`

Introduction to
Linux

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Version: 0.0.5
Dated: Sat, October 16, 2010
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Title Introduction to Linux

Author
Email johri.maya@gmail.com
Version 0.0.5
Document Date Sat, October 16, 2010
 Table of Contents
1.An Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................5

Brief History of Unix...........................................................................................................................................6

Linux..................................................................................................................................................................7

Linux History......................................................................................................................................................7

Linux Philosophy................................................................................................................................................7

Design...............................................................................................................................................................8

Monolithic Kernel..........................................................................................................................................8

GNU..............................................................................................................................................................8

FSF...............................................................................................................................................................8

Linux Distributions........................................................................................................................................9

2.Linux File System Architecture ..........................................................................................................................10

Overview..........................................................................................................................................................11

Filesystems.................................................................................................................................................11

/bin..............................................................................................................................................................12

/boot ...........................................................................................................................................................12

/dev.............................................................................................................................................................13

/etc..............................................................................................................................................................13

/etc/opt........................................................................................................................................................13

/etc/X11 ......................................................................................................................................................13

/home..........................................................................................................................................................13

/lib...............................................................................................................................................................13

/media.........................................................................................................................................................13

/mnt.............................................................................................................................................................13

/opt..............................................................................................................................................................14

/root............................................................................................................................................................14
 /sbin............................................................................................................................................................14

/tmp.............................................................................................................................................................14

/usr..............................................................................................................................................................14

/var .............................................................................................................................................................14

3.Linux Basics.......................................................................................................................................................16

Linux/Unix Philosophy.....................................................................................................................................17

Login................................................................................................................................................................17

root and sudo ..................................................................................................................................................17

The desktop environment................................................................................................................................17

X Window System.......................................................................................................................................17

Window Manager........................................................................................................................................18

Shells...............................................................................................................................................................18

Linux commands..............................................................................................................................................18

Redirection.................................................................................................................................................19

Shell Scripting..................................................................................................................................................20

How to write shell scripting.........................................................................................................................20

Components...............................................................................................................................................20

Variables.....................................................................................................................................................20

Naming convention for Variables................................................................................................................21

 1. An Introduction
Contents:

Brief History of Unix................................................................................................................................................6

Linux.......................................................................................................................................................................7

Linux History...........................................................................................................................................................7

Linux Philosophy.....................................................................................................................................................7

Design....................................................................................................................................................................8

Monolithic Kernel...............................................................................................................................................8

GNU...................................................................................................................................................................8

FSF....................................................................................................................................................................8

Linux Distributions.............................................................................................................................................8
Introduction to Linux → An Introduction 6

Operating System provides a means of communication between User

computer and user. It is also responsible for the management and
coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of the
computer that acts as a host for commuting applications on the machine.
Applications

Main tasks for an operating system are as follows Operating System

1. Manage Hardware such as processors, harddisk, printers, Hardware

mouse, keyboards etc
2. Host Applications
3. Manage user data

Brief History of Unix

UNIX is a computer operating system
which was originally developed in 1969
by a group of AT&T employees at BELL
Labs. Today the term Unix is used to
describe any operating system that
conforms to Unix standards, meaning
the core operating system operates the
same as the original Unix operating
system. Today's Unix systems are split
into various branches, developed over
time by AT&T as well as various
commercial vendors and non-profit
organizations.

During the late 1970s and early 1980s,

the influence of Unix in academic circles
led to large-scale adoption of Unix
(particularly of the BSD variant,
originating from the University of
California, Berkeley) by commercial
startups, the most notable of which are
Solaris, HP-UX and AIX. Today, in
addition to certified Unix systems such
as those already mentioned, Unix-like
operating systems such as Linux and BSD are commonly encountered. The
term "traditional Unix" may be used to describe a Unix or an operating system
that has the characteristics of either Version 7 Unix or UNIX System V. Most of
the derivatives of Unix are called Unix-like or “Unix System-like”.

UNIX is a trademark administered by The Open Group, and it refers to a

computer operating system that conforms to a particular specification. This
specification, known as The Single UNIX Specification, defines the names of,
interfaces to, and behaviors of all mandatory UNIX operating system functions.
The specification is largely a superset of an earlier series of specifications, the P1003, or POSIX specifications,
developed by the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers).

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Introduction to Linux → An Introduction 7

Linux
“Linux” name originated from the Linux kernel which was originally written in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. It is a
generic term referring to Unix-like computer operating system based on the Linux kernel. A typical Linux OS
consists of Linux Kernel and applications.

Linux was developed by Linus Torvalds at the University of Helsinki, with the help of UNIX programmers from
across the Internet. It began as a hobby inspired by Andy Tanenbaum’s Minix, a small UNIX-like system, but has
grown to become a complete system in its own right. The intention is that the Linux kernel will not incorporate
proprietary code but will contain nothing but freely distributable code.

Linux History
The history of Linux begin with this message posted by Linus Torvalds to the comp.os.minix newsgroup on
August 25, 1991:
From: torvalds@klaava.Helsinki.FI (Linus Benedict Torvalds)
Newsgroups: comp.os.minix
Subject: What would you like to see most in minix?
Summary: small poll for my new operating system
Message-ID: <1991Aug25.205708.9541@klaava.Helsinki.FI>
Date: 25 Aug 91 20:57:08 GMT
Organization: University of Helsinki

Hello everybody out there using minix -

I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones.
This has been brewing since april, and is starting to get ready.I'd like any feedback on things people like/dislike in
minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-system(due to practical reasons) among
other things). I've currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40),and things seem to work.This implies that I'll get
something practical within a few months, andI'd like to know what features most people would want. Any
suggestions are welcome, but I won't promise I'll implement them :-)
Linus (torvalds@kruuna.helsinki.fi)
PS. Yes - it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT protable (uses 386 task switching etc),
and it probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that's all I have :-(.

Minux was developed by Andrew Tanenbaum and had license restrictions which Linus was not comfortable with
and to overcome those restriction he wrote his own OS.

Linux Philosophy
Linux and Unix both have similar philosophies regarding the design and programming of the OS.

• Simplicity
• Focus
• Portability
• Reusable components
• Filters
• Open File Formats
• Flexibility
• Input Output redirections.

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Introduction to Linux → An Introduction 8

Design
A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from
principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux
kernel, which handles process control, networking, and peripheral and file system access. Device drivers are
integrated directly with the kernel.
Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNU
userland is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the C
library, a popular shell, and many of the common Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks.
The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is based on the X Window System.

Monolithic Kernel
A monolithic kernel is a kernel architecture where the entire operating system is working in the kernel space
and alone as supervisor mode. In difference with other architectures, the monolithic kernel defines alone a
high-level virtual interface over computer hardware, with a set of primitives or system calls to implement all
operating system services such as process management, concurrency, and memory management itself and
one or more device drivers as modules.

GNU
Its name is a recursive acronym for “GNU's not Unix!” This name was chosen because
GNU's design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software and containing
no Unix code. Development of GNU was initiated by Richard Stallman and was the
original focus of the Free Software Foundation (FSF).

GNU is developed by the GNU Project, and programs released under the auspices of the
project are called GNU packages or GNU programs. The system's basic components
include the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the GNU Binary Utilities (binutils), the bash shell,
the GNU C library (glibc), and GNU Core Utilities (coreutils).

Though GNU Hurd, its official kernel, is in active development but is incomplete and not all GNU
components work with it. Thus, third-party Linux kernel is most commonly used instead. While this kernel has
not been officially adopted by the GNU project, some third-party software is included, such as the X.Org
release of the X Window System and the TeX typesetting system. GNU applications and utilities are also
widely used on other operating systems such as BSD variants, Solaris and Mac OS X.

FSF
The Free Software Foundation, founded in 1985, is dedicated
to promoting computer users' right to use, study, copy,
modify, and redistribute computer programs. The FSF
promotes the development and use of free (as in freedom)
software -- particularly the GNU operating system and its
GNU/Linux variants -- and free documentation for free
software. The FSF also helps to spread awareness of the
ethical and political issues of freedom in the use of software,
and its Web sites, located at fsf.org and gnu.org, are an

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Introduction to Linux → An Introduction 9

important source of information about GNU/Linux. Donations to support the FSF's work can be made at
http://donate.fsf.org. Its headquarters are in Boston, MA, USA.

Linux Distributions
A Linux distribution (also called GNU/Linux distribution by some vendors and users) is a member of the
family of Unix-like software distributions built on top of the Linux kernel. They consist of a large collection of
software applications such as games, word processors, spreadsheets, internet based applications, media
players, database applications ,etc. It will consist of the Linux kernel, a set of libraries and utilities from the
GNU project, with graphics support from the X Window System. Distributions optimized for size may not
contain X, and tend to use more compact alternatives to the GNU utilities such as Busybox, uClibc or dietlibc.
There are currently over six hundred Linux distributions. Over three hundred of those are in active
development, constantly being revised and improved.

Major Linux Distributions

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 2. Linux File System Architecture
Contents:

Overview...............................................................................................................................................................11

Filesystems......................................................................................................................................................11

/bin...................................................................................................................................................................12

/boot ................................................................................................................................................................12

/dev..................................................................................................................................................................12

/etc...................................................................................................................................................................13

/etc/opt.............................................................................................................................................................13

/etc/X11 ...........................................................................................................................................................13

/home...............................................................................................................................................................13

/lib....................................................................................................................................................................13

/media..............................................................................................................................................................13

/mnt..................................................................................................................................................................13

/opt...................................................................................................................................................................13

/root.................................................................................................................................................................14

/sbin.................................................................................................................................................................14

/tmp..................................................................................................................................................................14

/usr...................................................................................................................................................................14

/var ..................................................................................................................................................................14
Introduction to Linux → Linux File System Architecture 11

Overview
"On a UNIX/Linux system, everything is a file; if something is not a file, it is a process."

This statement is true because there are special files that are more than just files (named pipes and sockets, for
instance), but to keep things simple, saying that everything is a file is an acceptable generalization. A Linux
system makes no difference between a file and a directory, since a directory is just a file containing names of
other files. Programs, texts, images, database and so forth, are all files. I/O devices, & generally all devices, are
considered to be files.

In order to manage all those files in an orderly fashion, OS likes to think of them in an ordered tree-like structure
on the hard disk. The large branches contain more branches, and the branches at the end contain the tree's
leaves or normal files.

Filesystems
A filesystem is the methods and data structures that an operating system uses to keep track of files on a
disk or partition; that is, the way the files are organized on the disk. The word is also used to refer to a
partition or disk that is used to store the files or the type of the filesystem. Thus, one might say I have two
filesystems meaning one has two partitions on which one stores files, or that one is using the extended
filesystem, meaning the type of the filesystem.

The difference between a disk or partition and the filesystem it contains is important. A few programs
(including, reasonably enough, programs that create filesystems) operate directly on the raw sectors of a disk
or partition; if there is an existing file system there it will be destroyed or seriously corrupted. Most programs
operate on a filesystem, and therefore won't work on a partition that doesn't contain one (or that contains one
of the wrong type).

Before a partition or disk can be used as a filesystem, it needs to be initialized, and the bookkeeping data
structures need to be written to the disk. This process is called making a filesystem.

The central concepts are superblock, inode, data block, directory block, and indirection block. The
superblock contains information about the filesystem as a whole, such as its size (the exact information here
depends on the filesystem). An inode contains all information about a file, except its name. The name is
stored in the directory, together with the number of the inode. A directory entry consists of a filename and the
number of the inode which represents the file. The inode contains the numbers of several data blocks, which
are used to store the data in the file. There is space only for a few data block numbers in the inode, however,
and if more are needed, more space for pointers to the data blocks is allocated dynamically. These
dynamically allocated blocks are indirect blocks; the name indicates that in order to find the data block, one
has to find its number in the indirect block first.

Linux chooses to have a single hierarchical directory structure. Everything starts from the root directory,
represented by /, and then expands into sub-directories instead of having so-called 'drives'. In the Windows
environment, one may put one's files almost anywhere: on C drive, D drive, E drive etc. Such a file system is
called a hierarchical structure and is managed by the programs themselves (program directories), not by the
operating system. On the other hand, Linux sorts directories descending from the root directory / according to
their importance to the boot process.

In Linux, programs put their documentation into /usr/share/doc/[program-name], man(ual) pages into

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Introduction to Linux → Linux File System Architecture 12

/usr/share/man/man[1-9] and info pages into /usr/share/info. They are merged into and with the system
hierarchy.

/bin
/bin contains commands that may be used by both the system administrator and by users, but which are
required when no other filesystems are mounted (e.g. in single user mode). It may also contain commands
which are used indirectly by scripts

/boot
This directory contains everything required for the boot process except configuration files not needed at boot
time and the map installer. Thus /boot stores data that is used before the kernel begins executing user-mode
programs. This may include saved master boot sectors and sector map files.

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Introduction to Linux → Linux File System Architecture 13

/dev
The /dev directory is the location of special or device files.

/etc
The /etc hierarchy contains configuration files. A "configuration file" is a local file used to control the
operation of a program; it must be static and cannot be an executable binary

/etc/opt
Host-specific configuration files for add-on application software packages must be installed within the
directory /etc/opt/<subdir>, where <subdir> is the name of the subtree in /opt where the static data
from that package is stored.

/etc/X11
/etc/X11 is the location for all X11 host-specific configuration. This directory is necessary to allow local control
if /usr is mounted read only.

/home
/home is a fairly standard concept, but it is clearly a site-specific filesystem. The setup will differ from host to
host. Therefore, no program should rely on this location.

/lib
The /lib directory contains those shared library images needed to boot the system and run the commands
in the root filesystem, ie. by binaries in /bin and /sbin.

/media
This directory contains subdirectories which are used as mount points for removeable media such as floppy
disks, cdroms and zip disks.

/mnt
This directory is provided so that the system administrator may temporarily mount a filesystem as needed.
The content of this directory is a local issue and should not affect the manner in which any program is run.

This directory must not be used by installation programs: a suitable temporary directory not in use by the
system must be used instead.

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Introduction to Linux → Linux File System Architecture 14

/opt
/opt is reserved for the installation of add-on application software packages. A package to be installed in
/opt must locate its static files in a separate /opt/<package> or /opt/<provider> directory tree,
where <package> is a name that describes the software package and <provider> is the provider's
LANANA registered name.

/root
The root account's home directory may be determined by developer or local preference, but this is the
recommended default location.

/sbin
Utilities used for system administration (and other root-only commands) are stored in /sbin, /usr/sbin,
and /usr/local/sbin. /sbin contains binaries essential for booting, restoring, recovering, and/or
repairing the system in addition to the binaries in /bin. Programs executed after /usr is known to be
mounted (when there are no problems) are generally placed into /usr/sbin. Locally-installed system
administration programs should be placed into /usr/local/sbin.

/tmp
The /tmp directory must be made available for programs that require temporary files.

Programs must not assume that any files or directories in /tmp are preserved between invocations of the
program.

/usr
/usr is the second major section of the filesystem. /usr is shareable, read-only data. That means that
/usr should be shareable between various FHS-compliant hosts and must not be written to. Any information
that is host-specific or varies with time is stored elsewhere.

Large software packages must not use a direct subdirectory under the /usr hierarchy.

/var
/var contains variable data files. This includes spool directories and files, administrative and logging data,
and transient and temporary files. Some portions of /var are not shareable between different systems. For
instance, /var/log, /var/lock, and /var/run. Other portions may be shared, notably /var/mail,
/var/cache/man, /var/cache/fonts, and /var/spool/news. /var is specified here in order to make
it possible to mount /usr read-only. Everything that once went into /usr that is written to during system
operation (as opposed to installation and software maintenance) must be in /var. If /var cannot be made a

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Introduction to Linux → Linux File System Architecture 15

separate partition, it is often preferable to move /var out of the root partition and into the /usr partition.
(This is sometimes done to reduce the size of the root partition or when space runs low in the root partition.)
However, /var must not be linked to /usr because this makes separation of /usr and /var more difficult
and is likely to create a naming conflict. Instead, link /var to /usr/var.

Applications must generally not add directories to the top level of /var. Such directories should only be
added if they have some system-wide implication, and in consultation with the FHS mailing list.

© 2009
 3. Linux Basics
Contents:

Linux/Unix Philosophy..........................................................................................................................................17

Login.....................................................................................................................................................................17

root and sudo .......................................................................................................................................................17

The desktop environment.....................................................................................................................................17

X Window System............................................................................................................................................17

Window Manager.............................................................................................................................................18

Shells....................................................................................................................................................................18

Linux commands...................................................................................................................................................18

Redirection......................................................................................................................................................19

Shell Scripting.......................................................................................................................................................20

How to write shell scripting..............................................................................................................................20

Components....................................................................................................................................................20

Variables..........................................................................................................................................................20

Naming convention for Variables.....................................................................................................................21

Introduction to Linux → Linux Basics 17

Linux/Unix Philosophy
• Do one thing and do it well - Write programs that do one thing and do it well. Write programs
to work together. Write programs to handle text streams, because that is a universal interface.
• Everything is file - Ease of use and security is offered by treating hardware as a file.
• Small is beautiful
• Store data and configuration in flat text files - Text file is a universal interface. Easy to create,
backup and move files to another system.
• Use shell scripts to increase leverage and portability - Use shell script to automate common
tasks across various UNIX / Linux installations.
• Chain programs together to complete complex task - Use shell pipes and filters to chain small
utilities that perform one task at time.
• Choose portability over efficiency.
• Keep it Simple, Stupid (KISS).

Login
Users can login to Linux machines either locally or remotely. Linux provides various ways to connect and
following are few of them.
➢ Console
 Local: login console
 Remote: SSH, Telnet, rsh, etc
➢ GUI
 Local: KDM, GDM, XDM
 Remote Console: XDDM *

root and sudo

Be careful when doing administrative tasks, you might damage your system!

The desktop environment

X Window System
The window system is not integral part of a Linux system and the base of the most graphical user interface
of any UNIX, UNIX Like or Linux systems is X Window system version 11, also known as X Window, X11 or
simple X. A complete X-based environment includes a number of other components that are based on X:

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Introduction to Linux → Linux Basics 18

toolkits provide widgets such as buttons and menus that users can interact with, and a window manager
draws window decorations and manages policies for manipulating windows, input focus and much more.

Window Manager
A window manager is system software that controls the placement and appearance of windows within a
windowing system in a graphical user interface. Most window managers are designed to help provide a
desktop environment. They work in conjunction with the underlying graphical system which provides required
functionality such as support for graphics hardware, pointing devices, and a keyboard, and are often written
and created using a widget toolkit

Few examples of Window Managers for X are afterstep, metacity, blackbox, enlightenment, icewm etc.

Shells
The shell acts as an interface between the user and the kernel. When a user logs in, the login program checks
the username and password, and then starts another program called the shell. The shell is a command line
interpreter (CLI). It interprets the commands the user types in and arranges for them to be carried out. The
commands are themselves programs: when they terminate, the shell gives the user another prompt (% on our
systems).

Shell Name Developed By Where Remarks

BASH ( Bourne- Brian Fox and Chet Free Software Most common shell in Linux. It's
Again SHell ) Ramey Foundation Freeware shell.
CSH (C SHell) Bill Joy University of The C shell's syntax and usage are very
California (For BSD) similar to the C programming language.
KSH (Korn SHell) David Korn AT & T Bell Labs
TCSH Ken Greer, Paul Carnegie Mellon TCSH is an enhanced but completely
Placeway, Christos University compatible version of the Berkeley
Zoulas, etc UNIX C shell (CSH).

Linux commands
Linux commands can be executed from consoles directly or from within shell scripts. One of the primary
principles is that commands should be small, designed to do only one task and do it well.

Complex commands can be build using then using shell scripts or by directing the output of one to another
Several commands connected to one another in such a fashion is called a pipeline.

Basic Linux commands

Following are the basic Linux commands

• Copy Files and Directories

• Move Files and Directories
• Removing files and Directories

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Introduction to Linux → Linux Basics 19

• List Files and Directories

• Make Directory
• Display commands
◦ Clear Screen
◦ cat
◦ less
◦ head
◦ tail
• Search commands
◦ less (/<contentToSearch> flag)
◦ grep
◦ mc
• Size
◦ df
◦ du

Redirection
There are three standard file descriptors stdin, stdout & stderr and you can
1. redirect stdout to a file
2. redirect stderr to a file
3. redirect stdout to a stderr
4. redirect stderr to a stdout
5. redirect stderr and stdout to a file
6. redirect stderr and stdout to stdout
7. redirect stderr and stdout to stderr

Also 1 'represents' stdout and 2 stderr.

Samples:

• output of first command to be written to another file

ls -l > out.txt

• Saves the standard output (exclude error message) from first command to another file and it is same as
first command

ls -l /nonexistent 1> stdout.txt

• Saves the error message from first command to another file

ls -l /nonexistent 2> errout.txt

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Introduction to Linux → Linux Basics 20

Pipes

Pipes lets you use the output of one program to be used as input for the next

Shell Scripting
Shell Script is series of command written in plain text file. Shell script is just like batch file is MS-DOS but
have more power than the MS-DOS batch file.

How to write shell scripting

Shell scripts can be written using any text editor including vi, pico, nano, etc. Once the script is completed
then execute permission is set using one of the following command

• chmod +x <filename>
• chmod 755 <filename>
Once the permission is set then the script can be executed using “./<filename>” command if the file is in the
same folder from where you are executing it.

Sample shell script

#!/bin/bash
echo Hello World
echo “Hello World”
echo \“Hello World\”

Components
• Shell keywords such as if..else, do..while.
• Shell commands such as pwd, test, echo, continue, type.
• Linux binary commands such as w, who, free etc..
• Text processing utilities such as grep, awk, cut.
• Functions - add frequent actions together via functions. For example, /etc/init.d/functions file contains
functions to be used by most or all system shell scripts in the /etc/init.d directory.
• Control flow statements such as if..then..else or shell loops to preform repeated actions.

Variables
There are two types of variables

• System Variable: They are defined & maintained by Linux (OS) itself. They are defined by capital letters
such as PATH, SHELL, OSTYPE, etc
• User Defined Variable: They are defined & maintained by users and are defined by lower cases letters
such as hello, var1, etc. They can be defined by using the following syntex
Var=12
uname=“Mayank Johri”

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Introduction to Linux → Linux Basics 21

# And not like, the below one will return an error

var = 12

Naming convention for Variables

1. Variable names must begin with alphanumeric character or underscore (_) followed by one or more
alphanumeric characters

2. Spaces are not allowed on either side of the equal sign when assigning values to variable.

3. Null variable can be defined as

nul1=
null=””

4. Variables are case-sensitive

5. Special characters such as ?. * etc can not be used in variable names. Only exception is underscore.

Defining Variable

© 2009