that also influence the
development of strength. Two other conditioning factors
to consider, and previously mentioned, are age and
gender.
The Russian gymnast, Ditaytin, won medals in all
events during the 1980 Moscow Olympics. This was
the first Olympic Games held in a communist country.
The United States of America, Federal Republic
of Germany and Japan did not participate in this
competition, in revulsion to the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan a year prior to the celebration of the
games, which generated uncertainty to the future of
the Olympic Movement.
Another downside of the game was doping. Moscow
saw how the use of stimulants and anabolic products
was increasing among many athletes. Among the
products most used was testosterone, male hormone
that regulates muscle growth, as well as other products
that the IOC Medical Commission had in its long list of
banned substances.

61

Strength

INTRODUCTION

Right from birth, we are forced to overcome the force of gravity to enable
us move. Muscular strength is absolutely necessary to humans because
in addition helping us to maintain body posture, it enables us to perform
many day to day activities as well: lifting objects, pulling, stretching,
pushing, twisting...
There are other reasons, apart from those expressed in the preceding
paragraph, why strength should be developed: it facilitates sports practice,
makes it easier for us to perform difficult activities and gives us aesthetic
beauty thanks to the muscle development that occurs...

It is not advisable
to perform strength
training with weights
during the period of
growth because this
negatively affects the
normal growth of the
bones.

During growth, strength increases at the same time that the bones and
muscles grow. But when the growth stops, the only way to further develop
strength is through physical exercise and training.
Strength and stamina are the physical skills that can be more or better
developed through adequate training. Strength training has to be more
specific; you cannot increase strength by repeating the technical gestures of
a sport, while the intensity of the stimulus is too low to produce a significant
improvement.
Of all the basic physical skills, strength has the greatest influence on the
others, and consequently on sports performance, because the increase in
strength facilitates the learning of new motor skills. The belief that muscular
development takes away speed and flexibility from the athlete is not yet certain.
To improve muscular strength, the muscles must be made to perform
exercises that will let them mobilise heavier weight than they normally carry.
This is known as load to the weight of a mass. Strength training can be done
with two different types of loads:
Natural load: it refers to the weight
of ones own body.

Overload: it can be the weight

of another person, light materials
(medicine ball, ballast...),dumbbells,
bars, discs...), equipment, etc.

62

Strength

THE CONCEPT OF STRENGTH

The concept of strength, understood as a functional ability of human beings,

refers to the skill that allows us to overcome resistance or oppose it using
muscle contractions.
Our muscles are capable of contracting to generate tension. When that
muscle contraction is applied against resistance (mass), strength is exerted
and there are two possibilities: that which exceeds it (strength > resistance)
or incapable of overcoming it (strength resistance).
Speaking of strength, we actually use physics terminology, which defines it
as the product of mass multiplied by acceleration:
F= m x a.
It is important to understand that if you want to increase your muscular
strength, you only have two ways to work it out:
By increasing mass or resistance to overcome
By increasing acceleration of mass by performing high speed movements.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE MUSCULAR STRENGTH

There are two factors that determine the strength of muscles and the degree
of muscular tension each person is capable of generating:

Intrinsic factors
These are factors originating from inside the body. Among them are three
different classes.

Neurophysiological factors
There are many such factors that affect the ability of the muscle to contract
and consequently develop strength. The cross section of the muscle, muscle
fibre arrangement, the predominant fibre type, muscle length, quantity of
fibres used, intensity and frequency of stimulus... are some of them.

Biomechanical factors
They determine the true strength of the muscle and are basically related to
the skeletal system of a person. The main ones are th e length of the muscle
lever, the angle of traction of the joint and the moment of inertia of the load.

63

Strength
Emotional factors
The maximum muscular strength that develops voluntarily is 60-70% of the
actual maximum capacity. Emotional factors can raise the level of strength
used to mobilize muscle fibres that are not normally stimulated. These include
motivation, attention, fear, ability to make sacrifices, concentration...

Extrinsic factors
Strength also depends on several external factors. The most important
among them are temperature, food, training, weather, age (See Table 1)
and gender. (See Table 2).

Evolution of strength with age

Table 1

Strength doubles between 11 and 16 years old.

At age 16, strength reaches 80-85% of its maximum peak
Maximum strength is reached between 20 and 25 years old, once muscle
development is complete.
From 30, if this quality is not trained specifically, there is a slow but
progressive decline.
Between 50 and 60, a gradual atrophy of muscle mass begins to develop.

TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Depending on the resistance that opposes the strength that is used, different
types of muscle contractions can be performed, according to whether there
is muscle movement or not.

Isotonic contraction
This occurs when the muscle contracts and causes a change in the length of
the muscle fibers. This can be done in two ways:

Concentric isotonic contraction

This occurs when muscle length decreases and shortens, for example, when
performing push-ups with dumbbells.

Eccentric isotonic contraction

This occurs when muscle length increases and becomes longer, for instance,
when you kick a football with your foot.

64

Strength

Isometric contraction
This occurs when the strength exerted cannot overcome the resistance and
the muscle length does not make any change. It is a static strength exerted
against an immovable resistance, for example, when pushing a wall.

Auxotonic contraction
In this case, isotonic and isometric contractions are produced simultaneously.
At the beginning of the movement, the emphasis is on isotonic contraction
and the isometric is highlighted at the end, for example, when stretching an
extensor tendon.

Isokinetic contraction
This occurs when the strength exerted is done at a constant speed, which
forces the muscle to work with the same intensity throughout distance. An
example is rowing. You can only train for this with specific equipment..
Gender differences in strength

Table 2

The differences between men and women begin to show from

adolescence onwards, around 12-14 years old, the period when
boys develop strength faster.
The man is stronger than the woman because he has a higher
amount of muscle tissue: 36-44% in men compared to 25-29% in
women.
Mans capacity to develop muscle is twice that of the woman.
After 30 years old, strength decreases equally in men and women.

TYPES OF STRENGTH

To differentiate the types of strength, you must take account of the ways
in which strength manifests itself. From the perspective of training, we can
distinguish three types:

Maximum strength
This is also known as slow strength. It is the skills of the muscles to develop
the highest possible tension. For this purpose, large loads are mobilised
regardless of the speed, for example in weightlifting. The speed of movement
is minimal and repetitions are few (See Table 1).

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Strength
Speed-strength
This is also called explosive strength and it is the skill used
by the muscles to give maximum possible speed to a load.
The speed of movement tends to be the maximum (See
Table 1). This type of strength determines performance
in sports that require explosive speed in their movements:
volley ball (jumping, heading the ball), handball (scoring
a goal), athletics (sprinting), football, (kicking the ball)...

Stamina-strength
It is the skill used by the muscles to withstand fatigue
caused by prolonged effort in which many repetitive
muscular contractions are performed. In this case, since
neither the load nor the speed is maximal, the execution
speed is not very great and one can perform a number
of repetitions (See Table 1). This is the kind of strength
needed in sports and physical activities that require long
and continuous effort: long distance running in athletics,
rowing, swimming, cross-country skiing...

Maximum strength

Speed-strength

Stamina-strength

Load

Heavy weight

Moderate

Light weight

Speed

Low

High

Medium

Few 2-8

Average, 8-12

Many 15-30

Long, 3-5

Medium, 2-4

Short, 1-3

Repetitions
Breaks

Table 1. Basic characteristics of training for each type of strength

Maximum strength

Speed-strength

Stamina-strength

Load

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

30-50%

Repetitions

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

15-30

Series

2-4

2-4

2-4

4-6

4-6

2-4

Breaks

3-5

3-5

3-5

2-4

2-4

1-3

Table 2. Training of the different types of strength through weightlifting

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Strength

STRENGTH TRAINING SYSTEMS

There are many methods to develop muscular strength (see Diagram 1).
The type to use depends primarily on the type of strength you want to train,
since each sport has different strength requirements. Among the most widely
used systems for strength training are the following:
Weightlifting: it is a very effective system for strength training. It is
basically intended to work on maximum strength and mobilise large loads
although it can also be used to train the other two types of strength (see
Table 2).

Before you start

training with large
loads, it is necessary to
work the back muscles
well to strengthen them
in order to prevent
injuries

The percentage of load is taken depending on the maximum weight of

the load for each particular exercise. This is performing a maximum
strength test: only a single repetition is made with a specific weight. If
you can handle it, you pass on to a higher weight (increase between
2.5 and 5 kilos), with a break between each attempt and so on, until
it is no longer possible with a given load. It is taken as the maximum
load (100%), the last you could handle.
Isometrics: it is a training system used to work on maximum strength.
It is based on short duration exercises between (4-12 seconds) that
are studied for the muscle to perform an isometric contraction against
immovable resistance.
It is training with 10 or 12 exercises, and each of them has
to be worked out in three angles: 45, 90 and 135. This
system is widely used for the recovery of people who have
been inactive for a while due to injury or disease.
Strength building: it is a system that allows the development
of maximum strength and speed-strength through the use
of weights and equipment.
Isokinetic method: for their characteristics, when working
on isokinetic contractions, special equipment is used. This
training system is used jointly to develop maximum strength
and stamina- strength.
Body building: it is a system of speed-strength training
developed in the form of a circuit. It consists of 10 to 12
exercises that are worked out with 60% of loads. There are
6 or 8 repetitions of each exercise and recovery is within
two minutes. The circuit is made 2 to 4 times and recovery
interval between the rounds is 5 minutes..

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Strength
Plyometrics: it is a specific training system for improving the explosive
strength of the legs. It is based on the fact that a muscle that is subjected
to an eccentric concentration has greater ability to develop its explosive
concentric strength.
It involves jumping repeatedly (between 4 and 8 times) from different
heights, and after dropping on the floor, you have to jump without stopping,
upwards as far as you can; it is high jump preceded by a fall (jump down).
The minimum height is usually between 40 to 50 centimetres.
The multiple hops are a form of milder plyometrics exercises.

Circuits: they are used to develop stamina-strength. A series of localised

exercises (arms, trunk and legs) are performed using small loads: own
body weight or that of another person or light weights.
The number of repetitions ranges between 10 and 15 and the execution
speed is moderate.
Training sessions: they are used in stamina-strength workout. As in the
previous system, very low loads such as own body weight or that of a
colleague are used.
Its duration varies between 30 and 60 minutes. Up to 30 exercises can
be performed and for each of them a specific number of repetitions are
made, interspersed with breaks.
The use of strength training systems produces some effects in the body
(see Table 3) and has direct influence on the muscular development
of the person.

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Strength

Maximum strenght

Speed-strenght

Body
building

Plyometric

Stengthbuilding

Own body weight

Weight of a team mate
Light weight

Isometric

Weightlifting

Weights

Stamina-strenght

Isokinetic
Method

Training
sessions

Strenght training equipment

Diagram 1: Strength Training Systems

Depending on the number of weekly training sessions, you can have

1 training session per week: to maintain strength.
2-3 training sessions per week: to increase strength.
4-5 training sessions per week: to increase strength and develop
muscle mass.
Effects of strength training

Circuits

Table 3

Hypertrophy muscle: it develops muscle mass and increases the volume of

muscle.
Improvement of muscle metabolism: there is an increase in the energy reserve in
the muscle which facilitates the ability of the muscles to workout.
Improvement of neuromuscular coordination: excitability and speed of nerve
conduction increases, allowing workout to be performed with less effort.
Weight gain: muscle hypertrophy causes an increase in weight and bone density
hence, an increase in the density and weight of the person.

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Strength

EXCERCISES
1

Is it true that muscular development reduces speed and flexibility?

Define the term strength.

Explain what isometric contraction is and give an example.

In isometric exercises, strength is...

Describe the evolution of strength with age.

If you use a load equal to or above 70%, what type of strength are you training?

Compare mens ability to build muscles with that of women.

Explain what is referred to as load

Discuss three intrinsic factors on which strength depends.

10

Mention the two possible training methods to increase strength.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Handbook of Theory and Practice of Physical Fitness. Authors: De la Reina Montero,
Leopoldo and Martnez de Haro, Vicente. Free printable on-line book is in PDF. Webpage
address: web. http://cdeporte.rediris.es/biblioteca/libroMTyPAF.pdf
Strength Training. Author: Boeckh-Behrens, Wend-Uwe. Publisher: Paidotribo. Barcelona,
2004.
Muscle Exercises Encyclopedia. Author: Morn Esquerdo, scar. Publisher: Pila Telea.

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IF I DO NOT READ IT, I DO NOT BELIEVE IT

You may have heard the legendary phrase: Uncontrolled
Strength is useless on some occasions.

Mieltxo Saralegi is the holder of the world stone lifting record with 329 kilos. The stones used
for this sport are made of granite. They can be cylindrical, cubic, spherical or rectangular. The
ones used for attempts at absolute records are rectangular, like the one you see in the picture.
The stones are worked using traditional methods to enable the lifter to use them. They are totally
balanced so that the weightvolume ratio will be appropriate. Moreover, a few notches are added
at the sides for perfect grip.
On 28 April 1999, Frank Simon, of Cayo Hueso, Florida (USA) held a 61.2 kilos motor bike with
his teeth for 14.5 seconds. Incredible!!!, but true. Deng Shaoqian is a 31-year-old Chinese
waiter who performed 140 push-ups in 1 minute, and thus won the Guinness record of a strength
modality which was established in 133 after three months of rigorous training.
But if you find this news surprising, watch the following: A 6-year-old child called Lu Di, can
perform 30 push-ups within 10 seconds and more than 10,000 in 3 hours. Lus father wants his
son to be included in the Guinness Book of Records for these achievements.
In the specialty practiced by the ancient Greeks during their encounters, then called shot put, but
now known as weight throwing, the worlds mens record holder since 1990 is the American
Randy Barnes, with a throw of 23.12 meters. In the womens category of the same specialty, the
world record holder is Natalya Lisovskaya (URSS), with a considerable distance of 22.63 meters.
Although most people think that the elephant is the strongest animal on earth, it is not true. It is
a small insect called rhinoceros beetle. It is 4.5 centimetres long, and it can carry a load which
is thirty times heavier than its own weight on its back for one hour.

Despite what we all thought about the strongest

animal on earth in proportion to its weight and
size, you now know that it is not the elephant.

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