Control structures

Lone Leth Thomsen

 Contents
• Operators
• Lots of control statements

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 2

 Operators
• So – what are they really?
– General expressions are formed by joining together
constants and variables (also called operands) via
various operators
– In C, operators are split into categories
• Arithmetic
• Unary
• Relational and logical
• Assignment
• Equality
• Conditional

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 3

 Operators 2
• The most common unary operator is minus
– Make sure not to confuse this with the arithmetic minus
– +123, -123 (positive and negative numbers)
– ++i, --i (adds/subtracts one to/from i, then
returns the new value of i
– i++, i-- (adds/subtracts one to/from i, then
returns the old value of i
• Binary operators work on two operands
• We’ll look at a few
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 4
 Operators 3
• Usual ones
+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ division
% remainder, also called modulo
< less than
> greater than
<= less than or equal
>= greater than or equal
== equals
!= does not equal
? conditional operator

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 5

 Operators 4
• Bitwise
<< left-shift (i<<j means i is shifted to the left by j bits)
>> right-shift (i>>j means i is shifted to the right by j bits)
& bitwise AND
| bitwise OR
^ bitwise exclusive-OR
&& logical AND (returns 1 if both operands are non-zero, else 0)
|| logical OR (returns 1 if either operand is non-zero, else 0)

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 6

 Operators 5
• In C the equals operator = is used to change
the value of a variable, e.g temp = 22;
• Multiple assignments are allowed, e.g.
– i = j = k = 4;
– This causes simultaneous assignment
• Other examples
– velocity = distance / time;
– count = count + 1;
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 7
 Operator precedence
• Operators are grouped hierarchically according
to their order of evaluation (precedence)
• * and / have precedence over + and –
• Multiplication and division is performed before
addition and subtraction
• Rules of precedence can be bypassed by using
parentheses ()
• E.g. a – b / c + d really means a – (b / c) + d
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 8
 Conditional operators
• Relational, equality and logical operators
operate on expressions, resulting in either
int value 1 (true) or int value 0 (false)
• In C the value false is represented by any
zero value and true is represented by any
nonzero value
• General form: expr 1 op expr 2

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 Relational operators
• As an example, consider a < b. This brings
us back to

false true
a<b

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 10

 Equality operators
• We have two equality operators
– == meaning equal to
– != meaning not equal to
• Be careful not to use = instead of == since it will
still give a valid statement in C but with an
unintended behaviour
– If ( i = j) … instead of writing == means that the two
values will be assigned to the same value which is an
always true statement!

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 11

 Logical operators
• Relational and equality operators are used
to form logical expressions
• In C there are three logical operators
– Logical AND written &&
– Logical OR written ||
– Logical NOT written !
• Individual logical expressions are combined
into more complex expressions
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 12
 Control statements
• Specify the order in which computations are
performed
– Also known as branching statements
• Two principle control statements
– if-else
– switch

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 13

 if-else
• The if-else statement is used to perform a
logical test and then take one of two
possible actions, depending on the test
evaluating to true or false
• The else part is optional, i.e. there doesn’t
have to be an else in connection with if

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 14

 if
• The simplest form is
if (expression)
statement;
• It is important to remember the () after if
• E.g.
if (speed < 130)
printf(“Legal speed\n”);

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 15

 Compound if
• Compound statements can be used to group a number
of statements under the control of just one if statement
if (j < k)
min = j;
if (j < k)
max = k;

if (j < k) {
min = j;
max = k;
}

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 16

 if-else
• if-else is an extension of if used where there are two
alternatives
if (expression)
statement1;
else
statement2;
• E.g.
if (x < y)
min = x;
else
min = y;

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 17

 The dangling-else problem
• There is a problem when else is omitted/forgotten
from a nested if statement
if (n > 0)
if (a > b)
c = a;
else
c = b;
• Resolved by associating else with the closed
previous “else-less” if
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 18
 The dangling-else problem 2
• To change this, use {}:
if (n > 0){
if (a > b)
c = a;
}
else
c = b;
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 19
 Nested if
• Sometimes (often?) if-else is used to implement a
multi-way decision
• In this case, the expressions are evaluated in order.
If any expression is true, the statement associated
with it is executed and the whole chain is
terminated
• The final else can be used to deal with the default
case where none of the other conditions evaluate
to true
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 20
 Nested if 2
if (expression_1)
statement_1;
else if (expression_2)
statement_2;
.
.
else if (expression_N)
statement_N;
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 21
 Nested if 3
if (expression_1)
statement_1;
else if (expression_2)
statement_2;
.
.
else if (expression_N)
statement_N;
else
default_statement;
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 22
 Example
if (x>0)
num_pos = num_pos + 1;
else if (x < 0)
num_neg = num_neg + 1;
else /* x equals 0 */
num_zero = num_zero + 1;

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 23

 switch
• You’ve seen the multi-way decision. The switch
statement is a multi-way conditional generalising
if-else
• switch evaluates the value of an expression and
branches to one of the case labels. Note that
– Duplicate labels are disallowed, only one case will be
selected
– The expression must evaluate an integer, character or
enumeration
– Case labels can be in any order and must be constants

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 24

 switch
switch (expression) {
case constant_1: statement_1;
case constant_2: statement_2;
…
case constant_N: statement_N;
default: default_statement;
}
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 25
 The effect of switch
• Evaluate a switch expression
• Then go to the case label having a constant value
that matches the value of the expression found in
the first step. If no match is found, go to the
default label. If there is no default label,
terminate the switch
• Finally, terminate the switch when a break is
encountered, or by “falling off the end”

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 26

 default
• The default label can be placed anywhere in
the switch
– When C sees a switch statement it evaluates the
expression and then looks for a matching case
label
– If none is found, the default label is used
– There cannot be more than one default label in a
switch if any
– Typically default will occur last, but there is no
rule
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 27
 Example
switch (colour) {
case ‘B’: printf(“ the colour is blue\n”);
case ‘R’: printf(“ the colour is red\n”);
case ‘G’: printf(“ the colour is green\n”);
default: printf(“ the colour is yellow\n”);

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 28

 break
• Typically the last statement before the next
case or default label is a break statement
• A break statement inside a switch means
that execution will continue after the switch
statement
• If no break is included, execution falls
through to the next statement

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 29

 break 2
switch (expression) {
case constant_1: statement_1;
break;
case constant_2: statement_2;
break;
…
case constant_N: statement_N;
break;
default: default_statement;
}
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 30
 break 3
• So – a break statement interrupts the normal flow of
control

switch (x) {
case 1: x = x + 1;
case 2: x = x + 2;
break; /* exit switch */
case 3: x = x + 3;
default: x = 0;
}
// break jumps to here

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 31

 Falling through
switch (x) {
case 1: x = x + 1;
case 2: x = x + 2;
break; /* exit switch */
case 3: x = x + 3;
default: x = 0;
}

• After case 1 there is no break, so the program falls through.This

means that when x = 1 the following will be executed:
x = x + 1;

x = x + 2;

• Now consider the default case. This does not need a break
because it is placed as the final statement

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 32

 Advice
• Good practice means that you should end every case in a
switch with either break or a fall through comment

switch (x) {
case 1: x = x + 1;
/* fall through */
case 2: x = x + 2;
break; // exit switch
case 3: x = x + 3;
/* fall through */
default: x = 0;
}

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 33

 switch w. compound statements
switch (expression) {
case constant_1: {
compound_statement_1;
}
case constant_2: statement_2;
…
case constant_N: statement_N;
default: default_statement;
}
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 34
 From if to switch 1
char operator;
double a ,b, result;

if (operator == ‘+’)
result = a + b;
else if (operator == ‘-’)
result = a - b;
else if (operator == ‘*’)
result = a * b;
else if (operator == ‘/’) {
if ( b == 0)
printf(“error – division by 0\n”);
else result = a / b;
}
else printf(“unknown operator\n”);

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 35

 From if to switch 2
char operator;
double a ,b, result;

switch (operator ) {
case ‘+’: result = a + b;
break;
case ‘-’: result = a - b;
break;
case ‘*’: result = a * b;
break;
case ‘/’: if ( b == 0)
printf(“error – division by 0\n”);
else result = a / b;
break;
default: printf(“unknown operator\n”);
}

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 36

 Loops
• A loop allows a program to repeat a group
of statements, either any number of times or
until some loop condition occurs
• The statements to be repeated are in the
loop body
• Common loops (aka iterative or repetitive
statements) are for, while and do-while

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 37

 Loops 2
• Repetition occurs as long as a condition is
true

false
true

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 38

 Loops 3
• Counting loops are used when it can be determined
before loop execution how many loop repetitions
will be needed
– while
– for
• Conditional loops are used when a loop should be
repeated until a desired condition is met
– while
– do-while
– for
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 39
 for
• When the number of passes through a loop is
known in advance, a for statement is often used
for (expr1; expr2; expr3)
statement;
• expr1 controls the looping action, expr2 represents
a condition that ensures loop continuation, expr3
modifies the value of the control variable initially
assigned by expr1

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 40

 for 2
• When a for statement is executed, expr2 is
evaluated and tested at the beginning of each pass
through the loop. expr3 is evaluated at the end of
each pass
• If the loop continuation condition is initially false,
the body part of the loop is not performed
• Any of the three parts can be omitted, but the
semicolons must be kept

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 41

 for 3
keyword final value of control variable
for which the condition is true
control variable i

for (i=1; i <= n; i = i + 1)

initial value
of control increment of control variable
variable
loop continuation
condition
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 42
 Examples
• Vary the control variable from 1 to 100 in
increments of 1
for (i = 1; i <= 100; i++)
• Vary the control variable from 100 to 1 in
increments of -1
for (i = 100; i >= 1; i--)
• Vary the control variable from 5 to 55 in
increments of 5
for (i = 5; i <= 55; i+=5)

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 43

 Examples 2
#include <stdio.h>

int main void

{
/* a program to produce a Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion chart for
the numbers 1 to 100 */
int celsius;
for (celsius = 0; celsius <= 100; celsius++)
printf(“Celsius: %d Fahrenheit: %d\n,
celsius, (celsius * 9) / 5 + 32);
return 0;
}

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 44

 Nested for loops
• Nested means there is a loop within a loop
• Executed from the inside out
– Each loop is like a layer and has its own
counter variable, its own loop expression and
its own loop body
– In a nested loop, for each value of the
outermost counter variable, the complete inner
loop will be executed once
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 45
 Nested for loops 2
• General form
for (loop1_exprs) {
loop_body_1a

for (loop2_exprs) {
loop_body_2
}
loop_body_1b
}
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 46
 Nested for loops 3
• Most compilers allow 15 nesting levels –
DON’T DO IT!!

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 47

 while
• When the number of passes through a loop
is not known in advance, a while statement
is often used
while (expression)
statement;
• Expression represents a condition that must
be true for the loop to continue execution

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 48

 while 2
• The statement is executed repeatedly as
long as the expression is true (non zero)
• The cycle continues until expression
becomes zero, at which point execution
resumes after statement

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 49

 while 3
• The statement must include some feature
that eventually alters the value of the
expression, providing an escape mechanism
from the loop
– This is not done automatically
• When a loop is constructed using while the
test for the continuation of the loop is
carried out at the beginning of each pass
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 50
 while 4

• If the test expression in a while loop is false

initially, the while loop will never be executed

int i = 1, sum = 0;
while (i <= 10)
{
sum = sum + i;
i= i + 1;
}
printf(“Sum = %d\n”, sum);
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 51
 for and while
for(expr1; expr2; expr3)
statement

Is equivalent to

expr1;
while(expr2){
statement;
expr3;
}

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 52

 break and continue
• These interrupt normal flow of control
• break causes an exit from the innermost
enclosing loop
• continue causes the current iteration of a
loop to stop and the next iteration to begin
immediately

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 53

 break and continue 2
while (expression)
{
statements
break;
more_statements
}

while (expression)
{
statements
continue;
more_statements
}

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 54

 do-while
• When a loop is constructed using while, the test
for continuation is carried out at the beginning of
each pass
• With do-while the test for continuation takes place
at the end of each pass

do
statement
while (expression);

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 55

 do vs. do-while
• while -- the expression is tested first, if the
result is false, the loop body is never
executed
• do-while -- the loop body is always
executed once. After that, the expression is
tested, if the result is false, the loop body is
not executed again
• This often leads to logical mistakes!!

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 56

 How to leave a program
• More than one possibility, all in stdio.h
• The function abort() causes abnormal program
termination
abort();
• The function exit(status) causes normal program
termination
exit(status);
• If the value of status is 0 (zero), the host environment
assumes successful program execution. All other values
indicate unsuccessful execution
February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 57
 Tip - debugging
• Sometimes you will need to use printf to help
debug a program. But how do we separate these
printouts from the rest?
• One hint is to begin all debug printouts with “##”
– printf(“## state = %d\n”, state);
• This makes it easy to identify debugging info.
This also makes it easier to find and remove these
statements later on

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 58

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 59
"In My Egotistical Opinion, most people's C programs should be
indented six feet downward and covered with dirt."

-- Blair P. Houghton
(On the subject of C program indentation)

"C makes it easy to shoot yourself in the foot. C++ makes it

harder, but when you do, it blows away your whole leg."

-- Bjarne Stroustrup

February 2006 Basis-C-2/LL 60