Professional Documents
Culture Documents
3
Corus in Automotive: Working in partnership
Corus in automotive
Working in partnership – making a
difference
With nearly a fifth of our business in the automotive sector,
Corus is committed to this industry. Corus combines its
materials knowledge, automotive engineering expertise and
manufacturing-process innovation to offer its customers unique
solutions. We help customers to produce cost-effective, lighter
weight, higher quality vehicles.
Corus works in partnership with When Ford was looking for ways to We listen, and we respond When Corus was asked for steels
its customers, offering advanced improve the crash performance and Sometimes, specific adjustments to with better machinability by Wigpool
technology and hands-on help lightness of its latest Galaxy model, material specifications are needed – a supplier of machined parts to
at pre-development, design Corus was ready with its High to enhance the manufacturability motorcycle manufacturer Triumph
engineering and production stages. Strength Steels and the advanced and performance of specialised – Corus worked with the company
This help facilitate improvements automotive engineering services components. Corus supports new to select Hitenspeed 65, a material
in the design, manufacture and needed to implement them in body and ongoing vehicle and product that delivered machinability
durability of cars, enhancing their structures. development programmes, working improvements to a factor of
appearance, performance and end- with customers to develop tailored three, but with no loss of strength
of-life recyclability. Just as the automotive industry specifications for their needs, and performance.
was moving to eliminate hexavalent giving advice on the selection of
We understand the industry chromium commonly used in the steel fit for task.
challenges production of adhesive coated
Be it changes in emissions, metals, Corus was ready with When Xtrac approached Corus
safety performance legislation, Envirobond™ – an alternative asking for gear steels with better
the contemporary needs of car adhesive coating process for metal impact resistance, machinability and
designers, or pushing the boundaries trim parts. carburising qualities, Corus offered
of material performance, we share to adjust the standard chemistry
knowledge and respond to the When Volvo needed help to develop of its Hy-Tuf product, improving its
challenges of our automotive the XC60 bodyside pressing, Corus chemical tolerances and cleanness.
customers. Our aim is to help engineers used the ARGUS stain The resulting XMO materials enabled
customers get the best value from analysis system on-site at the Xtrac to make narrower gears that
every gram of steel they buy from us. Torslanda plant in Sweden. can run at higher temperatures,
requiring smaller oil-coolers and
By listening to customers, attending thereby improving the aerodynamics
key European automotive forums of the vehicle.
and through focused market
analysis, our specialists keep
abreast of industry trends and look
for opportunities to bring a new
competitiveness or performance
edge to automotive manufacturing
through the specification and
application of steel. Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com
4 5
Corus in Automotive: Making a difference
Making a difference
We innovate in this process permits engineers We deliver lines, and a Tailor Welded Blank
Our customers don’t just buy our to develop parts by computer To make cars efficiently it is vital facility to create blanks for door and
metal, they buy the thinking and simulation long before hardware that supplies of parts and materials body-structure parts.
innovation that have gone into prototypes are made, benefiting are delivered to OEMs and their Tier
the development, distribution and original equipment manufacturers suppliers on time. Consistent quality, With all Corus service centres
technology needed to deploy that (OEMs) and their Tier suppliers. The integrated supply chains and timely accredited to TS16949 quality
metal for its most effective use model is easy to download from the supply are all critical factors that standards, automotive component
– ‘intelligent metal’. Corus automotive website. need to be satisfied. makers are enjoying the benefits of
significant Corus investment. Corus
One example of this is the Corus- We make a difference To meet these needs, Corus distribution and service centres
Vegter materials model, for which Corus realises that building long- has its own distribution network, are sited throughout Europe. More
data is made freely available on term relationships with customers is including numerous pre-production recently, Corus Distribution has
the internet for engineers studying key to our success. Our customers capabilities at service centres around been responding to the gradual
how to form complex 3D parts know that by involving Corus early the world for de-coiling and blanking eastward migration of automotive
from 2D blanks. This advanced in their new product development sheet steel. manufacturing, setting up a service
data model bridges the gap in cycles, substantial savings can be centre near Gyor in Hungary at the
knowledge between how traditional made when their product eventually When BMW wanted to use extra- end of 2006.
steels stretch as they are pressed goes into production. thick sheet steel bodysides for its
in a press shop, and how the new Mini Cabriolet (compensating
particular properties of Advanced for the lack of roof), Corus was ready
High Strength Steels modify this with a large-bed press blanking line,
behaviour. capable of pressing out blanks up
to the required 3mm thickness. The Did you know?
Years of research and development Wednesfield Automotive Service In the UK alone, Corus
have resulted in a model that is Centre that supplied these blanks made over 21,000
used directly inside the industry boasts a comprehensive line-up of strip steel deliveries
standard PAM-STAMP™ forming dedicated automotive processing in 2007 to automotive
analysis software package. It is facilities. A range of automotive customers, most of it
an innovation that improves the customers, including Land Rover,
via the rail network.
accuracy of simulated virtual benefit from the full-bodyside-
prototypes. Improved confidence capable 400 and 600-tonne blanking
6 7
Steel - the basics
In this section
The following pages illustrate some of the basic facts about carbon steel and
how its versatility enables it to be used throughout automotive manufacturing
and endlessly recycled into new products.
Characteristics Page 17
Describing how the different characteristics of
steel are used to best advantage in automotive
manufacturing.
8 9
Steel - the basics: Steel in cars
Steel in cars
Steel accounts for more than 50 per cent of the weight of an
average passenger car. The major applications are shown here.
Thick section strip and tube Deep drawing quality
for structural reinforcements steels for complex
Electroplated strip for
and seat structures shapes Deep drawing quality
brake and fuel lines,
and electrical parts for surface appearance
Electrical steels for
starter motors and
alternators
High Strength
Steels for crash
performance
High-grade
wire rod
drawn into
tyre cord
Bake-hardenable steel
for door skins and
bonnets
Engineering services
Ultra High Strength to prove out materials
Steels for ‘B’ pillars selection and
Alloy steel rod for engineering solutions.
high-temperature Steel for chassis bolts Services to make and
applications, eg. and rivets weld blanks for vehicle
engine valves
structural parts.
Ultra-clean steels for Advanced High
Strength Steels R&D services to assist
precision parts, eg.
Aluminium-coated strip for lighter vehicle selection of materials
diesel injectors
for exhausts structures for formability and
Steel tubes for hydroformed Spring steels Billets for suspension weldability.
subframes and other for suspension and engine part
chassis parts Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/products
components forgings
10 11
Steel - the basics: The multi-materials car
The environmental and economic Door 15.7 9.5 N/A 39 0.40 275
Did you know? (assembly)
example
requirements for reduced fuel vehicle mass
The human body contains consumption have also led to an of 1550kg
4.2g of iron, enough to increase in the use of lightweight IP Beam 11.4 N/A 6.3 45 0.33 350
make a piece of car door materials for components that bolt (instrument example
27mm x 27mm. on to a conventional steel vehicle, panel vehicle mass
of 1550kg
support)
but at a cost: see Table 1 opposite.
12 13
Steel - the basics: Steelmaking
Steelmaking
The principal commercial methods for making steel are Basic Electric Arc Furnace steelmaking Further processing - BOS or EAF
Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF). The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Billets may be supplied directly to
process is simpler and more flexible. forgers for hot forging components
The process uses electric current such as crankshafts, camshafts and
to produce a high-temperature arc connecting rods, or hot rolled into
Since BOS relies on a supply of the surface of the molten iron, which inside a furnace containing scrap sections for reinforcement brackets
liquid iron from a blast furnace, we collects at the bottom of the furnace. steel. One furnace can be used to and door hinges.
must first describe iron making. Iron The resulting carbon-rich ‘pig iron’ is produce smaller batches of a wider
ore (iron oxides), coke and limestone then poured off and transported to variety of steel types than the BOS However, most steel for automotive
are fed into a blast furnace where the BOS plant. process. use is supplied in the form of sheet,
they are heated to around 15000 C. ranging in thickness from 0.5mm to
At this temperature carbon monoxide Basic Oxygen Steelmaking 4mm, in widths up to two metres.
While the feedstock for the BOS
is formed by the reactions of coke In the BOS process, steel is made by This sheet is produced by hot
process is molten pig iron, for the
and limestone with furnace gases. At blowing oxygen into liquid iron using rolling a slab, with the resultant
EAF process it is almost 100 per
these temperatures, the lime acts as a water-cooled lance. Oxygen reacts oxide surface being removed
cent steel scrap – resulting in steel
a fluxing agent, removing impurities with the excess carbon and other by ‘pickling’ in an acid bath. For
being the most recycled engineering
in the form of a slag which floats on impurities, which are released as optimum mechanical properties
material in the world.
gases. This is an exothermic reaction and control of surface finish, most
Blast furnace which takes place under alkaline automotive sheet steel is cold rolled.
The EAF process is preferred for
conditions (i.e. ‘basic’). The rise in A corrosion-preventing metallic
making specialist steels such as
temperature is controlled to some coating, usually zinc based, is
heat-treatable forging billets, high-
extent by the addition of scrap steel. then applied by electro or hot-dip
temperature alloys and stainless
steels. galvanizing. Cold-rolled sheet
A steelworks that makes steel by this requires heat treatment (annealing)
route and shares a site with a blast that is often carried out within the
Secondary steelmaking
furnace for the provision of liquid coating process, before a final cold
The steel from either BOS or EAF
iron is known as an ‘integrated’ roll (temper rolling).
then goes through a series of
steelworks.
operations while still liquid, which
Sheet steel is rolled into coils
can include vacuum degassing,
The BOS process is used where weighing up to 20 tonnes for
argon stirring and the addition of
large volumes of similar steel types shipment by road or rail.
other metallic alloying elements by
are required. It is the most common
powder injection. Fine tuning of the Electric arc furnace
route for making formable strip
steel chemistry in this way allows the
steels for car bodyshells and ultra-
steelmaker to produce thousands
clean steels with low residuals for
of grades of steel from the same
products such as tyre cord and valve
basic composition. The steel is then
springs.
poured by a continuous-casting
process to form a range of thickness
These steels have low levels of trace
known as slabs, blooms or billets.
elements, which make them ideal for
forming into body panels and other
thin-section, deep-drawn parts.
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility
14 15
Steel - the basics: Chemical compositions Steel - the basics: Characteristics
Iron atoms Interstitial atoms Steel for automotive purposes is Steel for use in automotive
(carbon, nitrogen) made up of iron (generally more applications ranges from the most
than 99 per cent) and a range of formable grades with a low yield
other alloying elements, the most strength of 140 N/mm² to ultra-
important of which is carbon. high-strength tyre-cord steel with a
strength of 2,500 N/mm².
Under a microscope, at x1000
magnification it can be seen that Some grades have specialised
steel is actually made up of tiny processing for a specific end use,
crystals known as grains. These such as super-clean steels for use
grains of steel are formed when in fuel injection systems and forging
liquid steel cools to a solid, the grades for crankshafts, camshafts
Substitutional atom
atoms of iron within each grain, and connecting rods. Grades
(eg. phosphorous, vanadium)
aligning in a precise crystalline array. specific to connecting rods, for
The size, shape and composition of example, can be deliberately fracture
Source of diagrams above and
below: Corus these grains has a major effect on split as part of the manufacturing
the strength and formability of the process. Above: Automotive crankshaft
steel. hot forged from a steel billet.
A key requirement for sheet steel Component shown is from an in-line
A carbon atom is smaller than intended for use in automotive six-cylinder engine.
an iron atom, and provides a pressings is that it is formable, so
Steel grade DP600 through strengthening mechanism by sitting that it can be stretched without
microscope at x1000 magnification Below: A tailgate inner pressing
between the iron atoms, preventing undue thinning in a press to form
the rows of atoms sliding over one complex shapes. Softer grades of
another. At carbon levels below steel, having low yield strength, tend
0.001 per cent, the steel is known as to be highly formable but lack the
interstitial free (IF) and therefore has strength needed for the main load-
a low yield strength. bearing members of a vehicle.
Higher-strength steel parts may be
Other alloying elements, such as more difficult to form, since they
phosphorous or vanadium, have do not stretch so readily, but offer
larger atoms that strengthen by potential for weight reduction.
substitution for an iron atom.
This is known as solid-solution
strengthening. Steel manufacturers
combine this with other techniques
to produce steel with an optimum
balance of properties. Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility
16 17
Steel - the basics: Steel types
Steel types
Steel grades fall into a number of general types, each suitable Fig. 4 below illustrates the properties The highest strength steel shown
for different categories of component in a car. of three different grades of sheet here has a yield strength (at
steel, and identifies where in a point X) of 800N/mm² – roughly
As well as solid-solution Each ellipse below represents the vehicle structure they are most likely equal to eight tonnes per square
strengthening, steel manufacturers grades available within each steel to be found. centimetre.
can use a range of techniques type or ‘family’. The name for each
to make higher-performance family – see Table 2 – reflects the Source of diagrams Fig. 3 and Fig. 4: Corus
steels. These techniques include method by which the steel achieves
Fig. 4 Application of types of sheet steel
grain refinement, work hardening, its formability or strength.
precipitation hardening and heat
treatment. Table 2: Steel types
Type Description
Using these techniques, sheet
steels can be developed with the IF Interstitial Free Ultra High Strength Steels, for
ideal combination of formability and BH Bake Hardening safety-critical parts, especially
strength for specific automotive for maintaining a passenger
HSLA High Strength - Low Alloy
applications. survival space in crash events
CMn Carbon Manganese
For example, Fig. 3 below
DP Dual Phase
demonstrates the range of
formability (elongation) and yield Boron Boron steel
strength for a wide range of TRIP Transformation Induced
automotive sheet steel types. (X)
Plasticity
Stress N/mm2
(Yield strength is defined as the High Strength Steels
MART Martensitic
point at which the steel begins to with a good balance of
TWIP Twinning Induced Plasticity strength, formability, energy
permanently stretch or deform.)
absorption and durability
Fig. 3 Types of sheet steel Strength 600
range
Ultra High
Yield strength N/mm2
High
Strength
Steel
Formable
steel
10 20 30 40 50 Elongation % Elongation %
18 19
Steel - the basics: From steelworks to assembly line
The resulting profiles are used for Joining Free-cutting engineering steels are Fracture splitting
seat rails and chassis rails for trucks. Commonly used joining techniques designed to enable the rapid removal Connecting rod ‘big ends’ are bolted
in automotive assembly include of metal during machining, and to together to produce a strong and
Hydroforming can be used to spot welding, laser welding, hybrid prolong tool life. stiff circular housing for the big end
form tube or sheet steel. In tube welding, arc welding, adhesive bearing shells. These big ends can
hydroforming, a tube is filled with bonding, mechanical joining and Surface treatment be made by fracture splitting using
fluid and pressurised. The tube brazing. Efficient and reliable Wear resistance of bearing surfaces a grade of steel that, under the
then expands to match the shape joining is a critical technology in the or cylinder bores can be increased right conditions, breaks cleanly to
of an external die. Chassis frames, assembly of automotive structures, by a number of chemical, thermal provide precision-matching surfaces.
subframes and instrument panel and the quality of joins can greatly and mechanical methods. One This method reduces the number
support beams are examples of affect the durability of the finished popular method is nitriding – where of further machining operations
hydroformable parts. product. Joining of dissimilar a heated component is immersed and is a good example of how
metals (eg. steel to aluminium) is an in nitrogen-rich fluid. The atoms material choice can enable lean
Forging emerging technology, as carmakers of nitrogen that diffuse into the manufacturing.
Engine parts such as camshafts, tune weight distribution to enhance a surface of the steel increase
crankshafts and piston connecting vehicle’s handling or stability. surface hardness without causing
rods are examples of parts made embrittlement.
by forging. In the forging process, a Machining
steel billet is first heated in a furnace. As well as forgings, steel in the form A mechanical method, such as shot
The red-hot billet is then transferred of rod, bar and tube is machined to peening (hammering with metal
to a press where it is progressively produce a wide range of powertrain beads), leaves residual compressive
stamped into shape between two and suspension components, such stresses in the surface of the
dies. The steel forging produced as gear shafts, stub axles and component, which considerably
is close to the final part shape and constant-velocity joints. Typical improves fatigue performance.
therefore requires little machining. machining operations are cutting,
The flow of material in the forging milling, boring and grinding. Grinding
process results in a preferred grain provides the high surface finish
structure, enhancing both toughness required for the longevity of plain
and fatigue performance. bearings and oil seals.
22 23
Automotive industry issues: Drivers for change
assessment?
avoidance
restraint
landfill
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020
24 25
Automotive industry issues: History of the car
Programme.
monocoque
vehicle
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
26 27
Automotive industry issues: Safety
28 29
Automotive industry issues: Safety
32 33
Automotive industry issues: Environment
34 35
Automotive industry issues: Weight and cost reduction
Corus Automotive has developed a opportunities to reduce tooling and Door inner Corus recognises the need for cost-
proven approach for reducing cost other manufacturing costs, while effective, lightweight solutions that
and weight of both existing and new maintaining or enhancing structural Integrated DP800 do not compromise performance.
prototype vehicles, called VA/VE performance. reinforcement For this reason, the company
(Value Analysis/ Value Engineering). strives to use its extensive materials
Using this approach, customers are knowledge to develop ideas for
The value analysis part of this assured of the optimum deployment extracting the maximum benefit out
approach systematically evaluates of materials to achieve required of the steel used.
the gauge, grade and coatings performances at the lowest practical
of vehicle body and chassis cost. Some examples of the output As part of its efforts, Corus has
components, to identify materials- from previous VA/VE studies are developed a one-piece AHSS door
based cost and weight reduction shown in Table 4 below. Door outer concept. The design integrates
opportunities. the intrusion beam, waist rail, lock
and hinge reinforcements into a
The value engineering part of the Did you know? one-piece panel manufactured from
process identifies design change Source of Table 4: Corus DP800-grade steel. The reduced
A Smart Fortwo weighs
gauge gives a weight saving of
more than a 1974 Mark 0.65kg/door, while maintaining the
Table 4: Output from previous VA/VE studies
I Golf. equivalent side-impact performance
Vehicle Corus task Saving potential Approx saving/year of the conventional design.
36 37
Automotive industry issues: Weight and cost reduction
Vehicle weight – in decline at last? Table 5: Breakdown of 40 years of weight increases (700kg)
Contribution
For an average-sized car driven 14,000 miles (22,000 km) in a
Outcome Comments to weight
year, four tonnes of CO2 are emitted. Lighter vehicles mean increase (%)
lower fuel consumption – and trends finally seem to be moving Latest Polo is the
in the right direction. Vehicle size Longer, wider and taller same size as the 1974 30
Golf
Vehicle weight has been increasing Vehicle weight – the good news
steadily over the last 40 years, as • Social and economic pressures Vehicle Safer and more EuroNCAP has raised
typified by the ‘average’ C segment are now reversing the trend toward strength durable consumer awareness
car (see Fig. 5). Cars in this segment large vehicles. 25
Improved Noise, Vehicle stiffness
have been getting heavier by five to • Most cars are now achieving 5 Vehicle Vibration, Harshness
stiffness contributes to the
ten per cent at every model change, stars in the Euro-NCAP tests. (NVH) and handling ‘quality’ feel
mostly driven by safety, stiffness and • Larger cars (especially in the
Comfort/ Air Conditioning, NVH, The biggest
increased equipment levels. Table 5 luxury ‘E’ segment) are levelling recognisable change in 15
refinement seats
shows how this weight increase (of out on size and weight. vehicle quality
700kg) breaks down. • In the C and D segments the rate The average car now
of increase of vehicle weight is Features/ In car entertainment, contains more than 20 13
equipment electrical electric motors
The weight increase by segment slowing and looks likely to reverse
is compounded by fashion trends in the next five to ten years Safety cell improve-
Occupant
– people carriers, 4x4s and • The European Commission plan safety Airbags, pre-tensioners ment is included in 5
performance expectations. The to ensure a new car average of vehicle strength
popularity of these larger vehicles 130g CO2/km by 2012-2015 will Includes fuel systems,
Acceleration, handling
has slowed the rate of reduction of result in strong competition and Performance and brakes powertrain and 17
CO2 levels. weight reduction in the high- driveline.
volume B and C segments. Noxious emissions Bigger, thicker,
Emissions reduced by two orders exhausts now include 5
Fig. 5 Weight increase year by year of magnitude catalysts
C segment car Plastics and rubber Many materials
Use of now account for 15% (aluminium, zinc, (-) 5
plastics of a vehicle mass
wood, steel) have been
replaced by plastic
38 39
Automotive industry issues: Quality and service
40 41
Corus in action: Case studies
Corus in action
The case studies in this section illustrate how Corus combines
its materials knowledge, automotive-engineering expertise
Collaboration cuts cost and weight
and manufacturing innovation to offer its customers unique
solutions to their specific needs.
Pre-production studies by Corus enabled Ford to reduce the
Expertise optimises con-rod costs of manufacturing its new Ford Galaxy – at the same time
as reducing the vehicle’s weight.
manufacture
Carmakers are increasingly turning to companies like Corus
to develop innovative solutions that help designers to reduce
component weight, improve service life and cut manufacturing
costs
42 43
Corus in action: Case studies
44 45
Corus in action: Case studies Steel R&D technologies
46 47
Steel R&D technologies
48 49
Steel R&D technologies
Strength increase
52 53
Looking to the future: Looking to the future
54 55
Looking to the future: Looking to the future About Corus: Company profile
About Corus
Looking to the future Company profile
processes. Individual steel New processes Corus is one of the world’s largest steel producers. Its
companies then worked directly with Steel will play a major role in operations are organised into three principal divisions: Strip
their customers to help implement this shift. We can expect the Products, Long Products and Distribution & Building Systems.
these materials and technologies to development of even stronger
deliver real benefits. steels with improved formability to
enable more complex panel shapes Corus employs close to 40,000 Brand
Secondly, possibly because so to be achieved. This will result in people, with the majority based in Combining its global expertise with
much of the modern world depends parts integration, reducing cost and the UK, the Netherlands and other local customer service, Corus offers
on steel, the benefits are easy increasing the value attractiveness Western European locations. value, reliability and innovation. The
to underestimate. Formability, of steel. Computer analysis tools will Corus brand represents a mark of
strength and ease of joining improve, helping to model changes Strategy quality, loyalty and strength.
are significant advantages over in the mechanical properties of The company’s strategy is focused
competitor materials. The past 15 these new steels during panel on developing a strong and Manufacturing
years have seen the development manufacturing – which is essential sustainable competitive position Approximately 60 per cent of
of stronger steels with improved for the design process. Modelling for its carbon steel in its Western Corus’s steel production is rolled
formability, together with the of joining processes will improve European markets and improving into hot-rolled coil. Most of the
complementary technologies to too, leading to faster, more effective its exposure to lower-cost, higher- remainder is further processed into
process and assemble them within joining technologies. growth regions. sections, plates, engineering steels
high-volume vehicle manufacturing or wire rod, or sold in semi-finished
plants. Computer analysis tools New materials Steel form.
have been developed to model the With any prediction of the future, Corus produces carbon steel at
properties and application of these however, there is always the sites in the Uk and the Netherlands, Approximately 35 per cent of hot-
new steels more accurately, which possibility that technology may using both basic oxygen steel rolled coil is sold without further
has given vehicle manufacturers the be introduced that will completely making (BOS) and electric arc processing to cold-rolling mills and
confidence to implement them in change the course of events. This furnace methods (EAF). Corus also coating lines, with the remainder
their new designs. may enhance the cost-benefit has processing facilities in North transferred to Corus tube mills for
analysis for aluminium, magnesium America and Europe. the manufacture e.g. welded tubes.
New vehicles or composites. However, the steel
Above all else, the conflicting industry is well advanced with its Sales Markets
demands of consumers, legislators own breakthrough material – TWIP Corus has many sales offices, Principal end markets for Corus
and global competition require cost- (Twinning Induced Plasticity) steel. stockholders, service centres steel products are the construction,
effective solutions. The sharpening This new breed of steel combines and joint venture or associate automotive, packaging, mechanical
of emissions legislation will spark ultra high strength with incredible arrangements for the distribution engineering, electrical engineering,
a drive for more efficient vehicles. ductility. It is being developed in the and further processing of its steel metal goods, and oil and gas
This means that alongside the research departments of the steel products. These are supported by industries.
complexity of powertrain solutions, industry right now, and it will not various agency agreements. There
from hybrids to hydrogen, the search be long before engineers have the is an extensive network in the EU,
is on for simplicity – de-contenting, opportunity to incorporate this new while outside Europe Corus has
integration of electronic systems, steel into their designs. The future is sales offices in around 30 countries,
miniaturisation of components – to probably closer than we think. supported by a worldwide trading
increase occupant space while network.
making vehicles smaller and lighter.
Find out more: www.corusgroup.com
56 57
About Corus: Sources of further information
Corus Automotive
Sources of further information
Glossary
You can access more information about Corus and its
automotive products and expertise through a number of
sources.
In print Online
emotion magazine is focused on At www.corusautomotive.com you
Corus customers in the automotive can find more detailed information
industry, reaching 15,000 managers about Corus products, services
and technical specialists twice and technology, as well as press
a year. It includes guest articles releases, data sheets, technical
discussing trends in the industry information and further contact
that affect the use of steel in car details.
design and engineering, technical
developments in materials and
manufacturing techniques, and
other articles of interest to anyone
selecting materials for automotive
applications. Back issues of
emotion magazine can be found at
www.corusautomotive.com/news/
emotion_magazine/
58 59
Glossary
Glossary of terms r-value A measurement of the resistance to thinning of sheet metal during
forming processes.
Mild steel Low-strength steels containing low levels of carbon and
Roll forming A process for producing prismatic shapes in steel sheet, the
insignificant amounts of alloying elements.
sheet being progressively bent and folded by passing through a series of
Modulus The ‘stiffness’ of a material. Calculated by measuring the stress on
profiled rollers.
a test sample and dividing by the strain. Since strain is dimensionless, the
Strain The amount a component stretches when a stress is applied. Strain is
unit of modulus is therefore the same as stress (N/m² or Pa). Some examples
dimensionless: 100 per cent elongation equals a strain of one.
of moduli: GPa
Stress The applied force divided by the cross section of a component,
Steel 207
measured in N/m² (= Pascal, Pa). Note: these units are the same as the units
Aluminium 69
for pressure. Indeed, stress may be considered as the pressure applied to a
Polyethylene 1
component.
Diamond 1000
Substitutional Large alloying atoms (eg. phosphorus and manganese) take
n-value A measurement of the work hardening (strengthening) of metal sheet
the place of, or substitute, an iron atom – unlike small alloying atoms, which
during a forming process.
are positioned between the larger iron atoms (see ‘Interstitial’).
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer: in the automotive industry, this refers
Tensile strength Also called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). The stress at
to a manufacturer of vehicles that provides the original product design and
which a material breaks.
materials for its assembly and manufacture.
Temper rolling After annealing, strip steel is given enough cold rolling to
Pearlite See ‘Phase’.
take it beyond the yield point, resulting in more controllable stretching during
Pig iron Iron direct from the blast furnace, containing high levels of carbon
subsequent forming processes and a better surface finish.
and other impurities. Originally sand-cast into a row of blocks, having the
TRB Tailor Rolled Blank: steel sheet cut to a size ready for pressing (i.e.
appearance of a sow feeding her piglets – hence ‘pig’ iron.
‘blanked’) where the blank has been rolled to give varying thicknesses along
Phase Steel can exist in a number of crystalline forms and combinations of
its length.
crystalline forms. These are known as ‘phases’. Here are some of the most
TRIP Transformation Induced Plasticity: steel that contains a small
common:
percentage of phases (see ‘Phase’) that change to a harder phase (usually
• Austenite: A non-magnetic structure usually found in stainless
austenite transforming to martensite) during the forming process. The formed
steels and TWIP steel.
steel therefore has a much higher strength.
• Bainite: Ferrite containing needle shaped iron carbide (Fe3C) crystals
TWB Tailor Welded Blank: steel sheet cut to a size ready for pressing (i.e.
– tough and hard.
‘blanked’) where the sheet has been welded together from smaller pieces of
• Ferrite: Iron containing a small amount of carbon in solid solution. The
steel of varying gauge and/or grade.
softest form of steel.
TWIP Twinning Induced Plasticity: steel that has high levels of manganese
• Martensite: Excess carbon (‘supersaturated’) results in a distorted
is austenitic (see ‘Phase’) at ambient temperature. The crystalline structure
crystalline structure and the hardest form of steel.
of austenite results in the occurrence of millions of pairs of crystalline faults
• Pearlite: Alternating layers of ferrite and iron carbide. When viewed under a
known as twins. These twins allow for unusual levels of formability in Ultra
microscope it has the appearance of mother-of-pearl, hence ‘pearl’ite.
High Strength Steel.
PHS Press Hardening Steels (also: hot-formed steel, die-quenched steel,
UHSS Ultra High Strength Steel: any steel grade with a yield strength of
boron steel) a grade of steel that can be processed at high temperature by
550MPa or greater.
heating in a furnace and pressing while still hot using a cooled tool. The rapid
Work hardening The increase in the strength of a metal as it is stretched or
cooling rate transforms the microstructure to 100 per cent martensite (see
otherwise formed.
‘Phase’). PHS steels contain boron for optimum hardenability.
Yield strength The stress at which a material will permanently stretch or
Pickling An acidic-dip process for removing oxide (‘scale’) from the surface
deform. Below this stress the material will return to its original shape and size
of hot-rolled steel sheet.
once the stress is removed (see ‘Elastic limit’).
Rephos Rephosphorised steel: steel that contains phosphor as the main
Yield point The start of yielding in steel may be accompanied by a sudden
alloying element. Known as Rephos since the high levels of phosphor in
drop in strength. This is known as the yield point and is undesirable in steel
pig iron are removed along with other impurities in the BOS process, but
for automotive pressings (see ‘Temper rolling’).
phosphor is then added during secondary steelmaking.
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Third Edition
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