Scientific Method of Research

• 1. Direct observation of phenomena

• 2. Clearly defined variables, methods, and
procedures
• Empirically testable hypotheses
• The ability to rule out rival hypotheses
• Statistical rather than linguistic justification of
conclusions
• The self-correcting process
• The researcher:
• Encounters a curiosity, doubt, suspicion or
obstacle.
• Struggles to state the problem
• Proposes a hypothesis
• Deduce outcomes or consequences of the
hypothesis
• Formulates several rival hypotheses
• Conducts a crucial empirical test
• Draws a conclusion
• Feeds information back into the original problem
 Two ways to communicate
• Exposition
• Argument

• Two types of argument:

• Deduction
• Induction
 Deduction
• Deduction is an argument that purports to be
conclusive- the conclusion must necessarily
follow from the reasons given
• For a deduction to be correct, it must be both
true and valid:
• Premises(reasons) given must agree with the
real world(true)
• The conclusion must follow from the
premises(valid)
 Induction
• One draws a conclusion from one or more
particular facts or pieces of information. The
conclusion explains the facts and the facts
support the conclusion
 Combining Induction and Deduction

• Induction occurs when we observe a fact and

ask, “Why is this?”
• Deduction is the process by which we test
whether the hypothesis is capable of
explaining the fact
• You promote a product but sales don’t increase
• You ask “Why did’nt sales increase?”
• You infer a conclusion: The promotion was poorly
executed
• You use this hypothesis to conclude that sales will
not increase during a poorly executed promotion.
• You deduce that a well-executed promotion will
increase sales
• You run an effective promotion and sales increase
 Concepts
A concept is generally accepted collection of
meanings or characteristics associated with
certain events, objects, conditions, situations
or behaviors.
Sources of concepts:
Common
Uncommon or a newly advances idea
* The challenge is to develop concepts that
others understand
 Constructs
• Abstract concepts are called constructs
• A construct is an image or abstract idea
specifically invented for a given research and/
or theory building purpose
 Definitions

• Dictionary definitions
• Operational definitions
Operational definitions may vary, depending on
your purpose and the way you choose to
measure them.
 Variables

• A variable is a symbol of an event, act,

characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be
measured and to which we can assign
categorical values.
• Independent (predictor, stimulus, cause)
• Dependent (criterion, response,effect)
• Moderating Variables
• A MV is a second independent variable that is
included because it is believed to have a
significant contributory or contingent effect on
the originally slated IV-DV relationship.
• Extraneous Variables (Control variable)
• Intervening Variable(IVV): the factor which
theoretically affects the observed phenomenon
but can not be seen, measured or manipulated:
its effect must be inferred from the effects of
the IV and MV on DV
• With new customers (?), a switch to commission
from a salary compensation system (?) will lead to
increased sales productivity (?) per worker,
especially among young workers(?)
• The switch to a commission system(?) will lead to
higher sales productivity (?) by increasing overall
compensation(?)
• A promotion campaign (?) will increase savings
activity, especially when free prizes are offered(?),
but chiefly among small savers(?). The results
come from enhancing the motivation to save(?)
 Propositions and Hypotheses
• Proposition: A statement about observable
phenomena (concepts) that may be judged as
true or false.
• When a proposition is formulated for
empirical testing, it is called hypothesis.
• Hypotheses may also be described in which
we assign variables to cases.
• Descriptive Hypothesis: They state the
existence, size, form, or distribution of some
variable
• Format:
• Descriptive hypothesis format: In Delhi, our
potato chip market stands at 13%
• Research question format: What is the market
share for our potato chips in Delhi?
• Relational Hypotheses
• 1. Correlational Hypotheses: state that the
variables occur together without implying that
one causes the other.
• 2. Explanatory(Causal) Hypotheses: there is an
implication that the existence of a change in
one variable causes the other to change.
 The Role of hypotheses
• Guides the direction of the study
• Identifies facts that are relevant and those
that are not
• Suggests which form of research design is
likely to be most appropriate
• Provides framework for organizing the
conclusions that result
• Q.1. You observe the following condition: “
our female sales representatives have lower
customer defections than do our males sales
representatives:.
• 1. Propose the concepts and constructs you
might use to study this phenomenon.
• 2. How might any of these concepts and/ or
constructs be related to explanatory
hypotheses?