CHAPTER 7 Objective After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to (a) select the most appropriate method of measuring horizontal and vertical angles, (b) measure and record these angles and determine their most probable values and (c) understand the errors that affect angle measurement and minimize their effects. Theodolites In succeeding chapters of this book, the topics of traversing, tacheometry, radial positioning and setting out structures will be considered in detail. In all of those topics, the subject of angular measure- ‘ment will be a common factor. Itis therefore essential that the surveyor has a sound knowledge of the instru- ments and methods used in the measurement of hori- zontal and vertical angles. Until comparatively recently, angles were measured ‘on surveys by compass as well as, though much less accurately than, by theodolite. The compass, however, is now obsolescent and is used only rarely, .. in heavily overgrown or in thickly wooded areas, ‘where an approximate solution is sufficient. ‘The compass has one major advantage over the theodolite, namely that it can, of course, find the bearing, ie. the direction, of a line relative to mag- netic north. A conventional theodolite cannot be used to find north without the addition of a compass needle attachment which, of course, really turns it into a glorified compass. ‘The theodolite is an instrument that is used to measure angles, with an accuracy varying from 1 to 60 seconds of arc. It is initially a difficult instrument to use but a working knowledge can be gained, fairly quickly, if the instrument is, diagrammatically, broken into its component parts and each examined carefully, 1. Classification A theodolite is generally classified according to the ‘method used to read the circles. Broadly speaking, the ‘methods are: 1. Vernier (now obsolete) 2. Direct reading 3. Optical scale 4. Optical micrometer 5. Opto-electronic 144 Despite this multiplicity of reading systems the basic principles of construction of the theodolite are similar. 2. Principles of construction ‘The main components of a theodolite are illustrated in Fig. 7.1. These are as follows. (8) Tripod The purpose of the tripod is to provide support for the instrument. Tripods may be telescopic, ie. they have sliding legs, or may have legs of fixed length. (b) Trivet stage ‘The trivet stage is the flat base of the instrument which screws on to the tripod and carries the feet of the levelling screws. (©) Tribrach ‘The tribrach is the body of the instrument carrying all the other parts. The tribrach has a hollow, cylindrical, socket into which fits the remainder of the instrument (Fig. 7.1). All modern theodolites have hardened stee! cylindrical axes. A cylindrical ball race takes the ‘eight of the upper part of the instrument. (@ Levelling arrangement To enable the tribrach to be levelled, levelling screws are fitted between the tribrach and trivet stage. Move- ment of the footscrews centres the bubble of the plate spirit level, situated on the cover plate of the horizon- tal circle. The sensitivity of the spirit level is of the order of 2mm = 40 seconds of arc.vertical ite ; axsge bn ! stoners wn trreen bal race +} horizontal rele (©) Horizontal circle lower plate) The horizontal circle is in reality a protractor gradu- ated in a clockwise direction and numbered from 0° to 360°. Modern instruments have glass circles. The horizontal circle is mounted on a cylindrical axis which fits around the outside of the tribrach (Fig. 7.1). ‘The circle is therefore free to rotate around the tri- brach and can be stopped in any position by applying the lower plate clamp. When tightened, the clamp. locks the horizontal circle (lower plate) to the tri- brach. A very limited amount of horizontal move- ment is still possible via the slow motion screw Theodolites 145 attached to the clamp. The slow motion screw only works when the lower plate clamp is locked. (0) Alidade (upper plate) ‘The alidade is the remainder of the theodolite com- prising the uprights which support the telescope and vertical circle and the spirit levels. In Fig. 7.1, the alidade is carried on a central spindle, which fits within the hollow socket of the tribrach, It is therefore free to rotate with respect to the horizontal circle, which is itself free to rotate around the tribrach sleeve, as has already been explained. (g) Controls for measuring horizontal angles 1. Double centre system This uses upper and lower plate clamps. Figure 7.1 shows the double centre axis system and Fig. 7.2(b) shows the two clamps. It is essential that the function of the upper and lower plate clamps be understood since they control the entire operation of measuring a horizontal angle. ‘When both clamps are open the lower plate (hori zontal circle) and upper plate (alidade) are free to ‘move in any direction relative to the tribrach and to each other (Fig. 7.3). ‘When the lower plate clamp is closed, the horizon- tal circle is locked in position and the alidade is free to rotate inside the stationary circle. The reading on the horizontal circle will therefore change continuously. ‘When both clamps are closed, neither plate can rotate. If the lower plate clamp is now released the upper and lower plates will move together and there will be no change in reading on the horizontal circle. ‘The instrument can be used in the repetition and reiteration measurement of angles. 2. Circle-setting screw Some theodolites do not have a lower plate clamp. The alidade is clamped directly to the tribrach (e.g. Watts 1, Kern DKM 1). During measurement the horizontal circle remains stationary while the alidade moves over it in the usual way. However, the circle can be moved by a continuous-drive circle-setting screw and the instrument may therefore be easily set to, say, 00° 00 00° for any pointing of the telescope (Fig. 7-4). The instrument cannot measure angles by the repetition method. 3. Repetition clamp system Some theodolites (WILD TI6) are fitted with a repetition clamp instead of a lower plate screw. When the clamp is in the closed position the horizontal circle rests against the tribrach, When the clamp is, ‘opened the circle is clamped to the alidade (Fig. 7.5). ‘The upper plate clamp connects the alidade directly to the tribrach and the instrument may be used for either repetition or reiteration measurements.148 Surveying for construction (a) Watts ST 20 Vernier theodolite (now (b) Sokkia DT20E electronic theodolite obsolete) included here for showing upper and lower clamps ‘comparative purposes only (c) Leica KOS theodolite showing (d) Watts ST 200 theodolite showing repetition clamp circle-setting screw Figure 7.2lower plate clamp = ~locks 2 to 3148 Surveying for construction p= upper plate clamp - ~ locks 1to 3 Figure 7.5 (b) Index marks In order to read the circle for any pointings of the tele- scope it is convenient to imagine an index mark ‘mounted on the alidade directly below the telescope. As the alidade is rotated, the index mark moves over the horizontal circle. When the alidade is locked, the index mark is read against the circle. Actually the index mark is a line etched on a glass plate, some- Where in the optical train of the theodolite. When measuring a horizontal angle, eg. angle PQR in Fig. 7.6, the theodolite is set over point Q and the lower plate is locked in any random position, The upper plate clamp is released and the telescope ‘mounted on the alidade is turned to point in turn to stations P and R. A horizontal circle reading is taken for both telescope pointings and subtracted to give the horizontal angle. ie ARNING repetition clamp— -locks 2 to1 or locks 2 to3 ( Transit axis or trunnion axis The transit axis rests on the limbs of the standards and is securely held in position by a locknut. Attached to the transit axis are the telescope and vertical circle, Allthree are free to rotate in the vertical plane but can be clamped in any position in the plane by a clamp usually known as the telescope clamp (Fig. 7.7) Again, a certain amount of movement is permitted by a slow-motion device. ‘The telescope has been described in Chapter 4 and Fig. 4.4 shows the paths of the rays of light through 33% et “tescove trast_oxs_f ocsig Ring Figure 7.7zenith angle (zenith 0°) 270% 90° eB ao 90° CT I oe vertical angle = (horizontal 0°) 270° Figure 78 the telescope. A typical specification for a theodolite telescope is (a) internal focusing—damp and rust resistant; (b) shortest focusing distance—2 metres; (©) magnification of x30; (@) object glass diameter, 42 mm; (©) field of view, 1° 12: The vertical circle, 80 mm in diameter, is attached to the telescope and is graduated in a variety of ways, two of which are shown in Fig. 7.8. The angle measured in the vertical plane can therefore be a vertical angle (where the zero degree reading indicates the horizontal position of the telescope) or a zenith angle (where the zero degree reading indicates the vertical position of the telescope) GD) Altitude spirit level Angles measured in a vertical plane must be measured relative to a truly horizontal line. The line is that which passes through the centre of the transit axis and is maintained in a horizontal position by the altitude spirit level (Fig. 7.7). The spirit level and index mark is attached to a“T” frame which is made horizontal by activating the clip screw against the standards, The altitude spirit level is more sensitive than the plate spirit level. ‘Modern theodolites are fitted with a co-incidence bubble reader which is fully explained in Sec. 1(4) in Chapter 4. This device greatly increases the accuracy of the bubble setting. ‘Theodolites 149 ‘On most modern theodolites automatic indexing is used. The spirit level is replaced with either a pendu- lum device which operates in similar fashion to an automatic level or the surface of a liquid is used. The reading of the vertical circle is reflected from the always true horizontal surface of the liquid and any deflection of the theodolite vertical axis is auto- ‘matically compensated. (&) Centring motion Since the theodolite must be placed exactly over a survey station, itis fitted with a centring motion fitted usually above the tribrach, which allows the whole of the instrument above the tribrach to move relative to the latter. Since the total amount of movement is only 40 mm, the instrument must be placed very accurately over the survey mark before the centring motion is used, @ Optical plummet On most theodolites an optical plummet is incor- porated which greatly aids centring of the instrument, particularly in windy weather. Figure 7.9 isa section through an optical plummet. When the theodolite is properly set up and levelled the observer is able to view the ground station through the eyepiece of the optical plummet, the line of sight being deffected vertically downwards by the 45° prism incorporated in the plummet, Movement of the centring motion allows the theodolite to be placed exactly over the survey station. 15" detecting em line of sight 3. Reading the circles The horizontal and vertical circles of modern theodo- lites are made of glass. The casing and standards are hollow, so itis possible to pass light through them using a suitable arrangement of prisms. Four methods of reading the graduations on the Circles are available. In Great Britain (and in most other parts of the world), the sexagesimal units are150 Surveying for construction used in the measurement of angles; hence all subse- ‘quent examples use degrees, minutes and seconds (a) Direct reading The horizontal circle is read through a reading eye- piece attached to one of the standards or alongside the main telescope eyepiece. In the lower order theodolites, the horizontal circle is graduated at 5 or 10 minute intervals and read by estimation to the nearest minute, Figure 7.10(a) illus- trates the reading of the horizontal and vertical circles of the Zeiss (Jena) Theo 080A minute reading theodo- lite. The circle has primary graduations at 1 degree intervals and secondary graduations at S minute inter- vals. The respective readings of vertical and horizon- tal circles are 96° 05' and 359° 29' (b) Direct scale reading Intermediate order theodolites employ an optical scale to read the horizontal and vertical circles, Figure 7.10(b) illustrates the field of view of the Watts minute reading theodolite. The circles are grad- uated at 1 degree intervals. The image of any degree graduation is seen in the eyepiece super-imposed on a transparent scale graticule. This scale is graduated at 1 minute intervals and the circle reading is obtained by reading the degree mark against the scale. In the figure the readings of vertical and horizontal scales are 04° 47’ and 125° 19.5’ respectively. Figure 7.10(c) shows the circle readings of the Kern KIS engineers theodolite. The scales are sub-divided into 0.5 minute intervals and reading is by estimation to 0.1 minute. The illustrated readings are vertical 78° 35.6 and horizontal 68° 21.8" Vv (©) Micrometer reading ‘Single reading micrometer Figure 7.11 illustrates the optical train through a higher order theodolite, namely Watts 1. The optics are simple and the illumination is very clear. In the figure, the double open line follows the optical path through the horizontal circle while the dashed line follows that of the vertical circle ‘The readings of both circles are seen through the circle eyepiece mounted on the outside of the standard upright. It can be rotated from one side to the other for comfortable viewing. ‘The eyepiece contains three apertures, the horizon- tal and vertical circle graduations appearing in those marked H and V respectively. As with the vernier theodolite, the circles are divided into 20-minute divisions. The horizontal circle, as read against the index arrow in Fig. 7.12(a) is therefore 35°20 + x The fractional part x is read in the third aperture by means of a parallel plate optical micrometer inserted into the light path of the instrument. ‘A parallel plate micrometer is simply a glass block with parallel sides. In physics, the law of refraction states that a ray of light striking a parallel sided glass block at right angles will pass through the block without being refracted. If the block is tilted, however, the ray of light will be refracted but the emergent (i.e. exiting) ray will be parallel to the incident (.. entering) ray. In Fig, 7.12(b) the ray of light from the horizontal circle is passing through the parallel plate when in the vertical position. The plate is directly geared to a drum mounted on the standard upright. Rotation of the drum causes the plate to tilt and the main scale reading of 35° 20'is thereby made to coincide with the S48 ce a VPS arra | 3 9% «97 mn gop '* ae aloe puliubinlinbinius] f [2 2 2 » 2 9 al ope aR TTT pee wae a 359 hianjedatltolanl] / 9p Sp eg Wel Figure7.10 teotioge, 886 rotting Theodolites 181 cle eyepiece paths of Cont ys ough toe per plate "lm orienta _ twang serows Figure 7.11 index mark. The resultant displacement, x, is read in minutes and seconds on the micrometer scale. The horizontal circle reading shown in Fig. 7.12(c) is therefore 35°20) +06" 40” 3526 40" Double reading micrometer It is frequently necessary in engineering surveying to measure angles with a higher degree of accuracy than can be obtained from a 20-second theodolite. In such cases a theodolite reading directly to 1 second is used, It is possible to show that if the spindles of the upper and lower plates are eccentric, the measurement of the horizontal angles will be in error. The effects, of eccentricity are entirely eliminated if two read- ings, 180° apart, are obtained and the mean of them taken, On a L-second theodolite, the reading eyepiece is again mounted on the upright. In most cases the hori- zontal and vertical circle readings are not shown ore. merometer meramater asin eran hore evele reading vet cele ready craig eon ] — = |) 5 xs 3 microncter reading (0) wor Figure 7.12152 Surveying for construction simultaneously. On the Hilger and Watts 2 microptic theodolite, a knob is situated below the reading eyepiece which, when turned to either H or V, brings into view the horizontal or vertical circle scale. The images of divisions diametrically opposed to each other are automatically averaged when setting, the micrometer (Fig. 7.13) and the reading direct to I second is free from circle eccentricity. The observer is actually viewing both sides of the circle simul- taneously. In order to obtain a reading, the observer turns the micrometer drum until in the smallest aper- ture of the viewing eyepiece the graduations from one side of the circle are seen to be correctly superimposed ‘on those from the other side, asin Fig. 7.13. Both circles are read to 1 second, each circle having its own light path and separate micrometer. operating rah vert, circle micrometer fircle reading ‘The reading of the horizontal circle in Fig. 7.13 is 183° 20 + x (main scale) 1/26" (micrometer scale) 18°27 26" (@ Opto-ctectronic Advances in the electronics industry have led to the development of the totally electronic theodolite Most instrument makers produce a range of these theodolites, costing less than conventional instru- ments. The horizontal and vertical circles are comprised of circular plates, incorporating angular encoders, etctereoing ‘eyepiece selector prem for easing ther vert nate, Sele selector knob fies of view of circle weeding cle reading trepece Reosing Man scale 19° 20 Meroneter warewhich, described in their simplest terms, are circular bar charts, which can be detected by a reading head in the theodolite The theodolite is controlled by a microprocessor prompted by the surveyor, using a control panel, built into the alidade. The code pattern is detected by the incremental encoder system, converted to a pulse signal, which is then changed to angular units by the microprocessor. The angular units are displayed in digital fashion on the screen of the control panel Fig. 7.14). The automatic display of the circle readings etiminates the need for scales and micrometers, and greatly reduces reading and booking errors.” The time required for measuring an angle is also reduced because of the zero-set facility on most of these instruments (Topeon DT30, Sokkia DTS), whereby the ciel can be set to read zero at the touch of @ button. Display panel Figure7.14. Sol Theodolites 153 Example 1 Figure 7.15 shows a view through the reading eyepiece of several theodolites in common use: (a) By inspection determine the system employed to read the circles, (b) Determine the readings of the various hori zontal and vertical circles shown. Answers (a) Zeiss 080 direct V,.96° 05" H, 359° 28) (b) Wild T16 scale V, 96° 06.5) H, 235° 56.4" (©) Sokkia TM6 micrometer H, 263° 1524" (d) Sokkia TS20A scale H, 103°2.5', or H, 256° 57.5" (¢) Pentax THO6D micrometer V, 58° 25' 48° (9) Sokkia DTSelectronic —_V, 67°05" 10" H, 137° 08°00" | — Battery power pack P vertical circle clamp and slow motion screw |— optical plumb |— Horizontal circle clamp ‘and slow motion screw184 Surveying for construction v Vv se 7 ee 9 96 (97 tana or la a9 0 1 tal oat Hz ai _ 1 103 P tI Eee Z ra 257, 256 ae E 265 va i rH viscid H| i3tseod, —— 756 ee 204 | Theodolite reading systems eH Figure 7.15 Exercise 7.1 1 Figure 7.16 shows the view through the reading eyepiece of several theodolites in common use. (a) Determine the system used to read the circles. (b) Determine the readings of the various horizontal and/or vertical circles shown in the figure. Setting up the theodolite (temporary adjustments) ‘The sequence of operations required to prepare the instrument for measuring an angle is as follows. (@) Plumb-bob method 1. Setting the tripod This is probably the most important operation. Ifthe tripod is not set properly, a great deal of time will Ihave tobe spent on subsequent operations 2to4 ‘The tripod legs are spread out and rested lightly on the ground around the mark. With the plumb-bob hanging from a hook fitted to the tripod head, the tripod is moved bodily until the plumb-bob is over the mark. The small circular sprit level mounted on the tripod is checked to ensure that the bubble is approxi- mately central. If itis not, one leg of the tripod at a time is moved sideways until itis. Sideways movement of any leg will not greatly affect the position of the plumb-bob.le) Wis Ros ° 0 » % «0 4 BW yy |e) igor Wotts groticue binned ey Wis Theodolites 155 ey (1 Wiser vi (al Tovistoce Figure 7.16 Only when the bubble is centred on the plumb-bob very close to the survey mark are the legs of the tripod pushed firmly home. This latter action will disturb the position of the plumb-bob and/or bubble and the tele- scopic sliding arrangements on the legs are used to reestablish the tripod’s central position 2. Mounting the instrument The theodolite is then carefully removed from the box and firmly screwed to the tripod. It should be noted at this point that the theodolite should not be carried on the tripod. Not only is it wasteful of setting-up time but serious damage can be caused should the observer trip. Even discounting mishaps, damage is caused to the instrument’s central axis because the weight of the instrument tends to bend it slightly. 3. Levelling ‘The levelling sequence is identical to that of the ddumpy level, namely: (@) Set the plate spirit level over two screws and centralize the bubble. (b) Turn the instrument through 90° and recentralize the bubble. (©) Repeat operations (a) and (b) until the bubble remains central for both positions. 4. Centring The centring motion is released and the instru- ment moved until the plumb-bob is exactly over the survey mark. The centring motion is then tightened. This operation will have resulted in move- ment of the spirit level bubble from its central Position; consequently, the operation of levelling156 Surveying for constru and centring are repeated until both conditions are satisfied. (On a windy day itis very difficult to set the plumb- bob exactly over the survey point Most theodolites have an optical plummet which ‘overcomes this disadvantage. Before use of the optical plummet, the theodolite is centred approximately using the plumb-bob and levelled using the plate spirit level. The centring motion is then released and the instrument head moved until the survey point is centred on the cross-wires of the optical plummet. Care should be taken to move the shifting head in the two directions used to level the spirit level 5. Parallax elimination AA piece of paper is held in front of the telescope and the observer, sighting the paper through the telescope, tums the eyepiece carefully until the cross-wires of the reticule are sharply defined, (b) Optical plumb method 1. Setting the tripod ‘The tripod legs are spread out and rested lightly on the ground around the survey point. Judging by eye, the legs are moved to bring the tripod head over the point, keeping the tripod head as level as possible. 2. Mounting the instrument The theodolite is carefully removed from the box and screwed to the tripod, as before. 3. Centring A sight is taken through the optical plummet to view the survey peg. The footscrews are turned to bring the instrument exactly over the peg. The theodolite is now centred but, of course, is not level. 4, Levelling Levelling is accomplished by raising or lowering the legs of the tripod, using the sliding leg arrangement, until the circular spirit level is centred, Refinements to the centring and levelling of the instrument must now be made, in the conventional ‘manner, as described in Secs 4(a)(3) and (4). 5. Parallax elimination ‘A piece of paper is held in front of the telescope and the observer, sighting the paper through the telescope, turns the eyepiece carefully until the cross-wires of the reticule are sharply defined, (©) Centring rod method On some theodolites the centring is carried out using a telescope centring rod. The tip of the rod is placed ‘over the survey point and the telescope tripod legs are used to centralize the bubble ofa spherical sprit level right angles to the rod. When the bubble is central, the rod is vertical and the theodolite itself approxi mately level. 5. Measuring horizontal angles When exactly set over a survey mark and properly levelled, the theodolite can be used in two positions, namely. (a) face left or circle left; (b) face right or eile right. The instrument is said to be facing left when the vertical circle is on the observer's left as an object is sighted. In order to sight the same object on face right, the observer must turn the instrument horizon- tally through 180° until the eyepiece is approximately pointing to the target. The telescope is then rotated about the transit axis, thus making the objective end. of the telescope face the target. The vertical circle will now be found to be on the observer's right. This operation is known as transitting the telescope. In Fig. 7.17, horizontal angle PQR is to be measured. Figure 7.17 (@) Reiteration method Without setingt0 zero This method may be used with any type of theodolite and should be mastered before attempting the alterna tive method. The possible horizontal control arrangements of a theodolite are: (a) upper and lower plate clamps, (b) repetition clamp and (c) circle setting screw (Figs 7.3, 74and7.5). 1. Using the field book (Table 7.1), enter theodotite station Qin column I fine 1. 1 2 3 ‘ 3 Face | Face | Accepted Observation | Target| left | right | mean station | station | reading | reading | angle ile p | 25-30" | 205° 30" 2 R | 90°55" | 270°55° 3 652s" | 65°25] 65°25" ‘Table 7.1