Solids and Fluids

States of matter: Phase Transitions

ICE WATER STEAM

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heat heat
These are three states of matter (plasma is another
one)
 States of Matter
► Solid
► Liquid
► Gas
► Plasma
 States of Matter

► Solid
 Has definite volume
 Has definite shape
 Molecules are held in specific
location by electrical forces and
vibrate about equilibrium positions
 Can be modeled as springs
connecting molecules

► Liquid
► Gas
► Plasma
 States of Matter

► Solid
 Crystalline solid
 Atoms have an ordered structure
 Example is salt (red spheres are Na+
ions, blue spheres represent Cl- ions)

 Amorphous Solid
 Atoms are arranged randomly
 Examples include glass

► Liquid
► Gas
► Plasma
 States of Matter

► Solid
► Liquid
 Has a definite volume
 No definite shape
 Exist at a higher temperature than solids
 The molecules “wander” through the
liquid in a random fashion
 The intermolecular forces are not
strong enough to keep the
molecules in a fixed position
► Gas
► Plasma
 States of Matter

► Solid
► Liquid
► Gas
 Has no definite volume
 Has no definite shape
 Molecules are in constant random motion
 The molecules exert only weak forces on each other
 Average distance between molecules is large
compared to the size of the molecules

► Plasma
 States of Matter
► Solid
► Liquid
► Gas
► Plasma

 Matter heated to a very high temperature

 Many of the electrons are freed from the nucleus
 Result is a collection of free, electrically charged ions
 Plasmas exist inside stars or experimental reactors or
fluorescent light bulbs!
Is there a concept that helps to distinguish
between those states of matter?
 Density

► The density of a substance of uniform composition is

defined as its mass per unit volume:
4
Vsphere   R 3
m 3
 some examples: Vcylinder   R 2 h
V Vcube  a 3
► The densities of most liquids and solids vary slightly
with changes in temperature and pressure
► Densities of gases vary greatly with changes in
temperature and pressure (and generally 1000 smaller)
Units
SI kg/m3
CGS g/cm3 (1 g/cm3=1000 kg/m3 )
 Pressure
► Pressure of fluid is the ratio
of the force exerted by a
fluid on a submerged object
to area

F
P
A

Units
SI Pascal (Pa=N/m2)

Example: 100 N over 1 m2 is P=(100 N)/(1 m2)=100 N/m2=100 Pa.

Pressure and Depth
► If a fluid is at rest in a container,
all portions of the fluid must be in
static equilibrium
► All points at the same depth must
be at the same pressure
(otherwise, the fluid would not be
in equilibrium)
► Three external forces act on the
region of a cross-sectional area A

External forces: atmospheric, weight, normal

F  0  PA  Mg  P0 A  0,
P  P0   gh
but : M   V   Ah, so : PA  P0 A   Agh
 Question 1
You are measuring the pressure at the depth of 10 cm in
three different containers. Rank the values of pressure from
the greatest to the smallest:

1. 1-2-3
2. 2-1-3
3. 3-2-1
4. It’s the same in all three

10 cm

1 2 3
 Pressure and Depth equation
P  Po  gh
► Pois normal
atmospheric pressure
 1.013 x 105 Pa = 14.7
lb/in2
► The pressure does not
depend upon the
shape of the container

 Other units of pressure:

76.0 cm of mercury
One atmosphere 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
14.7 lb/in2
 Example: Find pressure at 100 m below ocean surface.

Given:

masses: h=100 m
P  P0   H 2O gh, so
P  9.8 105 Pa  103 kg m3  9.8 m s 2 100 m 
 106 Pa 10  atmospheric pressure 
Find:

P=?
 Pascal’s Principle

► A change in pressure applied to

an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of
the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
► The hydraulic press is an
important application of
Pascal’s Principle
F1 F2
P 
A1 A2
► Also used in hydraulic brakes,
Since A2>A1, then F2>F1 !!!
forklifts, car lifts, etc.
 Measuring Pressure

 One end of the U-shaped tube  A long closed tube is

► The spring is calibrated by a is open to the atmosphere filled with mercury and
known force inverted in a dish of
 The other end is connected to
► The force the fluid exerts on the pressure to be measured mercury
the piston is then measured  Measures atmospheric
 Pressure at B is Po+ρgh
pressure as ρgh
 Manometer
► Gravitational force and p1 p2
mass density of fluid
► Low pressure (bellow 2
atmosphere)
h

p1  p2  gh
How would you measure blood pressure?

Has to be: (a) accurate

(b) non-invasive
(c) simple

sphygmomanometer
Buoyant Force
 This force is called the buoyant force.
 What is the magnitude of that force?

F  B   P2  P1  A, but :
P1A
P2  P1   gh, so :
B   P1   gh  P1  A   fluid ghA   fluid gV !

mg

P2 A
 Buoyant Force

► The magnitude of the buoyant force always equals

the weight of the displaced fluid

B   fluidVg  w fluid

► The buoyant force is the same for a totally

submerged object of any size, shape, or density
► The buoyant force is exerted by the fluid
► Whether an object sinks or floats depends on the
relationship between the buoyant force and the
weight
 Archimedes' Principle

Any object completely or partially submerged

in a fluid is buoyed up by a force whose
magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.

This force is buoyant force.

Physical cause: pressure difference between the top and the bottom of the object
 Archimedes’ Principle:
Totally Submerged Object
► The upward buoyant force is B=ρfluidgVobj
► The downward gravitational force is w=mg=ρobjgVobj
► The net force is B-w=(ρfluid-ρobj)gVobj

Depending on the direction

of the net force, the object
will either float up or sink!
 The net force is B-w=(ρfluid-ρobj)gVobj

► The object is less dense  The object is more dense

than the fluid ρfluid<ρobj than the fluid ρfluid>ρobj
► The object experiences  The net force is downward,
a net upward force so the object accelerates
downward
 Archimedes’ Principle:
Floating Object
► The object is in static equilibrium
► The upward buoyant force is
balanced by the downward force of
gravity
► Volume of the fluid displaced
corresponds to the volume of the
object beneath the fluid level

 obj V fluid
If B  mg :  fluid gV fluid   object gVobject , or 
 fluid Vobj
 Fluids in Motion:
Streamline Flow
► Streamline flow
 every particle that passes a particular point moves
exactly along the smooth path followed by
particles that passed the point earlier
 also called laminar flow
► Streamline is the path
 different streamlines cannot cross each other
 the streamline at any point coincides with the
direction of fluid velocity at that point
 Fluids in Motion:
Turbulent Flow
► The flow becomes irregular
 exceeds a certain velocity
 any condition that causes abrupt changes in
velocity
► Eddy currents are a characteristic of
turbulent flow
 Fluid Flow: Viscosity
► Viscosity is the degree of internal friction in
the fluid
► The internal friction is associated with the
resistance between two adjacent layers of
the fluid moving relative to each other
 Characteristics of an Ideal Fluid
► The fluid is nonviscous
 There is no internal friction between adjacent layers
► The fluid is incompressible
 Its density is constant
► The fluid is steady
 Its velocity, density and pressure do not change in time
► The fluid moves without turbulence
 No eddy currents are present
 Equation of Continuity

► A1v1 = A2v2
► The product of the cross-
sectional area of a pipe
and the fluid speed is a
constant
 Speed is high where the
pipe is narrow and speed
is low where the pipe has
a large diameter
► Av is called the flow rate
 Bernoulli’s Equation

► Relates pressure to fluid speed and elevation

► Bernoulli’s equation is a consequence of Conservation
of Energy applied to an ideal fluid
► Assumes the fluid is incompressible and nonviscous,
and flows in a nonturbulent, steady-state manner
► States that the sum of the pressure, kinetic energy
per unit volume, and the potential energy per unit
volume has the same value at all points along a
streamline
1 2
P  v  gy  constant
2
 How to measure the speed of the fluid
flow: Venturi Meter
► Shows fluid flowing
through a horizontal
constricted pipe
► Speed changes as
diameter changes
► Swiftly moving fluids exert
less pressure than do
slowly moving fluids
 Venturi Meter
► Continuity equation

V1 A1  V2 A2  Q
► Bernoulli

2 2
V p1 V p2
1
  U1  2
U 2
2  2 
 Venturi Meter

Arah aliran

A1 A2 2
Q  p1  p2  m 3s 1
Pengukur beda tekanan
A 1
2
 A22  

2 p1  p2 
Q  A2 m 3s 1

 1  4

A2

A1
Orifice (Obstruction meter)
Pengukur beda tekanan

Aliran fluida

Fluida diam
Rotatometer
► Gravitational force and
buoyancy
► If the buoyancy is still, the
net force to the buoyancy
Penunjuk mengapung is equal zero
► Buoyancy position is
change again the fluid
flow
 Pengukur beda tekanan

Aliran fluida

Fluida diam

Pengukur beda tekanan