CCNA – Semester1

Module 1
Introduction to Networking

Objectives

• Network physical connection

• Basic computer components
• Network math and IP address concept
 Connecting to the Internet

Requirements for Internet Connection

• Connection to the Internet can be broken down into the

following:
– Physical connection: used to transfer signals between PCs within the
local network and to remote devices on the Internet
– Logical connection: uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a
formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how
devices on a network communicate.
– The application: interprets the data and displays the information in an
understandable form
Information flow

Case Study: Boot process

BIOS ROM RAM

OS HDD RAM

SHELL RAM IO

User Interface
Network Interface Cards
• A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit
board that provides network communication
capabilities to and from a personal computer

• When you select a network

card, consider the following
three factors:
– Type of network
– Type of media
– Type of system bus

Modem

• A modem, or modulator-
demodulator, is a device that
provides the computer with
connectivity to a telephone line.
• The modem converts (modulates)
the data from a digital signal to an
analog signal that is compatible
with a standard phone line.
NIC and Modem Installation
• Connectivity to the Internet
requires an adapter card,
which may be a modem or NIC.
• Notebook computers may have
a built-in interface or use a
PCMCIA card. Desktop
systems may use an internal
or external NIC.

High-Speed and Dialup Connectivity

• By the 1990s modems were running at 9600 bps and

reached the current standard of 56 kbps (56,000 bps) by
1998.
• High-speed services used in the corporate environment,
such as Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem
access, moved to the consumer market.
• These services no longer required expensive equipment
or a second phone line. These are "always on" services
that provide instant access and do not require a
connection to be established for each session.
TCP/IP Description and Configuration

• Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
is a set of protocols or rules
developed to allow cooperating
computers to share resources
across a network.
• To enable TCP/IP on the
workstation, it must be configured
using the operating system tools.

Testing Connectivity with Ping

• Ping is a program that is useful for verifying a

successful TCP/IP installation.
• It works by sending multiple packets to a
specified destination requesting for replies.
Ping Command
• ping 127.0.0.1 - This ping is unique and is called an internal
loopback test. It verifies the operation of the TCP/IP stack and NIC
transmit/receive function.
• ping IP address - A ping to a host PC verifies the TCP/IP address
configuration for the local host and connectivity to the host.

Web Browser and Plug-Ins

• Web browsers acts on behalf
of a user by
– Contacting a web server
– Requesting information
– Receiving information
– Displaying the results on a
screen
• Plug-ins is to view special, or
proprietary, file types that
standard web browsers are not
able to display
– Flash/Shockwave, QuickTime,
Real Audio
 Network math and IP address

Binary presentation of data

• Computers operate with electronic switches that are

either "on" or "off", corresponding to 1 or 0.
• Computers have to translate in order to use decimal
numbering.
Number Systems

• Knowing what base someone refers to

– Decimal uses 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
– Binary uses 2 digits: 0 and 1.
• Base conventions
– 101 in base 2 is spoken as one zero one.
• Working with exponents
– 103 = 10 X 10 X 10 = 1000
– 24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16
• Binary numbers
– Use principle of place value just as decimal numbers do

ASCII
• The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is the
most commonly used code for representing alpha-numeric data in a
computer.

1000011
1001001
1010000
1010100

?
Bits and Bytes
• Bits are binary digits. They are either 0s or 1s. In a computer, they are
represented by On/Off switches or the presence or absence of electrical
charges, light pulses, or radio waves.

Base 10 Numbers

Example
Base 2 (Binary) Numbers

Converting Decimal to Binary

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
Hexadecimal
• The base 16, or hexadecimal (hex), number system is used
frequently when working with computers, because it can be used to
represent binary numbers in a more readable form.

Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

• Remember that hexadecimal is sometimes abbreviated 0x so hex 5D might
be written as "0x5D".
Four-Octet Dotted-decimal Representation of 32-
Bit Binary Numbers
• Currently, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses assigned to
computers on the Internet are 32-bit binary numbers
• The 32-bit binary addresses used on the Internet are
referred to as Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.

IP Addresses and Network Masks

• The IP address of a computer usually consists of a
network, and a host part that represents a particular
computer on a particular network.
• Subnetwork mask a second 32-bit number to identify
how many of the IP address bits are used to identify the
network of the computer.
SubnetMask

• A subnet mask will always be all 1s until the network

address is identified and then be all 0s from there to the
right most bit of the mask.

SubnetMask Example

• Converting the IP address 10.34.23.134 to binary

would result in:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
• Performing a Boolean AND of the IP address
10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.240.0.0
produces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 Æ 10.34.23.134 (IP address)
11111111.11110000.00000000.00000000 Æ 255.240.0.0 (subnetmask)
00001010.00100000.00000000.00000000 Æ 10.32.0.0 (subnetwork address)
Address Example

• IP address 10.34.23.134
• Subnetmask 255.0.0.0
• IP address:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 = 10.34.23.134
• Network address:
00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000 = 10.0.0.0
• Broadcast address:
00001010.11111111. 11111111. 11111111=10.255.255.255

View computer address

• ipconfig : brief IP configuration

• ipconfig /all : detail IP configuration
• ipconfig /renew : renew IP address with DHCP

• Practise IP and subnetmask

Summary

• The physical connection that has to take place for a

computer to connect to the Internet
• Network interface cards and/or modems
• Web browser selection and configuration
• The Base 2 number system
• Binary number conversion to decimal
• Representasion of IP addresses and network masks
 Module 2
Networking Fundamentals

Objectives

• Networking terminology
• Some network architectures
• The importance of bandwidth
• Networking models: OSI vs TCP/IP
 Networking Terminology

Relative size of network

Networking Devices

• Equipment that connects directly to a network segment

is referred to as a device.
• There are 2 type of devices: end-user devices and
network devices.

Network Devices

• Repeater: regenerate a signal.

• Hub: concentrate connections and may
regenerate a signal.
• Bridge: convert network transmission
data formats as well as perform basic
data transmission management.
• Switch: add more intelligence to data
transfer management.
• Router: routing and other services
Network Topology

• The physical topology, which is the actual

layout of the wire or media.
• The logical topology, which defines how the
media is accessed by the hosts for sending
data.

Physical Topology
Logical Topology

Broadcast

Token Passing

Logical Topology: Broadcast

• Each host sends its data to all other hosts on

the network medium.
• First-come, first-serve.
• Eg: Ethernet
Logical Topology: Token Passing

• Access to media is controlled by an electronic

token.
• Possession of the token gives the host the right to
pass data to its destination.
• Eg: Token-Ring, FDDI

Network Protocols

• Protocol suites are collections of protocols

that enable network communication from one
host through the network to another host.
• A protocol is a formal description of a set of
rules and conventions that govern a particular
aspect of how devices on a network
communicate.
Functions of Protocols

• Protocols control all aspects of data

communication, which include the following:
– How the physical network is built
– How computers connect to the network
– How the data is formatted for transmission
– How that data is sent
– How to deal with errors

LANs

• Operate within a limited geographic area

• Allow many users to access high-bandwidth
media
• Provide full-time connectivity to local services
• Connect physically adjacent devices
LAN Devices and Technology

• Some common LAN technologies are:

– Ethernet
– Token Ring
– FDDI

WANs

• Operate over a large geographically separated areas

• Provide full-time remote resources connected to local
services
WAN Technologies Include

• Some common WAN technologies are:

– Analog modems
– Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
– Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
– Frame Relay
– Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
– T (US) and E (Europe) carrier series: T1, E1, T3, E3
– Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

Metropolitan-Area Networks (MANs)

• A MAN is a
network that spans
a metropolitan
area such as a city
or suburban area.
• A MAN usually
consists of two or
more LANs in a
common
geographic area.
Storage-Area Networks (SANs)

• A SAN is a dedicated,
high-performance
network used to move
data between servers
and storage resources.

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

• A VPN is a private
network that is
constructed within a
public network
infrastructure such as
the global Internet .
• VPN is the most cost-
effective method of
establishing secured
connection
VPN Types

There are three main types of VPNs:

• Access VPNs
• Intranet VPNs
• Extranet VPNs

Bandwidth
Importance of Bandwidth

Digital Bandwidth

• Bandwidth is the measure of how much

information, or bits, can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time, or seconds.
Bandwidth Limitations (LAN)

Bandwidth Limitations (WAN)

Throughput
• Throughput refers to actual measured
bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using
specific Internet routes, and while a specific
set of data is transmitted on the network.
• Factors that determine throughput:
– Internetworking devices
– Type of data being transferred
– Network topology
– Number of users on the network
– User computer
– Server computer
– Power conditions

Data Transfer Calculation

Calculate an estimate of network performance

 Networking Models

Analyzing network in layer

What
What is
is flowing
flowing ??
Data
Data
What
What different
different forms
forms flow
flow ??
Text,
Text, Graphic,
Graphic, Video
Video ...
...

What
What rules
rules govern
govern flow
flow ??
Standard,
Standard, Protocol
Protocol ...
...

Where
Where does
does the
the flow
flow occur
occur ??
Cable,
Cable, Atmosphere
Atmosphere ......
Communication characteristics

• Addresses
– What are the source and the destination of a communication
process?
• Media
– Where does the communication take place?
• Protocols
– How to make the communication process effectively?
Packets

Protocols

Source Medium Destination

Address Address

Data Communication

• Address
– Source address, Destination address
• Media
– Cable, Fiber, Atmosphere
• Protocol
– Format
– Procedure
Evolution of networking standards

SNA

Standard

• Interconnection
Proprietary
• Development
• Simplification

TCP/IP DECNET

OSI Model

• The OSI model:

model a framework within which
networking standards can be developed.
– It provided vendors with a set of standards that
ensured greater compatibility and interoperability
between the various types of network technologies
that were produced by the many companies around
the world.
Why a layered model

• Reduces complexity.
• Standardizes interfaces.
• Facilitates modular engineering.
• Ensures technology
compatibility.
• Accelerates evolution.
• Simplifies teaching and
learning.

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Network processes to applications

Data representation

Interhost communication

End-to-end connections
Address and best path

Direct link control, access

a to media

Binary transmission

•All People Seem To Need Data Processing

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Network processes to applications

• Is the OSI layer that is closest to

the user; it provides network
services to the user’s
applications.
– File transfer
– Electronic mail
– Terminal access
– …

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Data representation

• Ensures that the information that

the application layer of one
system sends out is readable by
the application layer of another
system.
– Format of data
– Data conversion
– Data compression
– Data encryption
7 layers of the OSI reference model

Interhost communication

• Establishes, manages, and

terminates sessions between
two communicating hosts.
– Sessions
– Dialog
– Conversations
– Data exchange

7 layers of the OSI reference model

End-to-end connections

• Provides reliable, transparent

transfer of data over networks.
– Segments, data stream, datagram
– End-to-end flow control
– Error detection and recovery
– Segmentation & reassembly
– …
7 layers of the OSI reference model

Address and best path

• Provides connectivity and

path selection between two
host systems that may be
located on geographically
separated networks.
– Packets
– Route, routing table,
– Logical address
– Fragmentation
– …

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Direct link control, access to media

• Provides for the reliable transfer

of data cross a physical link.
– Frames
– Physical address
– Network topology
– Line discipline
– …
7 layers of the OSI reference model

Binary transmission

• Transmission of an
unstructured bit stream
over a physical link
between end systems.
– Electrical, mechanical, procedural and
functional specifications
– Physical data rate
– Distances
– Physical connector

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Network processes to applications

Data representation

Interhost communication

End-to-end connections
Address and best path

Direct link control, access

a to media

Binary transmission

•All People Seem To Need Data Processing

Peer-to-Peer Communication

• The protocols of each

layer exchange
information, called
protocol data units
(PDUs), between peer
layers.

Encapsulation

The lower layers use

encapsulation to put
the protocol data
unit (PDU) from the
upper layer into its
data field and to add
headers and trailers
that the layer can
use to perform its
function.
De-Encapsulation

• When the data link layer receives the frame, it

does the following:
– It reads the physical address and other control information provided
by the directly connected peer data link layer.
– It strips the control information from the frame, thereby creating a
datagram.
– It passes the datagram up to the next layer, following the
instructions that appeared in the control portion of the frame.

Encapsulation example: E-mail

Layer-to-layer communications

Provide services

Request services

TCP/IP model development

• The late-60s The Defense Advance

Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
originally developed Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to
interconnect various defense department
computer networks.
• The Internet, an International Wide Area
Network, uses TCP/IP to connect networks
across the world.
The TCP/IP Reference Model

• Layer 4:
• Layer 3:
• Layer 2:
• Layer 1:

It is important to note that some of the

layers in the TCP/IP model have the same
name as layers in the OSI model.
Do not confuse the layers of the two models.

TCP/IP Protocol Stack

OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Focus of the CCNA Curriculum

Summary

• Networking devices
• Some of the common network types
• Intranet and extranet
• Bandwidth and throughput
• The layered communication model
• OSI reference model
• TCP/IP networking model
 Module 3
Networking Media

Objectives

• Copper media and electronic signal

• Optical media and light signal
• Wireless media and wave
 Copper Media

Electricity Basics

The basic unit of all

matter is an atom.
– Protons – particles that
have positive charge
– Neutrons – particles that
have no charge (neutral)
– Electrons – particles that
have negative charge and
orbit the nucleus
Static electricity
free electron
• Electrons have been
loosened from the atom
and stay in one place,
without moving.
• Electrostatic discharge
(ESD).
– ESD, though usually
harmless to people, can
create serious problems for
sensitive electronic
equipment.

Measuring electricity: Current

• The flow of charges that is created when

electrons move.
• Symbol: I.
• Ampere (A).
Electrical definitions: AC and DC

• Alternating Current (AC):

– Electrical current flows in both directions; positive and
negative terminals continuously trade places (polarity).
• Direct Current (DC):
– Electrical current flows in one direction; negative to
positive.

Measuring electricity: Resistance

• Resistance: property of a material that opposes the electrical flow.

• Resistance consume electrical energy and cause attenuation.
• Symbol: R.
• Ohm (Ω).
• Impedance: total opposition to the current.
• Symbol: Z.
• Ohm (Ω).
Measuring electricity: Voltage

• Force or pressure caused by the separation of

electrons and protons.
• Symbol: U.
• Volt (V).

Basic Circuit

• Source
• Complete
path
• Load
Cable Specifications

• What speeds for data transmission can be

achieved using a particular type of cable?
• What type of transmission is being considered?
Will the transmissions be digital or will they be
analog-based?
• How far can a signal travel through a particular
type of cable before attenuation of that signal
becomes a concern?

Ethernet Specifications

• 10BASE-T
• 10BASE5
• 10Base2
Coaxial Cable

• If not properly grounded, shielding is very poor.

• Speed of transmission:10-100Mpbs
• Longer cable runs than UTP & STP.
• Maximum cable length :
– Thin cable : 185 m.
– Thick cable : 500 m.
• Impedance: 50Ω.

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

• Protection from all types of external interference, include EMI and

RFI.
– Cancellation: twisting of wires.
– Shielding.
• Moderately expensive, quite difficult to install.
• Speed of transmission:10Mpbs-1Gbps
• Maximum cable length 100m.
Screened Twisted-Pair Cable

Cancellation
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

• More prone to EMI/RFI interference than any other cable types.

• Least expensive of all media
– small diameter of cable (~ .43cm),
– easy to install.
• Speed of transmission:10Mpbs-1Gbps
• Maximum cable length 100m.

Straight-through cable

• Station to hub/switch
• Router to hub/switch
Crossover cable

• Switch/hub to switch/hub
• Router/station to Router/station

Connecting devices

PWR WIC0 WIC0 ETH

ACT/CH0 ACT/CH0 ACT

OK ACT/CH1 ACT/CH1 COL

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
* 8 #

iMac

• Connecting devices of the same group: cross-over

• Connecting devices of different group: straight-through
100Base-TX

1: Transmit 1: Transmit
2: Transmit 2: Transmit
3: Receive 3: Receive
4: Not used 4: Not used
5: Not used 5: Not used
6: Receive 6: Receive
7: Not used 7: Not used
8: Not used 8: Not used

Rollover cable

• PC requires an RJ45-to-DB9 or RJ45-to-DB25 adapter

• This provide out-of-band console access

Note: only straigh-through and cross-over cable are used in making network
while rollover cable is used in making control connection
Optical Media
Reflection and refraction of light

Total Internal Reflection

• A light ray that is being turned on and off to send

data (1s and 0s) into an optical fiber must stay inside
the fiber until it reaches the far end.
Laws of Total Reflection

• The following two conditions must be met for the light rays in
a fiber to be reflected back into the fiber with out any loss due
to refraction:
– The core of the optical fiber has to have a larger index of refraction
than the material that surrounds it (the cladding).
– The angle of incidence of the light ray is greater than the critical angle
for the core and its cladding.

Single-Mode Fiber and Multimode Fiber

Other Optical Components

• A transmitter is needed to convert the

electricity to light and at the receiver convert
the pulse of light at the proper wavelength back
to electricity.

Optical Connector

• The type of connector most commonly used

with multimode fiber is the Subscriber
Connector (SC connector). On single-mode
fiber, the Straight Tip (ST) connector is
frequently used.
Advantages of optical signal

• Fiber-optic cable is not affected by the sources

of external noise like EMI
• Transmission of light on one fiber in a cable
does not generate interference that disturbs
transmission on any other fiber
• High speed, high security and long cable length

Signals and Noise in Optical Fibers

• The farther a light signal travels through a fiber, the

more the signal loses strength. This attenuation is
due to several factors involving the nature of fiber
itself.
– Scattering of light in a fiber is caused by microscopic non-uniformity
(distortions) in the fiber that reflects and scatters some of the light
energy.
– Absorption makes the light signal a little dimmer.
– Another factor that causes attenuation of the light signal is
manufacturing irregularities or roughness in the core-to-cladding
boundary.
Installation of Optical Fiber

• If the fiber is stretched or

curved too tightly, it can
cause tiny cracks in the
core that will scatter the
light rays.
• Bending the fiber in too
tight a curve can change
the incident angle of light
rays striking the core-to-
cladding boundary.

• When the fiber has been pulled, the ends of the fiber must be
cleaved (cut) and properly polished to ensure that the ends are
smooth.

Testing of Optical Fiber

• When a fiber-optic link is

being planned, the
amount of signal power
loss that can be tolerated
must be calculated. This
is referred to as the
optical link loss budget.

• Two of the most important testing instruments are

Optical Loss Meters and Optical Time Domain
Reflectometers (OTDRs).
 Wireless Media

IEEE 802 Committees

802.0 SEC
802.1 High Level Interface (HILI)
802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) IEEE 802.11
802.3 CSMA/CD Working Group IEEE 802.11a
802.4 Token Bus IEEE 802.11b WiFi
802.5 Token Ring IEEE 802.11g
802.6 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth
802.7 BroadBand Technical Adv. Group (BBTAG) IEEE 802.11e
802.8 Fiber Optics Technical Adv. Group (FOTAG) IEEE 802.11f
802.9 Integrated Services LAN (ISLAN) IEEE 802.11h
802.10 Standard for Interoperable LAN Security IEEE 802.11i Security
(SILS) 2004
801.11 Wireless LAN (WLAN) IEEE 802.15 TG2
802.12 Demand Priority IEEE 802.15 TG3
802.14 Cable-TV Based Broadband Communication IEEE 802.15 TG4
Network
802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (BBWA)
RPRSG Resilient Packet Ring Study Group (RPRSG)
WLAN Organizations and Standards
Modulation
Standard Data Rate Pros/Cons
Scheme
≤ 2Mbps FHSS or
802.11 This specification has been extended into 802.11b.
2.4GHz DSSS

"Wi-Fi Certified." 8 available channels. Less potential

for RF interference than 802.11b and 802.11g. Better
802.11a ≤ 54Mbps than 802.11b at supporting multimedia voice, video
OFDM
5GHz and large-image applications in densely populated
user environments. Relatively shorter range than
802.11b. Not interoperable with 802.11b.

"Wi-Fi Certified." 14 channels available. Not

interoperable with 802.11a. Requires fewer access
802.11b ≤ 11Mbps DSSS with
points than 802.11a for coverage of large areas. High-
2.4GHz CCK
speed access to data at up to 300 feet from base
station.

OFDM >
20Mbps "Wi-Fi Certified." 14 channels available. May replace
802.11g ≤ 54Mbps
DSSS + 802.11b. Improved security enhancements over
2.4GHz
CCK < 802.11. Compatible with 802.11b.
20Mbps

No native support for IP, so it does not support TCP/IP and

Up to 2Mbps
Bluetooth FHSS wireless LAN applications well. Best suited for connecting
2.45GHz
PDAs, cell phones and PCs in short intervals.

Wireless Devices and Topologies

• A wireless network may

consist of as few as two
devices.
• Devices in WLAN are
peers
• An access point (AP) is
commonly installed to
act as a central hub for
the WLAN
How WLANs Communicate
• After establishing
connectivity to the WLAN, a
node will pass frames
similarly to any other 802
network.
• WLANs use CSMA/CA
• The receiving node returns a
positive ACK, causing a
consumption of 50% of the
available bandwidth, actual
throughput may reduce to 5 –
5.5 Mbps
• Adaptive Rate Selection (ARS)
is used to set proper speed
for network nodes.

Adaptive Rate Selection

• Performance of the
network will also be
affected by signal
strength and degradation
in signal quality due to
distance or interference.
• As the signal becomes
weaker, Adaptive Rate
Selection (ARS) may be
invoked.
Authentication and Association

• IEEE 802.11 lists two types of authentication

processes.
– Open system – only the SSID must match
– Shared key – requires Wireless Equivalency Protocol (WEP)
• Association permits a client to use the services of
the AP to transfer data.

Carrier Signal and Modulation

• In a transmitter, the electrical (data) signals from a

computer or a LAN are not sent directly into the antenna
of the transmitter. Rather, these data signals are used to
alter a second, strong signal called the carrier signal.
Signals and Noise on a WLAN
• The most obvious source of a signal
problem is the transmitting station and
antenna type.
• Leakage from a microwave of as little as
one watt into the RF spectrum can cause
major network disruption. Wireless phones
operating in the 2.4GHZ spectrum can also
cause network disorder.
• Fog or high moisture conditions can affect
wireless networks.
• Lightning can also charge the atmosphere
and alter the path of a transmitted signal.

Wireless Security

• VPN
• EAP-MD5 Challenge
• LEAP (Cisco)
• User authentication
• Encryption
• Data authentication
Summary

• Electronic parameters
• Ethernet cable type
• Light and optical fiber
• Optical fiber installation
• WLAN communication and authentication
• Signal modulation and WLAN security
 Module 4
Cabling LANs and WANs

Objectives

• Identify characteristics of Ethernet networks.

• Describe the function of network devices
• Describe and cabling the LANs
• Decribe WAN connections and cabling
the WANs
 Cabling the LANs

LAN Physical Layer

• Each media has advantages and disadvantages. Some

of the advantage or disadvantage comparisons
concern the following:
– Cable length
– Cost
– Ease of installation
– Susceptibility to interference
Ethernet Family

Ethernet Standard
• Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology.
• Ethernet was first implemented by the Digital, Intel,
and Xerox group, referred to as DIX.
• DIX Ethernet was used as the basis for the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.3
specification, released in 1980.
• Later, the IEEE extended 802.3 to three new
committees known as 802.3u (Fast Ethernet), 802.3z
(Gigabit Ethernet over Fiber), and 802.3ab (Gigabit
Ethernet over UTP).
Ethernet Cable and Connector

UTP Implementation

• EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-

45 connector for
unshielded twisted-pair
(UTP) cable. The letters
RJ stand for registered
jack, and the number 45
refers to a specific
wiring sequence.
Attach the RJ-45

RJ-45
Jack
RJ-45 Plug

Repeater: Layer 1

• Repeater regenerate and

retime network signals at
the bit level to allow them
to travel a longer
distance on the media.
4 repeater rule

5.4.3.2.1 Rule
• 5 sections of the network.
• 4 repeaters or hubs.
• 3 sections for hosts.
• 2 sections for link
purposes.
• 1 large collision domain.

• This rule states that no more than four repeaters can be used
between hosts on a LAN.
• This rule is used to limit latency added to frame travel by
each repeater. Too much latency on the LAN increases the
number of late collisions and makes the LAN less efficient.

Hubs: Layer 1

• Multiport repeater
• The physical topology
for using a hub star.
• Sometimes called
concentrator
• There are 3 types of
hub: active, passive
and intelligent
• Every device connected to the same network
segment is said to be a member of a collision
domain.
Network Segmentation
• When the number of network
node is big, reducing network
performance, it is necessary to
break up a large LAN into
smaller, more easily managed
segments.

Bridge Functions

• Switches and bridges

operate at the Data Link
layer of the OSI model.
• The function of the bridge
is to make intelligent
decisions about whether
or not to pass signals on
to the next segment of a
network.
Bridge Functions

• The function of the

bridge is to make
intelligent decisions
about whether or not
to pass signals on to
the next segment of
a network.

• They makes these decisions based upon the layer 2

physical address (MAC).
• A switch therefore has two main functions:
– switch data frames
– build and maintain tables

LAN Switch

• Switches operate at much

higher speeds than
bridges and can support
new functionality, such
as virtual LANs.
• Switches can easily
replace hubs
Cisco Catalyst

Catalyst 2950

Catalyst 6500

Catalyst 3550

Switch: Micro-segmentation

• An Ethernet switch allows

many users to communicate in
parallel in a virtually collision-
free environment.
• Ethernet switches have such
benefits:
– reduces network congestion
– maximizes bandwidth
– reduces collision domain size
Host Connectivity - NIC

• The NIC is also referred to as a network adapter and is

considered Layer 2 devices because each NIC carries a
unique code called a MAC address.
• When selecting a NIC, consider the following:
– Network architecture
– Operating system
– Media type
– Data transfer speed
– Available bus types

Type of network
Peer-to-peer versus Client/Server

Cabling the WANs

WAN physical layer

• The physical layer implementations vary depending

on:
– distance of the equipment from the services
– speed
– type of service itself

WAN Serial Connections

• If the connection is made directly to a service

provider, or a device that provides signal clocking
such as a channel/data service unit (CSU/DSU), the
router will be a data terminal equipment (DTE) and
use a DTE serial cable.
Routers and Serial Connections

• Determine whether DTE or DCE connectors are

required. The DTE is the endpoint of the user’s
device on the WAN link.
• The DCE is the point where responsibility for
delivering data passes into the hands of the service
provider.

Fixed and modular port

• Interfaces on routers with fixed serial ports are labeled

for port type and port number (eg S1). Ethernet AUI port
need transceiver to convert from DB-15 to RJ45
• Interfaces on routers with modular serial ports are
labeled for port type, slot, and port number (eg: S0/1).
Routers and DSL Connections
• The Cisco 827 ADSL router has one Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Line (ADSL) interface.
• To connect an ADSL line to the ADSL port on a router, do
the following:
– Connect the phone cable to the ADSL port on the router.
– Connect the other end of the phone cable to the phone jack.
• DSL works over standard telephone lines using pins 3 and
4 on a standard RJ-11 connector.

Routers and Cable Connections

• The Cisco uBR905 cable access router provides high-

speed network access on the cable television system
to residential and small office, home office (SOHO)
subscribers.
Setting Up Console Connections
• The console port allows monitoring and configuration of a Cisco
hub, switch, or router.
• The AUX port allows remote monitoring and configuration of
devices over modem connection.
• To set up a connection between the terminal and the Cisco
console port, perform two steps.
– Connect the devices using a rollover cable from the console port, on the
router, to the serial port, on the terminal (workstation).
– Configure the terminal emulation application with the following common
equipment (COM) port settings: 9600 bps, 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit,
and no flow control.
Summary

• LAN physical layer

• Ethernet standards
• 5-4-3 rule
• Functions of network devices
• Peer-to-peer versus client/server network
• WAN physical layer
• WAN connections
• WAN technologies
 Module 5
Ethernet Fundamentals

Objectives

• Ethernet fundamentals
• Ethernet operation
 Ethernet Fundamentals

Introduction to Ethernet

• The success of Ethernet is due to the

following factors:
– Simplicity and ease of maintenance
– Ability to incorporate new technologies
– Reliability
– Low cost of installation and upgrade
– Bandwidth can be increased without changing
underlying technology
IEEE 802 Committees
802.0 SEC
802.1 High Level Interface (HILI)
802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC)
IEEE 802.3 - 10 Mbit
802.3 CSMA/CD Working Group
IEEE 802.3u - 100 Mbit
802.4 Token Bus
IEEE 802.3z - 1000 Mbit
802.5 Token Ring
802.6 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
802.7 BroadBand Technical Adv. Group (BBTAG)
802.8 Fiber Optics Technical Adv. Group (FOTAG)
802.9 Integrated Services LAN (ISLAN)
802.10 Standard for Interoperable LAN Security (SILS)

801.11 Wireless LAN (WLAN)

802.12 Demand Priority
802.14 Cable-TV Based Broadband Communication
Network
802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (BBWA)
RPRSG Resilient Packet Ring Study Group (RPRSG)

Ethernet Standards
Ethernet Specifications
Designation Description
10 Mbps baseband Ethernet over coaxial cable with a maximum distance of 185 meters.
10Base-2
Also referred to as Thin Ethernet or Thinnet or Thinwire.
10 Mbps baseband Ethernet over coaxial cable with a maximum distance of 500 meters.
10Base-5
Also referred to as Thick Ethernet or Thicknet or Thickwire.
10 Mbps baseband Ethernet over twisted pair cables with a maximum length of 100
10Base-T
meters.
100Base-FX 100 Mbps baseband Ethernet over two multimode optical fibers.
100Base-T 100 Mbps baseband Ethernet over twisted pair cable.
100 Mbps baseband Ethernet over four pairs of Category 3 or higher unshielded
100Base-T4
twisted pair cable.
100 Mbps baseband Ethernet over two pairs of shielded twisted pair or Category 4
100Base-TX
twisted pair cable.

1000Base-CX 1000 Mbps baseband Ethernet over two pairs of 150 shielded twisted pair cable.

1000 Mbps baseband Ethernet over two multimode or single-mode optical fibers using
1000Base-LX
longwave laser optics.
1000 Mbps baseband Ethernet over two multimode optical fibers using shortwave laser
1000Base-SX
optics.
1000 Mbps baseband Ethernet over four pairs of Category 5 unshielded twisted pair
1000Base-T
cable.

Ethernet and the OSI model

• Divided OSI Layer 2 into two sublayers

– Media Access Control (MAC) – Traditional L2 features
• Transitions down to media
– Logical link control (LLC) – New L2 features
• Transitions up to the network layer
LLC sublayer
Packet

Packet LLC PDU

Packet Frame

• LLC PDU includes:

– DSAP: Destination service access point
– SSAP: Source service access point
• Supports connection control methods specified by upper
protocols

MAC sublayer
Packet

Packet
802.3 802.5

Packet Packet

• Naming.
• Framing.
• Media access control rules.
MAC address

• MAC addresses are burned into read-only

memory (ROM) and are copied into
random-access memory (RAM) when the
NIC initializes.
• Presentation formats: 0000.0c12.3456 or
00-00-0c-12-34-56.
• Broadcast address: FFFF.FFFF.FFFF

Layer 2 Framing

• Framing helps obtain essential

information that could not,
otherwise, be obtained with
coded bit streams alone.
Examples of such information
are:
– Which computers are
communicating with one another
– When communication between
individual computers begins and
when it terminates
– Provides a method for detection
of errors that occurred during the
communication
– Whose turn it is to "talk" in a
computer "conversation“
Generic Frame Format

• Framing is the Layer 2 encapsulation process. A

frame is the Layer 2 protocol data unit.

Ethernet Frame Format

• At the data link layer the frame structure is nearly identical for all
speeds of Ethernet from 10 Mbps to 10,000 Mbps.
• Ethernet requires that the frame be not less than 46 octets or more
than 1518 octets.
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet

Ethernet II
 Ethernet Operation

Media Access Control (MAC)

• MAC refers to protocols that determine

which computer on a shared-medium
environment, or collision domain, is allowed
to transmit the data.
• There are two broad categories of Media
Access Control, deterministic (taking turns)
and non-deterministic (first come, first
served).
Media Access Control (MAC) Protocols
• Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
– Logical bus topology
– Physical star or extended star
– Nondeterministic
• First-come, first-served
• Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
– Logical ring
– Physical star topology
– Deterministic
• Token controls traffic
– Older declining technology
• FDDI (IEEE 802.5)
– Logical ring topology
– Physical dual-ring topology
– Deterministic
• Token controls traffic
– Near-end-of-life technology

CSMA/CD Process
Host wants
to transmit

Attempts> Too many

Broadcast attempts =
too many? collisions; abort
jam signal attempts + 1
Is carrier transmission
sensed?

Assemble Algorithm
Wait for calculate
frame t seconds backoff

Is Is
Start a collision Keep transmission Transmission
transmitting detected? transmitting done? completed
Ethernet Transmission Mode

• Full duplex :
– send and receive simultaneously
– no collisions occur.
• Half duplex:
– only send or receive at a specific moment
– transmit 64 bits of timing synchronization information that is known as
the preamble to make sure collision do not occur.

Ethernet Timing

• For CSMA/CD Ethernet to operate, collision must be

sensed before completing transmission of a
minimum-sized frame.
• At 100 Mbps the system timing is barely able to
accommodate 100 meter cables. For this reason half
duplex is not permitted in 10-Gigabit Ethernet.
Slot time
• Ethernet standard
specifications limit
– maximum segment length
– maximum number of stations
per segment
– maximum number of repeaters
between segments
• Slot time >= round trip delay

Interframe Spacing

• The minimum time space between two non-colliding

frames is also called the interframe spacing.
• After a frame has been sent, all stations on a 10-Mbps
Ethernet are required to wait a minimum of 96 bit-times
(9.6 microseconds) before any station may legally
transmit the next frame.
Error Handling

• Collisions are to resole contention for

network access which results in network
bandwidth loss.
• When collision occurs, the devices with data
to transmit return to a listen-before-transmit
mode and no device have priority to transmit
data.

Types of Collisions

• The results of collisions, collision fragments, are

partial or corrupted frames that are less than 64
octets and have an invalid FCS. Three types of
collisions are:
– Local
– Remote
– Late
Local Collision

• Local collision is detected on the local segment

when a station detects a signal on the RX pair at
the same time it is sending on the TX pair.
• Local collision is sensed as over-voltage
condition on the local cable area when two
signal from different stations collide.

Remote Collison

• The characteristics of a remote collision are a

frame that is less than the minimum length, has
an invalid FCS checksum.
• This sort of collision usually results from
collisions occurring on the far side of a repeated
connection.
Late Collision

• Collisions occurring after the first 64 octets are

called late collisions.
• Difference between late collisions and other
collisions is that the Ethernet NIC will not
automatically retransmit a frame that was
collided late.

FCS and Beyond

• A received frame that has a bad frame check sequence, also

referred to as a checksum or CRC error, differs from the original
transmission by at least 1 bit.
• High numbers of FCS errors from a single station usually indicates
a faulty NIC and/or faulty or corrupted software drivers, or a bad
cable connecting that station to the network.
• If FCS errors are associated with many stations, they are generally
traceable to bad cabling, a faulty version of the NIC driver, a faulty
hub port, or induced noise in the cable system.
Ethernet Autonegotiation

• This process defines how two link partners may

automatically negotiate a configuration offering the best
common performance level.
• It has the additional advantage of only involving the
lowest part of the physical layer.

Summary

• The basics of Ethernet technology

• How Ethernet and the OSI model interact
• Ethernet frame field names and purposes
• The characteristics and function of CSMA/CD
• Ethernet timing
• The backoff algorithm and time after a collision
• Ethernet errors and collisions
• Auto-negotiation in relation to speed and duplex
 Module 6
Ethernet Technologies

Objectives

• Ethernet relevant issues

• 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps
• 1000 Mbps and Gigabit Ethernet
 10-Mbps and 100-Mbps
Ethernet

Type of Ethernet

• All version of Ethernet have the same:

– MAC addressing
– CSMA/CD
– Frame format
• However, other aspect of MAC sublayer, physical layer
and medium have changed.
Parameters for 10Mbps Ethernet

Line Encoding

• All 10 Mbps forms of Ethernet take octets

received from the MAC sublayer and perform a
process called line encoding.
• Line encoding describes how the bits are
actually signaled on the wire.
• The form of encoding used in 10 Mbps systems
is called “Manchester”.
Manchester Encoding

10BASE-T Wiring and Architecture

• 10BASE-T links generally consist of a connection

between the station and a hub or switch.
• The most important aspect to consider for 10BASE-
T architecture is minimizing the delay between
distant stations
100-Mbps Ethernet

• 100 Mbps Ethernet is also known as Fast Ethernet.

• The two technologies that became important are 100BASE-TX,
which is copper UTP based, and 100BASE-FX, which is
multimode optical fiber based.
• Three characteristics common to 100BASE-TX and 100BASE-
FX are:
– timing parameters
– the frame format
– parts of the transmission process.

100Mbps Ethernet Encoding

• The higher frequency

signals are more
susceptible to noise.
• Two encoding steps for
100-Mbps Ethernet.
– 4B/5B
– actual line encoding specific
to copper or fiber.
100BASE-TX

• 100BASE-TX can be either full-duplex or half-duplex

• Ethernet network use separate transmit and receive wire
pairs (full-duplex) and a switched topology prevents
collisions on the physical bus.
• 100BASE-TX uses 4B/5B encoding, which is then
scrambled and converted to multilevel transmit-3 levels
or MLT-3.

100BASE-FX

• A fiber version desired for backbone connections as

well as those between floors and buildings where
copper is less desirable, and also in high noise
environments
• Gigabit Ethernet standards are now the dominant
technology for backbone installations, high-speed
cross-connects, and general infrastructure needs.
NRZI Encoding

• 100BASE-FX uses 4B/5B encoding, which is

then scrambled and converted to non-
return-zero-inverse or NRZI.

Class of Repeater

• A Class I repeater may introduce up to 140 bit-

times of latency. Any repeater that changes
between one Ethernet implementation and
another is a Class I repeater.
• A Class II repeater may only introduce a
maximum of 92 bit-times latency. Because of the
reduced latency it is possible to have two Class
II repeaters in series, but only if the cable
between them is very short.
 Gigabit and 10-Gigabit Ethernet

1000 Mbps Ethernet

• The 1000 Mbps Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet

standards represent transmission using both
fiber and copper media.
• The 1000BASE-X standard (IEEE 802.3z)
specifies a 1-Gbps full duplex over optical
fiber.
• The 1000BASE-T standard (IEEE 802.3ab)
uses a media of Category 5e or higher UTP.
• 1000BASE-TX, 1000BASE-SX, and
1000BASE-LX use the same timing
parameters.
Gigabit Ethernet Encoding

• The shorter duration bit times require Gigabit

Ethernet to use two separate encoding steps.
• At the physical layer, the bit patterns from the
MAC layer are converted into symbols.
• Fiber-based Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-X)
uses 8B/10B, followed by the simple Non-Return
to Zero (NRZ) line encoding of light on optical
fiber.

Actual 1000BaseT Signal Transmission

• Cat 5e cable can reliably carry

up to 125 Mbps of traffic.
1000BASE-T uses all four pairs
of wires.
• The circuitry has to divide
frames at the transmitter and
reassemble them at the receiver.
• For 1000BASE-T 4D-PAM5 line
encoding is used on Cat 5e or
better UTP. The actual
transmitted signal in each
direction on each wire pair is a 5-
level {+2, +1, 0, -1, -2} pulse
1000BASE-SX and LX

• 1000BASE-X uses 8B/10B encoding converted to non-

return to zero (NRZ) line encoding

Media Access Control

• The Media Access Control method treats the link as

point-to-point. Since separate fibers are used for
transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx) the connection is
inherently full duplex.
• Gigabit Ethernet permits only a single repeater between
two stations.
1000Mbps Ethernet

• 1000BASE-SX use short-wavelength by 850 nm laser

or LED source in multimode optical fiber.
• 1000BASE-LX use long-wavelength by 1310 nm laser
source uses either single-mode or multimode optical
fiber

Gigabit Ethernet Architecture

• Daisy-chaining, star, and extended star
topologies are all allowed.
• The bandwidth of fiber is inherently very
large. It has been limited by:
– emitter technology
– fiber manufacturing processes
– detector technology
10 Gigabit Ethernet

• IEEE 802.3ae was adapted to include 10-Gbps full-

duplex transmission over fiber-optic cable.
• With single-mode fiber, the maximum transmission
distance is 40 kilometers makes 10GbE a viable MAN
technology .
• Compatibility with SONET/SDH networks operating
up to OC-192 speeds (9.584640 Gbps) make 10GbE a
viable WAN technology.
• Some discussions between IEEE members have
begun that suggest the possibility of standards for
40-, 80-, and even 100-Gbps Ethernet.

Parameters for 10GbE Operation

802.3ae June 2002 10GbE family.

• 10GBASE-SR –short distances, multimode fiber, range

between 26 m to 82 m
• 10GBASE-LX4 – wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM), supports 240 m to 300 m over multimode fiber
and 10 km over single-mode fiber
• 10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER – support 10 km and 40
km over single-mode fiber
• 10GBASE-SW, 10GBASE-LW, and 10GBASE-EW –work
with OC-192 synchronous transport module (STM)
SONET/SDH WAN equipment.

Future of Ethernet

• Ethernet has gone through an evolution from Legacy

→ Fast → Gigabit → MultiGigabit technologies.
• The future of networking media is three-fold:
– Copper (up to 1000 Mbps, perhaps more)
– Wireless (approaching 100 Mbps, perhaps more)
– Optical fiber (currently at 10,000 Mbps and soon to be more)
Summary

• 10Base2, 10Base5, 10BaseT

• Line encoding: Manchester, MTL3, NRZI…
• Characteristics and varieties of 100-Mbps
Ethernet
• Characteristics and varieties of 1000-Mbps
Ethernet
• Basic architectural considerations of Gigabit
and 10-Gigabit Ethernet
 Module 7
Ethernet Switching

Objectives

• Define bridging and switching.

• Explain Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP).
• Collision domains and broadcast domains
• Data flow and network segmentation
 Ethernet Switching

Segmentation
Layer 2 Bridging

• When a frame comes, bridge check the source address

with the MAC table
– If there was a mapping between the source address and the
receiving port, then ignores
– Else, update MAC table with the source address and the
receiving port
• Bridge check the destination address with the MAC
table
– If the destination address is in the MAC table, then forward the
frame to the associated port
– If the destination address is unknown, multicast or broadcast,
then forward the frame to all other ports except the receiving
port.

Layer 2 Switching

• Rather than creating two collision domains,

each port creates its own collision domain
(micro-segmentation).
• A switch dynamically builds and maintains a
Content-Addressable Memory (CAM) table,
holding all of the necessary MAC information for
each port.
Switch CAM Table

• Operations that might have been done in software as in

bridge can now be done in hardware using an application-
specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

Switch benefits

• Provide micro-segmentation
• Double bandwidth between
nodes
• Collision-free transmission
• Two 10- or 100- Mbps data
path
• Allow multiple circuits
simultanously
Latency

• Latency is the delay between the time a frame first

starts to leave the source device and the time the
first part of the frame reaches its destination.
Factors that cause delay are:
– Media delays.
– Circuit delays.
– Software delays.
– Delays caused by the content of the frame and where
in the frame switching decisions can be made.

Switching methods

• Store-and-forward:
– The entire frame is received before forward.
– Increases latency with larger frames.
– Error detection is high.
• Cut-through:
– Immediately forward a packet after checking the destination
address.
– No error checking
– Offers the lowest level of latency
• Fragment-free switching:
– Forwards a packet after receiving the first 64 bytes.
– Filters out collision packets (size < 64 bytes)
Forwarding Decision

Switch Mode

• With cut-through methods of switching, both the source

port and destination port must be operating at the same
bit rate in order to keep the frame intact. This is called
synchronous switching.
• If the bit rates are not the same, the frame must be
stored at one bit rate before it is sent out at the other bit
rate. This is known as asynchronous switching. Store-
and-forward mode must be used for asynchronous
switching.
Switching modes

Switching Loop

!
t Storm
ad c as
Bro

• When multiple switches are designed with redundant

paths to provide for reliability and fault tolerance in a
simple hierarchical tree, switching loops are unlikely to
occur.
Spanning-Tree Protocol
e
ram
cast F
ad
Bro

Standby Link

• Main function of the Spanning Tree Protocol

(STP) is to allow redundant
switched/bridged paths without suffering
the effects of loops in the network

Spanning Tree Protocol

• A switch sends special messages called bridge protocol data units
(BPDUs) out all its ports to let other switches know of its existence.
• The switches use a spanning-tree algorithm (STA) to resolve and shut
down the redundant paths
 Collision Domains and
Broadcast Domains

Shared Media Environments

• It is important to be able to identify a shared media environment,

because collisions only occur in a shared environment.
• Some networks are directly connected and all hosts share Layer 1
Collisions in collision domain

Collision Domain Segmentation

• The types of devices that interconnect the media segments

define collision domains.
Round-Trip Delay

• The 5-4-3-2-1 rule also provides guidelines to keep round-

trip delay time in a shared network within acceptable limits.

Segmenting a collision domain with bridge

• Segmentation
increases the
opportunity for each
host in the network to
gain access to the
media.
• This effectively
reduces the chance of
collisions and
increases available
bandwidth for every
host.
Broadcasts in Bridged Environment

• Layer 2 devices forward broadcast and if excessive, can

reduce the efficiency of the entire LAN.
• Broadcasts must be controlled at Layer 3, as Layer 2 and
Layer 1 devices cannot.

Router

• Routers actually work at Layers 1, 2, and 3.

• A router (layer 3 device) solves the problem of too much
broadcast traffic.
• It is Layer 3 that allows the router to segment broadcast
domains or “network”.
Broadcast Domain Segmentation

Data Flows
Summary

• Layer 2 bridging and switching

• Content-addressable memory (CAM)
• Switching methods
• Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)
• Collisions, broadcasts, collision domains, and
broadcast domains
• Layer 1, 2, and 3 devices with collision domains
and broadcast domains
• Data flow
 Module 8
TCP/IP and IP Addressing

Objectives

• Introduction to TCP/IP
• Internet addresses
• Obtaining an IP address
 Introduction to TCP/IP

History and Future of TCP/IP

• The U.S. Department of Defense
(DoD) created the TCP/IP
reference model because it
wanted a network that could
survive any conditions.
• In 1992 the standardization of a
new generation of IP, IPv6, was
supported by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF)
with 128 bits long.
Application Layer
• Handles high-level
protocols, issues of
representation, encoding,
and dialog control.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite
combines all application
related issues into one layer
and ensures this data is
properly packaged before
passing it on to the next
layer.

Transport Layer

• The transport layer

provides transport
services including flow
control and reliability
from the source host to
the destination host.
• The transport layer
constitutes a logical
connection between
the endpoints of the
network.
Internet Layer
• The purpose of the
Internet layer is to
select the best path
through the network for
packets to travel.
• The main protocol that
functions at this layer
is the Internet Protocol
(IP).

IP - Internet Protocol

• IP: provides connectionless, best-effort delivery routing

of packets. IP is not concerned with the content of the
packets but looks for a path to the destination.
• IP performs the following operations:
– Defines a packet and an addressing scheme
– Transfers data between the Internet layer and network access layers
– Routes packets to remote hosts
Other Internet Layer Protocols

• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

provides control and messaging capabilities.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) determines
the data link layer address, MAC address, for
known IP addresses.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
determines IP addresses when the MAC address
is known.

Network Access Layer

• The network access
layer is also called the
host-to-network layer.
• Include the LAN and
WAN technology
details such as:
Ethernet, Token-Ring,
ISDN, Frame-Relay.
• Include the mapping of
IP addresses to
physical hardware
addresses and
encapsulation of IP
packets into frames.
Internet

• Two computers, anywhere in the world, following

certain hardware, software, and protocol
specifications, can communicate reliably.

Internet Addresses
Network and Host Addressing

• IP address is
hierarchical and has
two parts:
– First part identifies the
network where the system is
connected.
– Second part identifies that
particular system on the
network.

IP Address Classes

• IP addresses are divided into classes to define

the large, medium, and small networks.
IP Address Classes

IP Address

• The 127.0.0.0 network is reserved for loopback

testing.
• The Class D address class was created to
enable multicasting in an IP address. A
multicast address is a unique network address
that directs packets with that destination
address to predefined groups of IP addresses.
• A Class E address is reserved these addresses
for research.
Reserved IP Address

• Certain host addresses are reserved and cannot

be assigned to devices on a network.
– Network address – Used to identify the network itself
– Broadcast address – Used for broadcasting packets to
all the devices on a network

Network address

• Network address provide a convenient way

to refer to all of the addresses on a
particular network or subnetwork.
• Two hosts with differing network address
require a device, typically a router, in order
to communicate.
• An IP address that ends with binary 0s in all
host bits is reserved for the network
address.
Broadcast address

• Broadcast goes to every host with a

particular network ID number.
• An IP address that ends with binary 1s in all
host bits is reserved for the directed
broadcast address.
• An IP address with binary 1s in all network
bits and host bits is reserved for the local
broadcast address.

Local broadcast address

255.255.255.255 STOP
Directed broadcast address

192.168.20.0

192.168.20.255

Example: 172.16.20.200

• 172.16.20.200 is Class B address

• Network portion: 172.16
• Host portion: 20.200
• Network address: 172.16.0.0
• Broadcast address: 172.16.255.255
Public IP Address

• In order to connect to the Internet, every

machines must have its own public IP address.
Public IP addresses are unique.
• With the rapid growth of the Internet, public IP
addresses were beginning to run out. New
addressing schemes are used so solve this:
– Classless interdomain routing (CIDR)
– IP version 6 (IPv6)
– Network Address Translation (NAT)

Private Address

• Private networks can use private address to assign their machines in

the local network.
• RFC 1918 sets aside three blocks of IP addresses for private, internal
use.
– Class A: 10.0.0.0
– Class B: 172.16.0.0 Æ 172.31.0.0
– Class C: 192.168.0.0 Æ 192.168.255.0
• Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet
requires translation (overloading) of the private addresses to public
addresses. This translation is served by NAT
Valid address?

• 150.100.255.255
• 175.100.255.18
• 195.234.253.0
• 100.0.0.23
• 188.258.221.176
• 127.34.25.189
• 224.156.217.73

IPv4 versus IPv6

• Introduced by IETF in 1992, IPv6, known as IPng, uses 128 bits

rather than the 32 bits currently used in IPv4.
• IPv6 uses hexadecimal numbers to represent the 128 bits.
• IPv6 provides 640 sextrillion addresses. This version of IP should
provide enough addresses for future communication needs.
 Obtaining an IP address

Obtaining an IP Address
Static Assignment of IP Addresses

• Each individual device

must be configured with
an IP address.
• Keep very detailed
records, because
problems can occur on
the network if you use
duplicate IP addresses.

Dynamic addressing

• There are a some different methods that you

can use to assign IP addresses dynamically:
– RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
– BOOTP: BOOTstrap Protocol.
– DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.

IP
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

BOOTP IP

• Network administrator creates a configuration file that

specifies the parameters for each device. The administrator
must add hosts and maintain the BOOTP database.
• BOOTP packets can include the IP address, as well as the
address of a router, the address of a server, and vendor-
specific information.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

• Successor to BOOTP.
• Automatically allows a host to obtain an IP address
from an IP pool
• Use 4-steps IP registration and requires IP leased
time

DHCP Initialization Sequence

• Broadcast request and discover

DHCP server

• Offer IP address, DHCP server

address and Default Gateway
address…

• Request for the offered IP

statistics

• Acknownledge the request,

confirm registration
Encapsulation

Address Resolution Protocol

• In order for devices to communicate, the

sending devices need both the IP addresses
and the MAC addresses of the destination
devices.
• ARP enables a computer to find the MAC
address of the computer that is associated
with an IP address.
Address resolution protocol

ARP table in host

AM
R
ARP operation
ARP Table:

? MAC MAC IP IP
A.B.C.1.2.3 ? 10.0.2.110.0.2.9
Data

10.0.2.1 10.0.2.5 10.0.2.9

A.B.C.1.2.3 A.B.C.4.5.6 A.B.C.7.8.9

A B C

ARP operation: ARP request

MAC MAC IP IP
A.B.C.1.2.3 ff.ff.ff.ff.ff.ff 10.0.2.1 10.0.2.9
What is your MAC Addr?

10.0.2.1 10.0.2.5 10.0.2.9

A.B.C.1.2.3 A.B.C.4.5.6 A.B.C.7.8.9

A B C
ARP operation: Checking

MAC MAC IP IP
A.B.C.1.2.3 ff.ff.ff.ff.ff.ff 10.0.2.110.0.2.9
What is your MAC Addr?

is
a t P
h I
T y
m
10.0.2.1 10.0.2.5 10.0.2.9
A.B.C.1.2.3 A.B.C.4.5.6 A.B.C.7.8.9

A B C

ARP operation: ARP reply

MAC MAC IP IP
A.B.C.7.8.9 A.B.C.1.2.3 10.0.2.9 10.0.2.1
This is my MAC Addr

10.0.2.1 10.0.2.5 10.0.2.9

A.B.C.1.2.3 A.B.C.4.5.6 A.B.C.7.8.9

A B C
ARP operation: Caching
ARP Table:

A.B.C.7.8.9 – 10.0.2.9

MAC MAC IP IP
A.B.C.1.2.3 A.B.C.7.8.9 10.0.2.1 10.0.2.9
Data

10.0.2.1 10.0.2.5 10.0.2.9

A.B.C.1.2.3 A.B.C.4.5.6 A.B.C.7.8.9

A B C

ARP: Local Destination

Internetwork communication

• How to communicate with devices that are

not on the same physical network segment.

Default gateway

Default-Gateway

• In order for a device to communicate with another device on

another network, you must supply it with a default gateway.
• A default gateway is the IP address of the interface on the
router that connects to the network segment on which the
source host is located.
• In order for a device to send data to the address of a device
that is on another network segment, the source device sends
the data to a default gateway.
Remote Destination

Packet forwarding
• At layer 2, when encapsulating a frame, the host needs
the destination MAC address
• The host will then compares IP address of source and
destination.
– If the destination is on another network, then it will encapsulate the
frame with the default-gateway MAC address.
– If the destination is on the same net work, then it will use the
destination MAC address
• Then it checks if the needed MAC address is in the ARP
table, if it is not proceed ARP request to find the needed
MAC address
Summary

• Four layers of TCP/IP model

• IP address, IP address classes
• Network address and broadcast address
• Public address and private address
• IPv4 versus IPv6
• Static addressing, RARP, BOOTP, DHCP
• ARP local and remote destination
 Module 9
Routing Fundamentals and Subnets

Objectives

• Routed protocol
• IP routing protocols
• The mechanics of subnetting
 Internet Protocol - Routed

Routed protocols

• A routed protocol allows the router to forward

data between different networks
• In order for a protocol to be routable, it must
provide the ability to assign a network number
and a host number to each individual device.
• The network address is obtained by ANDing the
address with the network mask.
Routed protocols

Connection oriented network services

• A connection is established between the sender and the

recipient before any data is transferred.
• All packets travel sequentially across the same circuit, or
more commonly, across the same virtual circuit.
Connectionless network services

• Each packet is treated separately

• When the packets pass from source to destination, they can:
– Switch to different paths.
– Arrive out of order.

IP as a Routed Protocol

• IP is a connectionless,
unreliable, best-effort
delivery protocol.
• IP does not verify that
the data reached its
destination. This
function is handled by
the upper layer
protocols.
Packet Propagation

Process in Router
IP header format

20
bytes

IP header format: Version

•• 44 bits.
bits.
•• Indicates
Indicates the
the version
version of
of
IP
IP currently
currently used.
used.
–– IPv4
IPv4::0100
0100
–– IPv6
IPv6::0110
0110
IP header format: Header length

•• 44 bits.
bits.
•• IP
IP header
header length
length :: Indicates
Indicates the
the
datagram
datagram header
header length
length in
in 32
32 bit
bit
words
words (4(4 bits),
bits), and
and thus
thus points
points toto
the
the beginning
beginning of of the
the data.
data.

IP header format: Service type

•• 88 bits.
bits.
•• Specifies
Specifies the
the level
level of
of importance
importance
that
that has
has been
been requested
requested for
for this
this
datagram
datagram byby an
an upper-layer
upper-layer
protocol.
protocol.
•• Precedence.
Precedence.
•• Reliability.
Reliability.
•• Speed.
Speed.
IP header format: Total length

•• 16
16 bits.
bits.
•• Specifies
Specifies the
the length
length in bytes of
inbytes of
the
the entire
entire IP
IP packet,
packet, including
including
data
data and
and header.
header.

IP header format: Identification

•• 16
16 bits.
bits.
•• Contains
Contains an
an integer
integer that
that identifies
identifies
the
the current
current datagram.
datagram.
•• Assigned
Assigned by
by the
the sender
sender toto aid
aid inin
assembling
assembling the
the fragments
fragments of of aa
datagram.
datagram.
IP header format: Flags

•• 33 bits.
bits.
•• The
The second
second bitbit specifying
specifying whether
whether the the
packet
packet can
can bebe fragmented
fragmented ..
•• The
The last
last bit
bit specifying
specifying whether
whether thethe
packet
packet isis the
the last
last fragment
fragment in
in aa series
series of
of
fragmented
fragmented packets.
packets.

IP header format: Fragment offset

•• 13
13 bits.
bits.
•• Used
Usedwith
withfragmented
fragmenteddatagrams,
datagrams,to toaid
aidin
in
reassembly
reassemblyof ofthe
thefull
fulldatagram.
datagram.
•• Is
Isthe
thenumber
numberof of64-bit
64-bitpieces
pieces(header
(headerbytes
bytes
are not counted) that are contained
are not counted) that are contained in in
earlier
earlierfragments.
fragments.
•• In
Inthe
thefirst
first(or
(oronly)
only)fragment,
fragment,this
thisvalue
valueisis
always
alwayszero.
zero.
IP header format: Time to Live

•• 88bits,
bits,specifies
specifiesthethetime
timeand
anddistance
distancethis
this
datagram
datagramisisallowed
allowedto totravel.
travel.
•• Each
Eachrouter
routerrouting
routingthis
thisdatagram
datagramsubtracts
subtracts
from
fromthis
thisfield
fieldits
itsprocessing
processingtime
timefor
forthis
this
datagram,
datagram, which gradually decreasesit.
which gradually decreases it.
•• ItIthelps
helpsprevent
preventpackets
packetsfrom
fromlooping
looping
endlessly.
endlessly.

IP header format: Protocol

•• Indicates
Indicates which
which upper
upper protocol
protocol
receives
receives incoming
incoming packets
packets after
after IP
IP
processing
processing has
has been
been completed
completed
•• 06
06::TCP
TCP
•• 17
17::UDP
UDP
•• 01: ICMP
01: ICMP
IP header format: Header checksum

•• 16
16 bits.
bits.
•• A
A checksum
checksum on
on the
the header
header only,
only,
helps
helps ensure
ensure IP
IP header
header integrity.
integrity.

IP header format: Addresses

•• 32
32 bits
bits each.
each.
•• Source
Source IPIP Address
Address
•• Destination
Destination IPIP Address
Address
IP header format: Options

•• Variable
Variable length.
length.
•• Allows
Allows IPIP to
to support
support various
various
options,
options, such
such as as security,
security, route,
route,
error
error report
report ...
...

IP header format: Padding

•• The
The header
header padding
padding is is used
used to
to
ensure
ensure that
that the
the internet
internet header
header ends
ends
on
on aa 32
32 bit
bit boundary.
boundary.
IP header format: Padding

•• Contains
Containsupper-protocol
upper-protocolinformation,
information,
variable length up to 64 Kb.
variable length up to 64 Kb.

• www.ietf.org and RFC-760.

IP Routing Protocol
Routing Overview
• Routing is an OSI Layer 3
function.
• Routing is the process of
finding the most efficient path
from one device to another.
• Two key functions of router:
– maintain routing tables
– use the routing table to forward
packets

Layer 2 Switching and Layer 3 Routing

Routing vs. Switching

Routing Protocol

• Routing protocols allow

routers to choose the best
path for data from source to
destination. A routing
protocol functions includes
the following:
– Provides processes for
sharing route information
– Allows routers to
communicate with other
routers to update and
maintain the routing tables
• Eg:RIP, IGRP, OSPF, EIGRP,
BGP
Routed vs. Routing protocol

c ols ed
o t
prot rou ets
ting how pack
u
Ro rmine route
te s
de tocol
pro

Path Determination

• Path determination enables a router to compare the

destination address to the available routes in its
routing table, and to select the best path.
• The router uses path determination to decide which
port an incoming packet should be sent out of to
travel on to its destination.
Routing Tables

• Routing tables contain the information of a route to

forward data packets across connected networks :
– Protocol type
– Destination/next-hop associations
– Route metric and routing protocol reliability
– Outbound interfaces

Routing Algorithms

• Routing protocols often have one or more of the

following design goals:
– Optimization
– Simplicity and low overhead
– Robustness and stability
– Flexibility
– Rapid convergence
Routing Metrics
• Metrics can be based on a single characteristic of a path, or
can be calculated based on several characteristics. The
following are the metrics that are most commonly used by
routing protocols:
– Bandwidth: The data capacity of a link
– Delay: The length of time required to move a packet along each link
– Load: The amount of activity on a network resource
– Reliability: Usually a reference to the error rate
– Hop count: The number of routers that a packet must travel through
before reaching its destination
– Ticks: delay on a data link using IBM PC clock ticks. One tick is
approximately 1/18 second.
– Cost: An arbitrary value, usually based on bandwidth, monetary
expense, or other measurement, that is assigned by a network
administrator.

IGP and EGP

• An autonomous system is a network or set of networks

under common administrative control.
• Two families of routing protocols are:
– Interior Gateway Protocols(IGPs): exchange routes within an autonomous
system. Eg: RIP, IGRP, OSPF, IS-IS…
– Exterior Gateway Protocols(EGPs): exchange routes between
autonomous systems. Eg: BGP
Link state and distance vector
• Distance-Vector Protocols (RIP, IGRP, EIGRP):
– View network topology from neighbor’s perspective.
– Add distance vectors from router to router.
– Frequent, periodic updates.
– Pass copy of routing tables to neighbor routers.
• Link State Protocols (OSPF, IS - IS):
– Gets common view of entire network topology.
– Calculates the shortest path to other routers.
– Event-triggered updates, respond quickly to network changes .
– Passes link state advertisement, known as link-state refreshes,
to other routers.

Distance vector routing

Link state routing

The Mechanics of Subnetting

Why we need to divide network?

• Network administrators sometimes need to divide

networks, especially large ones, into smaller networks:
– Reduce the size of a broadcast domain.
– Support basic network security.
– Implement the hierarchical managements.
• So we need more network addresses for your network.
But I want the outside networks see our network as a
single network.

Subnetting
• Subnetworks are smaller divisions of network.
• To create a subnet address, a network administrator borrows
bits from the original host portion and designates them as the
subnet field.

How ?
By using subnet
mask
Subnet mask

• “Extended Network Prefix”.

• Determines which part of an IP address is the
network field and which part is the host field.
• 32 bits long.
• Divided into four octets.
• Network and Subnet portions all 1’s.
• Host portions all 0’s.

Default subnet mask: Example

• 192.168.2.100 / 255.255.255.0.
• 11000000.10101000.00000010.01100100.
• 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.
• 11000000.10101000.00000010.01100100.
• Class C network:
– 24 bits for network portion.
– 0 bits for subnet portion.
– 8 bits for host portion.
• Subnet address: 192.168.2.0
Subnet mask: Example

• 172.16.65.100 / 255.255.240.0.
• 10101100.00010000.01000001.01100100.
• 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000.
• 10101100.00010000.01000001.01100100.
• Class B network:
– 16 bits for network portion.
– 4 bits for subnet portion.
– 12 bits for host portion.
• Subnet address: 172.16.64.0.

How many bits can I borrow?

• All of subnet bits are:
– 0 : reserved for network address.
– 1 : reserved for broadcast address.
• The minimum bits you can borrow is:
 2 bits.
• The maximum bits you can borrow is:
 Number of host bits -2 bits
• Slash mask is the sum total of all bits assigned to
the subnet field plus the fixed network bits. So
172.16.1.100 with subnet mask 255.255.240.0 may
be written as 172.16.1.100/20
Subnetting example

• Given network 172.16.0.0.

• We need 8 usable subnets and up to
1000 hosts on each subnet.

Calculating a subnet

1. Determine the class of network and

default subnet mask.
2. Determine how many bits to borrow.
Determine the subnet mask and the
actual number of subnets and hosts.
3. Determine the ranges of host address for
each subnet. Choose the subnets that
you want to use.
Calculating a subnet: STEP 1

• Determine the Class of network

xClass B
• Determine the default subnet mask
x255.255.0.0

Calculating a subnet: STEP 2

• Number of subnets <= 2n - 2 with n is
number of bits that are borrowed.
• Number of hosts <= 2m - 2 with m is number
of remaining bits.
• Determine how many bits to borrow from
the host portion from requirement:
– 8 subnets.
– 1000 hosts on each subnet.

• Choose n = 4:
– Number of possible subnets is:
24 - 2 = 14
– Number of possible hosts on each subnet is:
2(16-4) - 2 = 4094
Calculating a subnet: STEP 2 (Cont.)

xThe subnet mask: 255.255.240.0.

Calculating a subnet: STEP 3 (Cont.)

• Determine the subnets from 4 borrowed
bits from the host portion (last 2 bytes):
• 1st subnet: .00000000.00000000
• 2nd subnet: .00010000.00000000
• 3rd subnet: .00100000.00000000
• …
• 15th subnet: .11110000.00000000
Calculating a subnet: STEP 3 (Cont.)
N Sub-network Broadcast Use
Possible host address
o address address ?
0 172.16.0.0 172.16.0.1 – 172.16.15.254 172.16.15.255 N

1 172.16.16.0 172.16.16.1 – 172.16.31.254 172.16.31.255 Y

2 172.16.32.0 172.16.32.1 – 172.16.47.254 172.16.47.255 Y

.. .. .. .. ..

.. .. .. .. ..
13 172.16.208.0 172.16.208.1 – 172.16.223.254 172.16.223.255 Y
14 172.16.224.0 172.16.224.1 – 172.16.239.254 172.16.239.255 Y
15 172.16.240.0 172.16.240.1 – 172.16.255.254 172.16.255.255 N

Calculating a subnet: STEP 3 (Cont.)

• Using subnets No.1 to No.8.

• Assign IP addresses to hosts and
interfaces on each network. IP address
configuration.
Lab Companion

• 10.3.5b Subnetting a Class A Network

• 10.3.5c Subnetting a Class B Network
• 10.3.5d Subnetting a Class C Network

Summary

• Router protocol
• Connection-oriented vs. connectionless
• Process in router
• IP packet structure
• Routing protocol and routing table
• Routing algorithm and metrics
• Routing categories
• Subnetting and calculate subnetworks
 Module 10
TCP/IP Application and Transport

Objectives

• Functions of the TCP/IP transport layer

• TCP concepts and processes
• TCP/IP application layer
 TCP/IP Transport Layer

Why we need a transport layer?

• Layer 1 allows bit streams to be created

and to travel.
• Layer 2 packages those data packets into
frames to be converted to bit streams and
makes data-link delivery possible.
• Layer 3 packages data from upper layers in
packets and makes routing and network
delivery possible.

But
Butthey
theymade
madeno noprovision
provisionfor
forassuring
assuring
our
ourdata
datareliably
reliablytravels
travelsend-to-end
end-to-endacross
across
the
thevast
vastnetwork
networkpath.
path.
Introduction to transport layer
• The transport layer data stream is a logical
connection between the endpoints of a network.
• Its primary duties are to transport and regulate the
flow of information from source to destination
reliably and accurately.
• Transport services include the following basic
services:
– Segmentation of upper-layer application data
– Establishment of end-to-end operations
– Transport of segments from one end host to another end host
– Flow control provided by sliding windows
– Reliability provided by sequence numbers and
acknowledgments

Flow Control

• Avoids the problem of a host at one side of

the connection overflowing the buffers in the
host at the other side.
• The two hosts then establish a data-transfer
rate that is agreeable to both.
• Ensures the integrity of the data
Session Establishment

• Multiple applications can share the same transport

connection in the OSI reference model.
• Different applications can send data segments on a first-
come, first-served basis. This is referred to as the
multiplexing of upper-layer conversations.

TCP and UDP

• The emphasis of this curriculum is on

TCP/IP Ethernet networks.
• The TCP/IP protocol of the OSI model Layer
4 (transport layer) has two protocols - TCP
and UDP.
TCP/IP Protocol Stack

Port

7 00
C -1
RF

• Both TCP and UDP use port (or socket)

numbers to pass information to the upper
layers.
Range of ports
• 2 bytes: 0 – 65535.
– Numbers below 255 : for public applications.
– Numbers from 255 - 1023 : assigned to companies
for marketable applications.
– Numbers above 1023 : are unregulated.
• End systems use port numbers to select
proper applications.
• Originating source port numbers are
dynamically assigned by the source host;
usually, it is a number larger than 1023.

TCP
• TCP supplies a virtual circuit between end-user
applications. These are its characteristics:
– connection-oriented.
– reliable.
– divides outgoing messages into segments.
– reassembles messages at the destination station.
– re-sends anything not received.
• Protocols that use TCP include FTP, SMTP, HTTP,
Telnet
TCP Header format

6 1
7
F C-
R

• Protocol that provides reliable full-duplex

data transmission.

TCP Header format: Port number

•• Source
Source Port
Port 16
16 bits.
bits.
•• Destination
Destination Port
Port 16
16 bits.
bits.
TCP Header format: Sequence

•• Sequence
Sequence Number:
Number: 32
32 bits
bits
–– The
The sequence
sequence number
number of of the
the
first
first data
data octet
octet in
in this
this segment
segment
(except
(except when
when SYN
SYN is is present).
present).

TCP Header format: Acknowledgment

•• Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment Number:
Number: 32
32 bits
bits
–– This
This field
field contains
contains the
the value
value ofof the
the
next
next sequence
sequence number
number the
the sender
sender of of
the
the segment
segment is is expecting
expecting to
to receive.
receive.
TCP Header format: Code bits

•• Control
Control Bits:
Bits: 88 bits
bits
–– ACK:
ACK: Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment fieldfield significant
significant
–– RST:
RST: Reset
Reset the
the connection
connection
–– SYN:
SYN: Synchronize
Synchronize sequence
sequence numbers
numbers
–– FIN:
FIN: No
No more
more data
data from
from sender
sender

TCP Header format: Window

•• Window:
Window: 16
16 bits
bits
–– The
The number
number ofof data
data octets
octets beginning
beginning
with
with the
the one
one indicated
indicated inin the
the
acknowledgment
acknowledgment field field which
which the the sender
sender
of
of this
this segment
segment isis willing
willing to to accept.
accept.
Three-way handshake

TCP: Simple acknowledgment

TCP: Sliding window acknowledgment

TCP: Sequence and acknowledgment

UDP

• UDP transports data unreliably between hosts.

Following are the characteristics:
– Connectionless.
– Unreliable.
– Transmit messages (called user datagrams).
– Provides no software checking for message delivery
(unreliable).
– Does not reassemble incoming messages.
– Uses no acknowledgements.
• Protocols that use include TFTP, SNMP, DHCP, DNS

UDP Header format

6 8
C -7
RF

• UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges

datagrams, without acknowledgments or
guaranteed delivery.
 TCP/IP Application Layer

Application Layer: TCP/IP vs. OSI

• The session and presentation layers from the

OSI model were bundled into the application
layer of the TCP model.
• This means that issues of representation,
encoding, and dialog control are handled in the
application layer rather than in separate lower
layers as in the OSI model.
Session: Functions

Presentation: Functions
TCP/IP Application Layer
• Handles high-level
protocols, issues of
representation, encoding,
and dialog control.
• The TCP/IP combines all
application-related issues
into one layer, and assures
this data is properly
packaged for the next layer.
– FTP, HTTP, SMTP, DNS,
SNMP ...
– Format of data, data
structure, encode …
– Dialog control, session
management …

Interfaces
• Direct network application:
– The application layer provides a direct interface for the rest of
the OSI model by using network applications.
– Client server: WEB, FTP, Mail
• Indirect network application:
– The application layer provides an indirect interface for the rest
of the OSI model by using standalone applications.
– The redirector directs requests from local computer to the
proper network resources. Applications on client never have to
recognize the network.
– Redirector: network driver, network printer
Client-Server application

•• The
The client
client side
side is
is located
located on
on the
the local
local
computer
computer and
and isis the
the requestor
requestor of
of the
the
services.
services.
•• The
The server
server side
side is
is located
located on
on aa remote
remote
computer
computer and
and provides
provides services
services inin
response
response toto the
the client’s
client’s requests.
requests.

Network driver

•• The
The applications
applications on
on the
the client
client never
never have
have
to
to recognize
recognize the
the network.
network.
•• Redirectors
Redirectors expand
expand the
the capabilities
capabilities of
of
non-network
non-network software.
software.
Make and Break a connection

• The connection to the server was

maintained only long enough to process
the transaction.
– Example : WWW, E-mail
• The connection to the server was
maintained until the user determines that
he/she has finished.
– Example : FTP, Telnet

DNS

• The Domain Name System (DNS) is a system

used on the Internet for translating names of
domains and their publicly advertised network
nodes into IP addresses.
• A domain is a group of computers that are
associated by their geographical location or
their business type.
• The DNS system is set up in a hierarchy that
creates different levels of DNS servers.
• Eg: http://www.cdit.com.vn/itc/
DNS: System

..

com
com edu
edu gov
gov vn
vn frfr uk
uk

vnn
vnn com
com edu
edu gov
gov

DNS: Resolve www.yahoo.com

Request
Request ..
Reply
Reply

vn
vn Address
Address com
com
of
ofcom
com
server
server
Address
Addressof of
yahoo.com
yahoo.com
vnn
vnn server
server yahoo
yahoo
Address
Addressof
of
www.yahoo.com Address
Addressof
of
www.yahoo.com
www.yahoo.com
www.yahoo.com
FTP

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a reliable,

connection-oriented service that uses TCP to
transfer files between systems that support FTP.
• When files are copied from a server, FTP first
establishes a control connection between the
client and the server. Then a second connection
is established, which is a link between the
computers through which the data is
transferred.

TFTP
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a
connectionless service that uses UDP.
• TFTP is designed to be small and easy to
implement.
• TFTP is used on the router to transfer
configuration files and Cisco IOS images
and to transfer files between systems that
support TFTP.
• TFTP can read, write, or mail files to or from
a remote server but it cannot list directories
and currently has no provisions for user
authentication.
HTTP

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) works with the

World Wide Web, which is the fastest growing and most
used part of the Internet.
• A Web browser is a client-server application, which
means that it requires both a client and a server
component in order to function.
• A Web browser presents data in multimedia formats. A
hyperlink is an object, word, phrase, or picture, on a
Web page. When that hyperlink is clicked, it directs the
browser to a new Web page.
• The Web page contains, often hidden within its HTML
description, an address location known as a Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).

Telnet

• Telnet client software provides the ability to

login to a remote Internet host that is running a
Telnet server application and then to execute
commands from the command line.
• Telnet works at the application layer of the
TCP/IP model. Therefore, Telnet works at the top
three layers of the OSI model. The application
layer deals with commands. The presentation
layer handles formatting, usually ASCII. The
session layer transmits.
SMTP
• Email servers communicate
with each other using the
Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) to send
and receive mail. The SMTP
protocol transports email
messages in ASCII format
using TCP.
• The most popular mail
client protocols are POP3
and IMAP4, which both use
TCP to transport data.
• A good way to test if a mail
server is reachable is to
Telnet to the SMTP port (25)
or to the POP3 port (110).

SNMP

• The Simple Network

Management Protocol (SNMP)
is an application layer protocol
that facilitates the exchange of
management information
between network devices.
• An SNMP managed network
consists of the following:
– Network management
system (NMS)
– Managed device
– Agents