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ASM Handbook: Volume 14A Metalworking: Bulk Forming
ASM Handbook: Volume 14A Metalworking: Bulk Forming
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ASM Handbook
Volume 14A
Metalworking: Bulk Forming
Prepared under the direction of the
ASM International Handbook Committee
Editorial Assistance
Elizabeth Marquard
Heather Lampman
Cindy Karcher
Beverly Musgrove
Kathleen Dragolich
Marc Schaefer
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Copyright # 2005
by
ASM International1
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner.
First printing, October 2005
This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from
worldwide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems.
Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A
PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be
accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is
intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside
of ASMs control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as
to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of
this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE
EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL,
INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF
SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specication is essential. Therefore,
specic testing under actual conditions is recommended.
Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in
connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or
trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright,
or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.
Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ASM International
ASM Handbook
Includes bibliographical references and indexes
Contents: v.1. Properties and selectionirons, steels, and high-performance alloysv.2. Properties and selectionnonferrous alloys and
special-purpose materials[etc.]v.21. Composites
1. MetalsHandbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-workHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II. Metals
Handbook.
0
TA459.M43 1990 620.1 6 90-115
SAN: 204-7586
ISBN: 0-87170-708-X
ASM International1
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
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Printed in the United States of America
Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International.
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Foreword
Metalworking is one of the oldest and the most important of manufacturing technologies. Emerging
from prehistoric times and progressing thru rapid advances during the Industrial Revolution, when largescale steelmaking and metalworking operations became widespread. The scientic understanding of
metallurgy and metalworking continued well into the 20th century, although in many instances the costeffective manufacturing of parts still required the process of trial-and-error experimentation due to the
complex material, mechanical, and thermal conditions of metalworking operations such as forging,
rolling, and other thermomechanical processes.
Today, with the competitive demands of a global economy, the technologies of metalworking operations are being transformed in several ways. First and foremost, computer-aided design and manufacturing systems are becoming indispensable tools in all facets of metalworking. Computer simulations
not only reduce or preclude the need for trial-and-error engineering of tooling and process conditions, but
computer-based modeling also provides a tool for process optimization. Any industry must continuously
evaluate the costs of competitive materials and the operations necessary for converting each material into
cost-effective nished products. Manufacturing economy with no sacrice in quality is paramount, and
modern statistical and computer-based process design and control techniques are more important than
ever. This book serves as an invaluable introduction to this rapidly evolved technology, and also provides
a strong foundation with regard to more standard, well-established metalworking operations, as covered in
this volume and Volume 14 of the 9th Edition Metals Handbook series.
Volume 14A of the ASM Handbook series is the rst of two volumes covering the distinct processes and
industries of bulk working and sheet forming. It covers bulk forming methods (such as forging, extrusion,
drawing, and rolling), where three-dimensional deformation produces a new shape with signicant
change in the cross-section or thickness of a material. In contrast, Volume 14B covers the technology of
the stamping and sheet-forming industry, where at product is shaped into a new form without a signicant change in the cross-sectional thickness. These two general categories of metalworking methods
are distinct, and a two-volume set also allows for more content in comparison to the Volume 14 of the 9th
Edition Metals Handbook, which covered both bulk forming and sheet forming technologies in one
volume.
A successful Handbook is the culmination of the time and efforts of many world renowned contributors.
To those individuals listed in the next several pages, we extend our sincere thanks. The Society is
especially indebted to Dr. S.L. Semiatin for his tireless efforts in organizing and editing this volume.
Finally, we are grateful for the support and guidance provided by the ASM Handbook Committee and the
skill of an experienced editorial staff. As a result of these combined efforts, the tradition of excellence
associated with the ASM Handbook continues.
Bhakta B. Rath
President
ASM International
Stanley C. Theobald
Managing Director
ASM International
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Preface
In the approximately 20 years since the 1988 publication of Volume 14,
Forming and Forging, of the 9th Edition Metals Handbook series (renamed
the ASM Handbook series in 1991), metalworking practice has seen a
number of notable advances with regard to development of:
S.L. Semiatin
Volume Editor
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Stanley C. Theobald
Secretary and Managing Director
ASM International
Trustees
Rodney R. Boyer
Boeing Commercial Airplane Group
Dianne Chong
The Boeing Company
Roger J. Fabian
Bodycote Thermal Processing
William E. Frazier
Naval Air Systems Command
Richard L. Kennedy
Allvac
Frederick J. Lisy
Orbital Research Incorporated
Frederick Edward Schmidt
Engineering Systmes Incorporated
Richard D. Sisson, Jr.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Lawrence C. Wagner
Texas Instruments
J.F. Harper
(19231926) (Member 19231926)
C.H. Herty, Jr.
(19341936) (Member 19301936)
D.D. Huffman
(19861990) (Member 1982)
J.B. Johnson
(19481951) (Member 19441951)
L.J. Korb
(1983) (Member 19781983)
R.W.E. Leiter
(19621963) (Member 19551958,
19601964)
G.V. Luerssen
(19431947) (Member 19421947)
G.N. Maniar
(19791980) (Member 19741980)
W.L. Mankins
(19941997) (Member 1989)
vi
J.L. McCall
(1982) (Member 19771982)
W.J. Merten
(19271930) (Member 19231933)
D.L. Olson
(19901992) (Member 19821988,
19891992)
N.E. Promisel
(19551961) (Member 19541963)
G.J. Shubat
(19731975) (Member 19661975)
W.A. Stadtler
(19691972) (Member 19621972)
R. Ward
(19761978) (Member 19721978)
M.G.H. Wells
(1981) (Member 19761981)
D.J. Wright
(19641965) (Member 19591967)
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Brian Fluth
Diversico Industries
Matthew Fonte
Dynamic Flowform Inc.
D.U. Furrer
Ladish Company, Inc.
Timothy P. Gabb
NASA Glenn Research Center
Angelo Germidis
Centre de Recherche de Trappes
Amit K. Ghosh
University of Michigan
Robert Greczanik
Metaldyne
Kenneth A. Green
Rolls-Royce Corporation
Stephane Guillard
Concurrent Technologies Corporation
Jay Gunasekera
Ohio University
Donald Hack
Jerl Machine, Inc.
Ron Harrigal
United States Mint
Craig S. Hartley
U.S. Air Force Ofce of Scientic Research
Jeffrey A. Hawk
U.S. Dept. of Energy
Michael Hill
Carpenter Technology Corporation
Albert L. Hoffmanner
Manufacturing Technologies
William F. Hosford
University of Michigan
L.G. Houseeld
Pratt & Whitney
Dennis Huffman
The Timken Company (Retired)
Warren H. Hunt, Jr.
Aluminum Consultants Group, Inc.
Bevis Hutchinson
Swedish Institute for Metals Research
W. Brian James
Hoeganaes Corporation
John J. Jonas
McGill University
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Kent L. Johnson
Engineering Systems Incorporated
Paul Keefe
Carpenter Technology Corporation
Richard P. Keele
Freelance Engineer
Ray Keeton
Richard Kelly
Torrington Swager and Vaill End Forming
Machinery Inc.
Leo Kestens
Delft University of Technology
Ash Khare
Satish Kini
The Ohio State University
Frank Kraft
Ohio University
Paul E. Krajewski
General Motors Inc.
G.W. Kuhlman
Metalworking Consultant Group LLC
Howard A. Kuhn
Extrudehone
G.D. Lahoti
The Timken Company
J.J. Lewandowski
Case Western Reserve University
Bruce Lindsley
Hoeganaes Corporation
R.S. Mace
Pratt & Whitney
William Mankins
Metallurgical Services Incorporated
Sharon McPike
United States Mint
Hugh McQueen
Concordia University
Wojciech Z. Misiolek
Lehigh University
George Mochnal
Forging Industry Association
R.E. Montero
Pratt & Whitney
Kurt D. Moser
H.C. Starck, Inc.
David Mourer
General Electric Aircraft Engines
Gracious Ngaile
North Carolina State University
Soo-Ik Oh
Seoul National University
Toby Padeld
ZF Sachs Automotive
Awadh Pandey
Pratt & Whitney Space Propulsion
John A. Pale
American Axle & Manufacturing
John R. Paules
Ellwood Materials Technologies
P.M. Pauskar
The Timken Company
Walter Perun
Fenn Manufacturing Co.
Dierk Raabe
MPIE
W.M. Rainforth
Shefeld University
George Ray
LeFiell Manufacturing Company
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Roger Rees
SMS Eumuco Inc.
Frederick Schmidt, Jr.
Engineering Systems Inc
Vladimir Segal
C.M. Sellars
University of Shefeld
S.L. Semiatin
Air Force Research Laboratory, Materials
and Manufacturing Directorate
John A. Shields, Jr.
H.C. Starck, Inc.
Manas Shirgaokar
The Ohio State University
Rajiv Shivpuri
The Ohio State University
Vinod K. Sikka
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Engineering
Systems Inc.
H.W. Sizek
Air Force Research Laboratory, Materials
and Manufacturing Directorate
Raghavan Srinivasan
Wright State University
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T.S. Srivatsan
University of Akron
Edgar A. Starke, Jr.
University of Virginia
Carlos N. Tome
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Sybrand Van der Zwaag
Delft University
C.J. Van Tyne
Colorado School of Mines
Suhas Vaze
Edison Welding Institute Inc.
Vasisht Venkatesh
TIMET
John Walters
C. Craig Wojcik
Allegheny Wah Chang
Wei-Tsu Wu
Scientic Forming Technologies Corp.
Deniz Yilmaz
LeFiell Manufacturing Company
Stephen Yue
McGill University
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Contents
Draft .......................................................................................
Flash ......................................................................................
Preform Design ......................................................................
Location of Impressions ........................................................
Multiple-Part Dies .................................................................
Dies for Precision Forging ....................................................
Fabrication of Impression Dies .............................................
Resinking ...............................................................................
Cast Dies ................................................................................
Heat Treating .........................................................................
Trimming and Punching Dies ...............................................
Die Life ..................................................................................
Safety .....................................................................................
Introduction ........................................................................................... 1
Introduction to Bulk-Forming Processes
S.L. Semiatin ........................................................................................ 3
Historical Perspective .............................................................. 3
Classication of Metalworking Processes ............................... 3
Types of Metalworking Equipment ........................................ 4
Recent Developments in Bulk Forming .................................. 4
Conclusions and Future Outlook ............................................. 7
Design for Deformation Processing
Howard Kuhn .................................................................................... 11
Product Design ...................................................................... 11
Processing to Meet Product Design Requirements ............... 11
Deformation Processing to Meet Product Design
Specications ..................................................................... 12
Benets and Disadvantages of Deformation Processes ........ 13
Summary ................................................................................ 19
Die Wear
Rajiv Sivpuri, Sailesh Babu, S.L. Semiatin .......................................
Die Wear and Failure Mechanisms .......................................
Materials for Dies ..................................................................
Die Wear in Hot Forging Dies ..............................................
Surface Treatments and Coatings ..........................................
Lubricants and their Applications in Forging
Rajiv Sivpuri, Satish Kini ..................................................................
Candidate Lubricants .............................................................
Applications ...........................................................................
Die Manufacturing and Finishing .........................................................
High-Speed and Hard Machining ..........................................
Nontraditional Machining of Dies and Molds ......................
Other Methods .......................................................................
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Coining ................................................................................................
Applicability ........................................................................
Hammers and Presses ..........................................................
Lubricants ............................................................................
Die Materials .......................................................................
Special Die Materials ..........................................................
Coinability of Metals ...........................................................
Production Practice ..............................................................
Processing Problems and Solutions .....................................
Control of Dimensions, Finish, and Weight .......................
Powder Forging
B. Lynn Ferguson ............................................................................
Material Considerations ......................................................
Process Considerations ........................................................
Mechanical Properties .........................................................
Quality Assurance for P/F Parts ..........................................
Applications of Powder Forged Parts .................................
Practical Aspects of Converting Ingot to Billet
Bruce Antolovich, Angelo Germidis, Paul Keefe, Michael Hill,
Bruce Lindsley, Vasisht Venkatesh .............................................
Cogging ...............................................................................
Presses .................................................................................
Dies ......................................................................................
Transportation Equipment ...................................................
Thermal Control ..................................................................
Conversion Processes ..........................................................
Modeling of the Cogging Process .......................................
Conclusions .........................................................................
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Equipment ............................................................................
Tooling ................................................................................
Preparation of Slugs ............................................................
Lubricants for Steel .............................................................
Selection of Procedure ........................................................
Dimensional Accuracy ........................................................
Causes of Problems .............................................................
Cold Extrusion of Aluminum Alloy Parts ...........................
Cold Extrusion of Copper and Copper Alloy Parts ............
Impact Extrusion of Magnesium Alloys .............................
Cold Extrusion of Nickel Alloys .........................................
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Introduction
Introduction to Bulk-Forming Processes ............................................ 3
Historical Perspective .............................................................. 3
Classication of Metalworking Processes ............................... 3
Types of Metalworking Equipment ........................................ 4
Recent Developments in Bulk Forming .................................. 4
Conclusions and Future Outlook ............................................. 7
Design for Deformation Processing ................................................... 11
Product Design ...................................................................... 11
Processing to Meet Product Design Requirements ............... 11
Deformation Processing to Meet Product Design
Specications ..................................................................... 12
Benets and Disadvantages of Deformation Processes ........ 13
Summary ................................................................................ 19
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Draft .......................................................................................
Flash ......................................................................................
Preform Design ......................................................................
Location of Impressions ........................................................
Multiple-Part Dies .................................................................
Dies for Precision Forging ....................................................
Fabrication of Impression Dies .............................................
Resinking ...............................................................................
Cast Dies ................................................................................
Heat Treating .........................................................................
Trimming and Punching Dies ...............................................
Die Life ..................................................................................
Safety .....................................................................................
Die Wear ...............................................................................................
Die Wear and Failure Mechanisms .......................................
Materials for Dies ..................................................................
Die Wear in Hot Forging Dies ..............................................
Surface Treatments and Coatings ..........................................
Lubricants and Their Applications in Forging ................................
Candidate Lubricants .............................................................
Applications ...........................................................................
Die Manufacturing and Finishing ......................................................
High-Speed and Hard Machining ..........................................
Nontraditional Machining of Dies and Molds ......................
Other Methods .......................................................................
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Forging Processes
Open-Die Forging ................................................................................ 99
Size and Weight .................................................................... 99
Shapes .................................................................................... 99
Hammers and Presses ............................................................ 99
Dies ........................................................................................ 99
Auxiliary Tools ...................................................................... 99
Handling Equipment ............................................................ 101
Production and Practice ....................................................... 101
Ingot Structure and Its Elimination ..................................... 102
Forgeability .......................................................................... 102
Deformation Modeling ........................................................ 102
Examples of Production Practice ........................................ 104
Contour Forging .................................................................. 107
Roll Planishing .................................................................... 108
Allowances and Tolerances ................................................. 108
Safety ................................................................................... 110
Closed-Die Forging in Hammers and Presses ................................ 111
Capabilities of the Process .................................................. 111
Forging Materials ................................................................ 111
Friction and Lubrication in Forging .................................... 112
Classication of Closed-Die Forgings ................................ 112
Shape Complexity in Forging ............................................. 112
Design of Blocker (Preform) Dies ...................................... 113
Flash Design ........................................................................ 114
Prediction of Forging Pressure ............................................ 115
Equipment for Closed-Die Forging ..................................... 116
Forging Temperatures for Steels ......................................... 116
Control of Die Temperature ................................................ 117
Trimming ............................................................................. 118
Cooling Practice .................................................................. 118
Typical Forging Sequence ................................................... 118
Hot Upset Forging ............................................................................. 119
Applicability ........................................................................ 119
Upset Forging Machines ..................................................... 119
Selection of Machine Size ................................................... 120
Tools .................................................................................... 121
Preparation of Forging Stock .............................................. 122
Metal-Saving Techniques .................................................... 123
Heating ................................................................................ 123
Die Cooling and Lubrication ............................................... 123
Simple Upsetting ................................................................. 123
Upsetting and Piercing ........................................................ 124
Offset Upsetting ................................................................... 126
Double-End Upsetting ......................................................... 126
Upsetting with Sliding Dies ................................................ 126
Upsetting Pipe and Tubing .................................................. 126
Electric Upsetting ................................................................ 129
Other Upsetting Processes ................................................... 130
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Forging Design
Forging Design Involving Parting Line and Grain Flow .............. 703
Grain Flow and Anisotropy ................................................. 703
Parting Line, Forging Plane, and Flash ............................... 704
Parting Line and Seamless (Flashless) Cylindrical Forgings 705
Parting Line, Straight versus Broken .................................. 709
Parting Line and Draft ......................................................... 711
Parting Line and Direction of Grain and of Loading .......... 712
Parting Line and Forging Process ....................................... 712
Designers Checklist for Placement of Parting Line .......... 715
Examples ............................................................................. 716
Forging Design Involving Draft ....................................................... 727
Types of Draft ..................................................................... 727
Measurement of Draft Angle ............................................... 728
Amount of Draft (Degrees) ................................................. 729
Amount of Draft (Linear Measure) ..................................... 730
Economical Use of Draft ..................................................... 730
Designers Checklist for Draft ............................................ 734
Examples ............................................................................. 734
Forging Design Involving Ribs and Bosses ..................................... 741
Dening Ribs and Bosses .................................................... 741
Types of Ribs and Bosses .................................................... 741
Functional Designs, Properties, and Production of Ribs and
Bosses .............................................................................. 741
Metal Flow in the Forging of Ribs ...................................... 745
Measurement of Ribs and Bosses ....................................... 747
Design Parameters for Ribs and Bosses .............................. 747
Rib Design Data from Actual Forgings .............................. 749
Designers Checklist for Ribs ............................................. 752
Examples ............................................................................. 752
Forging Design Involving Corners and Fillets ................................ 759
Service Functions and Forging Producibility ...................... 759
Factors Affecting Size of Corners and Fillets ..................... 759
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Resource Information
Useful Formulas for Deformation Analysis and Workability
Testing .............................................................................................
Glossary of Terms ...............................................................................
Steel Hardness Conversions ................................................................
Nonferrous Hardness Conversions ......................................................
Metric Conversion Guide ....................................................................
Abbreviations and Symbols .................................................................
Index ....................................................................................................
827
831
852
858
861
864
868
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Contents
For a more detailed Table of Contents, see page ix
Introduction ........................................................................................... 1
23
36
47
62
84
93
241
261
269
284
286
299
313
318
324
331
354
366
374
421
440
448
459
480
489
505
516
522
528
539
552
563
587
Modeling and Computer Aided Process Design for Bulk Forming 615
Finite Element Method Applications in Bulk Forming ......................
Design Optimization for Dies and Preforms .......................................
Rapid Tooling for Forging Dies ..........................................................
Workpiece Materials Database ............................................................
Models for Predicting Microstructural Evolution ...............................
Polycrystal Modeling, Plastic Forming, and Deformation
Textures ...........................................................................................
Transformation and Recrystallization Textures Associated with Steel
Processing ........................................................................................
617
640
645
651
660
671
685
703
727
741
759
775
793
812
820
827
831
852
858
861
864
868
Product code
06957G
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