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 Magnetic materials form a major part in the
construction of electrical machines.

  

‡ Production of a Magnetic Field
‡ Magnetic Circuits
‡ Magnetic Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Materials
‡ Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

 


  

©O ©

Cross-sectional area
 




3henever a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, or
whenever the magnetic field near a conductor is changed, currents
flow in the conductor. This effect is called electromagnetic
induction. Faraday's law gives the magnitude and direction of the
emf produced in a conducting loop whenever the loop is moved, or
whenever the magnetic field near the loop is changed:
Ô@



Ô
where @½©’

Ú
Ú
and
B is the flux density and ë is the area
’ is the magnetic flux in webers (3b)
@ is the flux linkage in weber-turns
© is the number of turns
 
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Transformers: the magnetic

circuits may be formed by
ferromagnetic materials only.

Rotating Machines: the

magnetic circuits may be
formed by ferromagnetic
materials in conjunction with
an air medium.
 
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The magnetomotive force (mmf) of an ©-turn current
carrying coil is given by
½©O
The
 of a path for magnetic flux, such as the bar or
iron shown in the following figure, is given by:



^ë
where,

 = mean length of the path
’
^ = permeability of the material
ë = cross-sectional area ë
Reluctance is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit.
3hen the bar is not straight, the length of the path is taken to
be the length of the centerline.  is therefore considered as
the
    .
Magnetic flux, ’, in a magnetic circuit is equivalent of
current in an electrical circuit. Magnetic flux, reluctance and
mmf are related by:

’
which is equivalent to Ohm¶s Law (è=O).

The current carrying coil is the magnetic circuit equivalent to

a voltage source in an electrical circuit. Therefore, mmf can
be considered to be analogous to a source voltage.
Ê

sing the magnetic circuit concepts, analyze the toroid coil shown in
Fig. 1. The magnetic circuit is analogous to the electrical circuit shown
in Fig. 2, with a resistance connected across a voltage source.

 Core centreline
’
 r

© turn coil

O
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 1. Coil on a toroid iron core
Fig. 2. The magnetic circuit for the toroid coil

Find the expressions for the reluctance and magnetic flux.

‰


Ê

The mean length of the magnetic path is: =2a
The cross-section of the core is circular with a radius,
.
Thus, the area of the cross section is: ë=a
2.

The expression for the reluctance (from Eq. 1-2):

 2a 2




^
^a„ 2 ^„ 2 Core centreline

The mmf is: =©O 

© turn coil
 ^„ 
2

ënd the magnetic flux: 

O

 2
Ê

Consider the magnetic core with an air gap as shown in Fig. 3.
The core material has a relative permeability of 6000 and a
rectangular cross-section of 2cm by 3cm. The coil has 500 turns.
Determine the current required to establish a flux density of
Ú=0.25T in the air gap.
8 cm
Core thickness=3 cm
2 cm ’
O r
©=500




8 cm 0.5 cm

Fig. 3. Iron core with an air gap Fig. 4. Magnetic circuit

‰


Ê

The mean length of the iron core and the cross-sectional area:
=4*6-0.5=23.5cm, ë=(2*10-2)*(3*10-2)=6*10-4 m2

The permeability of the core is: ^
=^r^0=6000*4a*10-7=7.54*10-3

 u „

The reluctance of the core:  u

^ u „

u „

ëir gap cross-sectional area:

ë=2*3 cm2=6*10-4 m2
‰


Ê


The permeability of air is approximately equal to that of free space:
^=^0=4a*10-7
The reluctance of the air gap = †(^*ë)= 6.63*106
The total reluctance = 5.195*104  6.63*106 = 6.68*106
Even though the gap is much shorter than the iron core, the reluctance of
the gap is higher than that of core because of the much higher permeability
of the iron. Most of the mmf is dropped across the air gap.

The flux is given by: ’=Úgap ëgap=0.25*8.75*10-4 =2.188*10-4 3b

The flux in the core is the same as that in the air gap. However, the flux
density is higher in the core, because the area is smaller.

 =2.188*10-4*6.68*106 = 1,461
The mmf is given by: =’

ënd the required current: O = †© = 1461†500 = 2.922 ë

Ê

Consider the magnetic core with an air gap as shown in Fig. 5.
The core material has a relative permeability of 6000 and a
rectangular cross-section of 2cm by 3cm. The coil has 500 turns.
Determine the current required to establish a flux density of
Ú=0.25T in the air gap considering fringing at the air gap.
8 cm
Core thickness=3 cm
2 cm ’
O r
©=500




8 cm 0.5 cm

Fig. 5. Iron core with an air gap Fig. 6. Magnetic circuit

‰


Ê

The mean length of the iron core and the cross-sectional area:
=4*6-0.5=23.5cm, ë=(2*10-2)*(3*10-2)=6*10-4 m2

The permeability of the core is: ^
=^r^0=6000*4a*10-7=7.54*10-3

 u „

The reluctance of the core:  u

^ u „

u „

The flux lines tend to bow out in the air gap as shown in Fig. 5. This is
called fringing. Thus, the effective area of the air gap is larger than that of
the iron core. Customarily, we take this into account by adding the length
of the air gap to each of the dimensions of the air gap cross-section giving:

ë=2.5*3.5 cm2=8.75*10-4 m2
‰


Ê


The permeability of air is approximately equal to that of free space:
^=^0=4a*10-7
The reluctance of the air gap = †(^*ë)= 4.547*106
The total reluctance = 5.195*104  4.547*106 = 4.552*106
Even though the gap is much shorter than the iron core, the reluctance of
the gap is higher than that of core because of the much higher permeability
of the iron. Most of the mmf is dropped across the air gap.

The flux is given by: ’=Úgap ëgap=0.25*8.75*10-4 =2.188*10-4 3b

The flux in the core is the same as that in the air gap. However, the flux
density is higher in the core, because the area is smaller.

 =2.188*10-4*4.552*106 = 996
The mmf is given by: =’

ënd the required current: O = †© = 996†500 = 1.992 ë

Ê

The following figure shows a electromagnet with two parallel air
gaps. Neglecting leakage, iron reluctance, and fringing at the air
gaps, calculate the flux and flux density in each leg of the magnetic
circuit. ëll dimensions are in inch.

÷ 0.251 ë

4
0.02 0.04
©=1,000
1 1
2 1

6
a 
 
 ! 
    
  "#

 

$
%a 




:

It is assumed that the flux is contained in the core. ë small amount of the
flux escapes the core into the surrounding low permeability air - this is
referred to as  .
The calculations we have used for reluctance rely on a measurement of
the mean path. 3e have assumed that the mean path lies in the center of
the core. This assumption is not necessarily true, and in particular is a
poor assumption at the corner;
3here there are air gaps in the core fringing takes place. 3e have
assumed that the effective area caused by fringing increases is related to
the length of the gap, this is obviously an approximation;
In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies according to the
amount of flux already in the core. This non-linear effect (saturation) adds
inaccuracies to the results as the reluctance calculations depend upon the
permeability.
 
  &
$



  


Ú' |


The B-H characteristic demonstrates the magnetic behaviour of a
ferromagnetic material. Permeability ^ is defined by the following
equation:
Ú=^
^ is constant in free space but not true for iron or other ferromagnetic
materials as magnetomotive force (mmf) is applied.

©O D

’½Úë

Fig. 7. Coil wounded on a ferromagnetic core.

Ú' |

 


‰tart with 0 DC current and slowly raise current to a possible maximum

value. 3hen flux produced in the core is plotted versus the mmf
producing it, the resulting plot looks the one shown in Fig. 8.

’(3b)

Transition: knee of the curve

(ëT)
nsaturated
region
‰aturated
region

Fig. 8. ‰aturation or magnetization curve

 Ú' |

 

ë Ú- Characteristic is a representation (plot) of the magnetic flux
density as a function of the applied magnetic field. ë magnetization
curve is typically nonlinear. Fig. 9 shows a plot of Ú versus .
 † ©O†
 Úë
Ú ’ë
 is directly proportional to
’ is directly proportional to Ú
Therefore Ú- characteristic has the same shape as the relationship
between ’ - .
Ú (Tesla)

 (ëT†m)
Fig. 9. Ú- Characteristic
Ê 
 


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‡ Hysteresis loss
‡ Eddy current loss
 [


‡ ëpply a magnetic field intensity, , to a sample iron.

‡ Magnetic fields of the atoms in small domains are aligned with the
applied field.
‡ If the applied field is reduced to zero, the domains return to their
original orientations.
‡ If  is increased in the reverse direction, the domains align in the
reverse orientations.


+


Fig. 10a. Iron sample and coil for applying  Fig. 10b. Magnetic domains
 Hysteresis Loss (cont¶d)

‡ For an ac system, if the applied field is varied through a cycle,

during some interval of time energy flows from the source to
the coil-core assembly and during some other interval of time
energy returns to the source. However, the energy flowing in
is greater than the energy returned. Therefore, during a cycle
of variation of the applied field, there is a net energy flow
from the source to the coil-core assembly. This energy loss
goes to heat the core. The loss of power in the core due to the
hysteresis effect is called 
O  .
 Ê| 

‡ This current leads to core loss for ac operation. The solid iron core
itself is an electrical conductor, acting much like shorted turns. ës
the magnetic field changes, voltages are induced in the core causing
current, known as eddy currents to circulate in the core material. ës
a result, power is dissipated in the core according to @ = 2†.

‡ The eddy current loss can be reduced in two ways:

± ë high-resistivity core material can be used.
± ë laminated core can be used. The core can be laminated with
thin sheets of iron that are electrical insulated from one another.
The orientation of the sheets is selected to interrupt the flow of
current. Thus, the resistance is higher for eddy currents, and the
loss is greatly reduced. ënother approach is to make the core
with powdered iron held together by an insulated binder.
^

1. Explain the terms magnetomotive force, reluctance and flux and hence
derive the expression that relates these quantities.
2. 3hat is a ferromagnetic material? 3hy is the permeability of
ferromagnetic materials so high?
3. 3hat are the relationships between the followings:
- flux density and magnetic field strength
- flux and flux density
- mmf and flux
4. 3hat are hysteresis and eddy current losses? 3hat can be done to
minimize them?
5. ën air gap has a length of 0.1cm. 3hat length of iron has the same
reluctance as the air gap? The relative permeability of the iron is 5000.
The cross sectional areas of the air gap and the core are the same. [0.5m]