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Computing For Management:: Random Access Memory
Computing For Management:: Random Access Memory
Technology, Islamabad
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RANDOM ACCESS
MEMORY
INTRODUCTION:
Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage. Today, it
takes the form of integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed
in any order. RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also called
main memory or Direct Access Memory.
Random access means that each individual
byte in the entire memory is directly
accessible. A program must be loaded into
RAM before execution.
RAM is temporary memory. When the power
is turned off, the information in this memory is
lost. Thus it is called volatile memory. CPU can
read data from RAM and write data to RAM.
That is why RAM is also known as read/write
memory. It is used to store data and
instruction while it is being executed.
HISTORY:
An early type of widespread writable random-access memory was
the magnetic core memory, developed from 1949 to 1952, and
subsequently used in most computers up until the development of
the static and dynamic integrated RAM circuits in the late 1960s and
early 1970s. Before this, computers used relays, delay line memory,
or various kinds of vacuum tube arrangements to implement
"main" memory functions. some of which were random access,
some not. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of
discrete transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such
as random-access register banks and registers. Prior to the
development of integrated ROM circuits, permanent (or read-only)
random-access memory was often constructed using semiconductor
diode matrices driven by address decoders.
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WHY RANDOM ACCESS?
RAM is called "random access" because any storage location can be
accessed directly. Originally, the term distinguished regular core
memory from offline memory, usually on magnetic tape in which an
item of data could only be accessed by starting from the beginning
of the tape and finding an address sequentially. Perhaps it should
have been called "nonsequential memory" because RAM access is
hardly random. RAM is organized and controlled in a way that
enables data to be stored and retrieved directly to specific locations.
Note that other forms of storage such as the hard disk and CD-ROM
are also accessed directly (or "randomly") but the term random
access is not applied to these forms of storage.
In addition to disk, floppy disk, and CD-ROM storage, another
important form of storage is read-only memory (ROM), a more
expensive kind of memory that retains data even when the
computer is turned off. Every computer comes with a small amount
of ROM that holds just enough programming so that the operating
system can be loaded into RAM each time the computer is turned
on.
In the most common form of RAM, dynamic RAM, each cell has a charge
or lack of charge held in something similar to an electrical capacitor. A
transistor acts as a gate in determining whether the value in the capacitor
can be read or written. In static RAM, instead of a capacitor-held charge,
the transistor itself is a positional flip/flop switch, with one position
meaning 1 and the other position meaning 0.
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When the processor or CPU gets the next instruction it is to perform, the
instruction may contain the address of some memory or RAM location
from which data is to be read (brought to the processor for further
processing). This address is sent to the RAM controller. The RAM controller
organizes the request and sends it down the appropriate address lines so
that transistors along the lines open up the cells so that each capacitor
value can be read. A capacitor with a charge over a certain voltage level
represents the binary value of 1 and a capacitor with less than that
charge represents a 0. For dynamic RAM, before a capacitor is read, it
must be power-refreshed to ensure that the value read is valid.
Depending on the type of RAM, the entire line of data may be read that
the specific address happens to be located at or, in some RAM types, a
unit of data called a page is read. The data that is read is transmitted
along the data lines to the processor's nearby data buffer known as level-
1 cache and another copy may be held in level-2 cache.
For video RAM, the process is similar to DRAM except that, in some forms
of video RAM, while data is being written to video RAM by the processor,
data can simultaneously be read from RAM by the video controller (for
example, for refreshing the display image).
TYPES OF RAM:
The following are some common types of RAM:
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• DRAM: Dynamic random access memory has memory cells
with a paired transistor and capacitor requiring constant
refreshing.
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• Credit Card Memory: Credit card memory is a
proprietary self-contained DRAM memory module that plugs
into a special slot for use in notebook computers.
SPEED OF RAM:
Speed of ram is also important. Speed is measured in Mega Hertz
(MHz). Sometime its in Giga Hertz (GHz).
Speed of RAM ranges from 400MHz to 1000MHz. It is also necesory
for processor processing speed.
Another measurement of speed is CAS Speed which is measured in
nanosecond or ns. It comes in 3 to 5ns.
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TYPE OF RAM ACCORDING TO
SPEED:
There are three types of Rams used now a day
DDR (used in
DDR-RAM DDR2-RAM computers lasting 4
Speed SPEED years)
PC1600 PC2-3200 DDR2 (used in
200MHz 400MHz computers lasting 2
PC2100 PC2-4200 533 years)
266MHz MHz DDR3 (used in
PC2400 PC2-5300 667 computers Now a
300MHz MHz day)
PC2700 333 PC2-6400 800
MHz MHz
PC3000 375 PC2-8000 1000 The difference in the
MHz MHz RAMs is their bus
PC3200 400 speed and
bandwidth.
MHz
Manufacturers sale the rams according to Band
PC3500 433 Width and Bus speed
MHz For example. PC3200 is bandwidth and
PC3700 466 400MHz is Bus speed
MHz
PC4000 500
MHz
PC4300 533
MHz
PC4500 566
RAM BANDWIDTH AND
MHz SPEED ANYLYSIS:
PC4800 600
MHz
DDR3-RAM
SPEED
PC3-6400
800MHz
PC3-8500
1062 MHz
PC3-10600
1325 MHz
.
PC3-12800
1600 MHz
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MEMORY MODULES:
The type of board and connector used for RAM in desktop computers
has evolved over the past few years.
The first types were proprietary,
meaning that different computer
manufacturers developed memory
boards that would only work with their
specific systems. Then came SIMM,
which stands for single in-line memory
module. This memory board used a
30-pin connector and was about 3.5 x .
75 inches in size (about 9 x 2 cm). In
most computers, you had to install
SIMMs in pairs of equal capacity and
speed. This is because the width of the bus is more than a single
SIMM. For example, you would install two 8-megabyte (MB) SIMMs to
get 16 megabytes total RAM. Each SIMM could send 8 bits of data at
one time, while the system bus could handle 16 bits at a time. Later
SIMM boards, slightly larger at 4.25 x 1 inch (about 11 x 2.5 cm),
used a 72-pin connector for increased bandwidth and allowed for up
to 256 MB of RAM.
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As processors grew in speed and bandwidth capability, the industry
adopted a new standard in dual in-line memory module (DIMM).
With a whopping 168-pin or 184-pin connector and a size of 5.4 x 1
inch (about 14 x 2.5 cm), DIMMs range in capacity from 8 MB to 1
GB per module and can be installed singly instead of in pairs. Most
PC memory modules and the modules for the Mac G5 systems
operate at 2.5 volts, while older Mac G4 systems typically use 3.3
volts. Another standard, Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), is
comparable in size and pin configuration to DIMM but uses a special
memory bus to greatly increase speed.
Many brands of notebook computers use proprietary memory
modules, but several manufacturers use RAM based on the small
outline dual in-line memory module (SODIMM) configuration.
SODIMM cards are small, about 2 x 1 inch (5 x 2.5 cm), and have
144 or 200 pins. Capacity ranges from 16 MB to 1 GB per module.
To conserve space, the Apple iMac desktop computer uses SODIMMs
instead of the traditional DIMMs. Sub-notebook computers use even
smaller DIMMs, known as MicroDIMMs, which have either 144 pins or
172 pins.
Most memory available today is highly reliable. Most systems simply
have the memory controller check for errors at start-up and rely on
that. Memory chips with built-in error-checking typically use a
method known as parity to check for errors. Parity chips have an
extra bit for every 8 bits of data. The way parity works is simple.
Let's look at even parity first.
When the 8 bits in a byte receive data, the chip adds up the total
number of 1s. If the total number of 1s is odd, the parity bit is set to
1. If the total is even, the parity bit is set to 0. When the data is read
back out of the bits, the total is added up again and compared to
the parity bit. If the total is odd and the parity bit is 1, then the data
is assumed to be valid and is sent to the CPU. But if the total is odd
and the parity bit is 0, the chip knows that there is an error
somewhere in the 8 bits and dumps the data. Odd parity works the
same way, but the parity bit is set to 1 when the total number of 1s
in the byte are even
OPPOSITE OF RAM:
The opposite of RAM is serial access memory (SAM). SAM stores
data as a series of memory cells that can only be accessed
sequentially (like a cassette tape). If the data is not in the current
location, each memory cell is checked until the needed data is
found. SAM works very well for memory buffers, where the data is
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normally stored in the order in which it will be used (a good example
is the texture buffer memory on a video card). RAM data, on the
other hand, can be accessed in any order.
STRUCTURE OF RAM:
The invention is an integrated circuit data
storage array with storage cells disposed in
an array of rows and columns with each cell
having a number of sub cells. The physical
location of the sub cells substantially
reduces the space taken by horizontal data
line used for accessing columns. This is
accomplished by locating sub cells of the
same row number, the same bit number,
and different column number adjacent to
each other in the horizontal direction. So, a
horizontal data line only extends between
adjacent sub cells and significantly reduces
the wasted layout of multibit horizontal data lines.
It's been said that you can never have enough money, and the same
holds true for RAM, especially if you do a lot of graphics-intensive
work or gaming. Next to the CPU itself, RAM is the most important
factor in computer performance. If you don't have enough, adding
RAM can make more of a difference than getting a new CPU!
If your system responds slowly or accesses the hard drive
constantly, then you need to add more RAM. If you are running
Windows XP, Microsoft recommends 128MB as the minimum RAM
requirement. At 64MB, you may experience frequent application
problems. For optimal performance with standard desktop
applications, 256MB is recommended. If you are running Windows
95/98, you need a bare minimum of 32 MB, and your computer will
work much better with 64 MB. Windows NT/2000 needs at least 64
MB, and it will take everything you can throw at it, so you'll probably
want 128 MB or more.
Linux works happily on a system with only 4 MB of RAM. If you plan
to add X-Windows or do much serious work, however, you'll
probably want 64 MB. Mac OS X systems should have a minimum of
128 MB, or for optimal performance, 512 MB.
The amount of RAM listed for each system above is estimated for
normal usage -- accessing the Internet, word processing, standard
home/office applications and light entertainment. If you do
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computer-aided design (CAD), 3-D modeling/animation or heavy
data processing, or if you are a serious gamer, then you will most
likely need more RAM. You may also need more RAM if your
computer acts as a server of some sort (Web pages, database,
application, FTP or network).
Another question is how much VRAM you want on your video card.
Almost all cards that you can buy today have at least 16 MB of RAM.
This is normally enough to operate in a typical office environment.
You should probably invest in a 32-MB or better graphics card if you
want to do any of the following:
• Play realistic games
• Capture and edit video
• Create 3-D graphics
• Work in a high-resolution, full-color environment
• Design full-color illustrations
When shopping for video cards, remember that your monitor and
computer must be capable of supporting the card you choose.
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