INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION USING PLC

ABSTRACT

This project is mainly used to find and rectify the faults of the
POWER station by using PLC. Here we are taken seven types of faults, and they are
1. OVER VOLTAGE
2. UNDER VOLTAGE
3. UNBALANCED VOLTAGE
4. SINGLE PHASING
5. BLOCKED ROTOR
6. OVER LOAD
7. NO FAULT( Initial Condition)
Faults other than blocked rotor can be rectified automatically by
using PLC, i.e., over voltage, under voltage, unbalanced voltage, single phasing, over
load and initial condition can be rectified automatically by using PLC,i.e., PLC giving
signal to the relay driver unit, if there is any fault relay will cut off the supply from the
IM, but there is no any possibility in case of blocked rotor faults, if the blocked rotor fault
occurs PLC showing there is a blocked rotor faults in IM, then alarm will be on then we
can rectify the faults manually.
 INTRODUCTION

Now many techniques are used to find and rectify the faults, here we
are using PLC technique this method is very faster and precise than the other
techniques and also it is easy to implemented.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Three
Control V&I
Phase IM
Unit Measurement
Supply

PLC
TYPES OF FAULTS

 OVER VOLTAGE

 UNDER VOLTAGE

 UNBALANCED VOLTAGE

 SINGLE PHASING

 BLOCKED ROTOR

 OVER LOAD

 NO FAULT( Initial Condition)

CONTROL UNIT

• Control unit consist of relay unit(6v electromagnetic relay).

• According to the voltage & current value ,the relay will operate.

• If ‘v’&‘I’ is less than the specified value,then the relay will be idle.

• If ‘v’&‘I’ is more than the specified value,then the relay will operate and cut- off
the three phase induction motor from the supply.

V AND I MEASUREMENT UNIT

• Voltage is measured by using POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER.

• This voltage is stepped-down according to the PIC specification.

• Current is measured by using CURRENT TRANSFORMER.

• This current is converted according to the PIC specification.

3.1 DELTA PLC

3.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PLC

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), also referred to as

programmable controllers, are in the computer family. They are used in
commercial and industrial applications. It was called “Sequence
Controller” beforeIt was named “Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)” by
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacture Association) in 1978 and defined
as electronic equipment. The operation of PLC is in the following:

Step 1. Read the external input signal, such as the status of keypad,
sensor, switch and pulse.

Step 2. Using microprocessor to execute the calculations of logic,

sequence, timer, counter and formula according to the status and the
value of the input signal read in the step 1 and pre-write programs saved
inner to get the Corresponding output signal, such as open or close of
relay, operation of controlled machine or procedure to control automatic
machine or procedure of manufacture. PLC also can be used to maintain
and adjust of production program by editing or modifying the peripheral
equipments (personal
Computer/handheld programming panel). The common program language
of PLC is ladder diagram.
There are stronger functions in PLC with the development and application
requirements of electronic technology, such as position control, network
and etc. Output/Input signals are DI (Digital Input), AI (Analog Input), PI
(Pulse Input), DO (Digital Output), AO (Analog Output) and PO (Pulse
Output). Thus PLC plays an important role in the feature industry.

3.1.2 BASIC PLC OPERATION

PLC consists of input modules or points, a central processing unit(CPU)

and output points

Fig 1.BASIC COMPONENTS OF PLC

3.1.3 PARTS OF PLC

3.1.3.1. CPU

The central processing unit (CPU) is a microprocessor system which

contains the system memory and is the PLC’s decision making unit. The
CPU monitors the inputs and makes decisions based on instructions held
in the program memory. The CPU performs relay, counting, timing, data
comparison, and sequential operations
Figure 2. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
3.1.3.2. ANALOG INPUTS

An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous signal. Typical

analog inputs may vary from 0 to 20 milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to
10 volts. In the following example, a level transmitter monitors the level of
liquid in a tank. Depending on the level transmitter, the signal to the PLC
can either increase or decrease as the level increases or decreases.

FIG.3ANALOG INPUT
3.1.3.3. DIGITAL INPUTS

A discrete input, also referred to as a digital input, is an input that is either

in an
ON or OFF condition.

Fig 4 DIGITAL INPUT

3.1.3.4. DISCRETE OUTPUTS

A discrete output is an output that is either in an ON or OFF condition.

Solenoids, contactor coils, and lamps are examples of actuator devices
connected to discrete outputs. Discrete outputs may also be referred to as
digital outputs. In the following example, a lamp can be turned on or off by
the PLC output it is connected to.

Fig 5. DISCRETE OUTPUTS

3.1.3.5. ANALOG OUTPUTS

An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous signal. The

output may be as simple as a 0-10 VDC level that drives an analog meter.
Examples of analog meter outputs are speed, weight, and temperature.
The output signal may also be used on more complex applications such
as a current-to pneumatic transducer that controls an air-operated flow-
control valve.

Fig 6. ANALOG OUTPUT

3.1.2 BASIC INNER EQUIPMENTS OF THE PLC

TABLE 1:- BASIC INNER EQUIPMENTS OF THE PLC

Input Input relay is the basic storage unit of internal

memory that corresponds to external input point
relay
(it is the terminal that used to connect to external
input switch and receive external input signal).
Input signal from external will decide it to display
0 or 1. You couldn’t change the state of input
relay by program design or forced ON/OFF via
HPP. The contacts (contact a, b) can be used
unlimitedly. If there is no input signal, the
corresponding input relay could be empty and
can’t beused with other functions.
Equipment indication method: X0, X1,…X7, X10,
X11,…. The symbol of equipment is X and the
number uses octal. There are numeric indications
of input point on MPU and expansion unit.
Output Output relay is the basic storage unit of internal
memory that corresponds to external output point
relay
(it is used to connect to external load). It can be
driven by input relay contact, the contact of other
internal equipment and itself contact. It uses a
normally open contact to connect to external load
and other contacts can be used unlimitedly as
input contacts. It doesn’t have the corresponding
output relay, if need, it can be used as internal
relay.
Equipment indication: Y0, Y1,…Y7, Y10, Y11,
…. . The symbol of equipment is Y and the
number uses octal. There are numeric indications
of output point on MPU and expansion unit.
Internal The internal relay doesn’t connect directly to
outside. It is an auxiliary relay in PLC. Its function
relay
 is the same as the auxiliary relay in electric
control circuit. Each auxiliary relay has the
corresponding basic unit. It can be driven by the
contact of input relay, output relay or other
internal equipment. Its contacts can be used
unlimitedly. Internal auxiliary relay can’t output
directly, it should output with output point.
Equipment indication: M0, M1,…, M4, M5. The
symbol of equipment is M and the number uses
decimal number system.
STEP DVP PLC provides input method for controlling
program of step actions. It is very easy to write
control program by using the conversion of
control step S of command STL. If there is no
step program in the program, step point S could
be used as internal relay M or alarm point.
Equipment indication: S0, S1,…S1023. The
symbol of equipment is S and the number uses
decimal.
Timer Timer is used to control time. There are coil,
contact and timer storage. When coil is ON, its
contact will act (contact a is close, contact b is
open) when attaining desired time. The time value
of timer is set by settings and each timer has its
regular period. User sets the timer value and
each timer has its timing period. Once the coil is
OFF, the contact won’t act (contact a is open and
contact b is close) and the timer will be set to
zero.
Equipment indication: T0, T1,…,T255. The
symbol of equipment is T and the number uses
decimal system. The different number range
corresponds with the different timing period.
Counter Counter is used to count. It needs to set counter
before using counter (i.e. the pulse of counter).
There are coil, contacts and storage unit of
counter in counter. When coil is form OFF to ON,
that means input a pulse in counter and the
counter should add 1. There are 16-bit, 32-bit and
high-speed counter for user to use.
Equipment indication: C0, C1,…,C255. The
symbol of equipment is C and the number uses
decimal.
Data PLC needs to handle data and operation when
controlling each order, timer value and counter
register
value. The data register is used to store data or
parameters. It stores 16-bit binary number, i.e. a
word, in each register. It uses two continuous
number of data register to store double words
Equipment indication: D0, D1,…,D9,999. The
symbol of equipment is D and the number uses
decimal..
File The file register can be used to store data or
parameter when the register that PLC needs is
register
not enough during handling data and parameter.
It can store 16-bit binary number, i.e. a word, in
each file register. It uses two continuous number
of file register to handle double word. There are
1600 file registers for SA/SX/SC series and
10000 file registers for EH series. There is not the
real equipment number for file register, thus it
needs to execute READ/WRITE of file Register
via commands API148 MEMR, API149 MEMW or
the peripheral equipment HPP and WPLSoft.
Equipment indication: K0~K9,999. There is no
equipment symbol and uses decimal number for
number.
Index Index register E and F are 16-bit data register just
the same as general data register. It can be wrote
register
and read freely and has the function of index
indication to use for character device, bit device
and constants.
Equipment indication: E0~E7, F0~F7. The
symbols of equipment are E, F and the number
uses decimal.
3.1.5 PLC SCAN

Fig7. PLC SCAN CYCLE

3.1.5.1 READING INPUT – Reads input and updates process input. The
input can be either in analog or digital form

3.1.5.2. EXECUTE PROGRAM – executes user program once. The

program is in the form of ladder logic diagram

3.1.5.3. CHECKS COMMUNICATION – Takes care of the system

processes (such as communication with other PLC’s)

3.1.5.4. UPDATES OUTPUT – The PLC updates the output according to

the execution of the program
3.1.6 THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LADDER DIAGRAM

Ladder diagram is an automatic control diagram language that

developed during World War II. At first, it just has basic components, such
as A contact (normally open), B contact (normally close), output coil, timer,
counter and etc. (The power panel is made up of these basic components)
It has more functions, differential contact, latched coil and the application
commands, add, minus, multiply and divide calculation, that traditional
power panel can’t make since PLC is developed.

The working principles of the traditional Ladder Diagram and the PLC
Ladder Diagram are similar to each other; the only difference is that the
symbols for the traditional ladder diagram are expressed in the format that
are close to its original substance, while those for the PLC ladder diagram
employ the symbols that are more explicit when being used in computers
or data sheets.
In the Ladder Diagram Logics, it could be divided into the Combination
Logics and the Sequential Logics, and is described as follows:
 3.1.6.1. Combination Logics:

The following example is the combination logics that show in traditional

diagram and PLC ladder diagram separately.

Fig8.Traditional ladder diagram

Fig9.PLC ladder diagram

3.1.6.2. Sequential logics:

The sequential logics are a type of circuit that possesses the “Draw-Back”
structure, which is to draw back the circuit’s output result and has it serve
as the input condition. Thus, under the same input condition, different
output results will be generated in accordance with previous conditions
and motions with different orders.
The following example is the sequential logics that show in traditional
diagram and PLC ladder diagram separately
Table 1:BASIC INSTRUCTIONS OF DELTA PLC
.
Traditional Ladder Diagram

PIC MICRO CONTROLLER

INDUCTION MOTOR TESTS USING MATLAB/SIMULINK

With the advent of low-cost personal computers and various

easily accessible software packages, computer- aided teaching tools have come an
essential part of both classroom lectures and laboratory experiments in electrical
machinery education the computer models and simulations of induction motors, as
teaching tools, support the classroom teaching by enabling the instructor, through the
computer-generated graphics, to illustrate easily steady-state operation of the motor under
various loading conditions.

The computational tools as a part of laboratory experiments enhance laboratory

experience by providing students with the opportunity to verify the results of laboratory
experiments and compare them with those obtained by computer simulations. Such a
comparison opportunity helps students realize the limitations of hardware experiments
and, as a counterpoint, appreciate that computer models cannot substitute for actual
hardware experiments that might not exactly represent the operation of induction motors
because of some modeling assumptions.
Moreover, an undergraduate electric machinery course that
integrates up-to-date computer hardware and software tools in both lecture and laboratory
sections also meets the expectations of today’s students who want to use computers and
simulation tools in every aspects of a course, and thus, possibly attracts MORE
STUDENT Electrical machinery courses at the undergraduate level typically consist of
classroom and laboratory sections.

The classroom section covers the steady-state operation of the induction motor in which
the per-phase equivalent circuit is used to compute various motor quantities, such as input
current and power, power factor, developed torque, and efficiency.
The computations associated with the steady-state operation require the knowledge of
equivalent circuit parameters. These parameters are obtained by performing three tests,
namely dc, no-load, and blocked-rotor tests on the motor in a typical laboratory
experiment.

The laboratory section includes these tests and a load

experiment that allows students to become familiar with the induction motor operation
and to gain invaluable hardware and measurement experiences.

The authors’ experience while teaching induction motors at Drexel University,

Philadelphia, PA, indicates that students generally have difficulty when they come to the
laboratory to carry out these experiments even though the corresponding theory is
extensively covered in the classroom section with a detailed hand-out describing
laboratory facilities and the procedure of the experiments, given to them at least a week
before the laboratory. Students are not familiar with a laboratory.

Environment that contains large machines and relatively

complex measurement methods and devices as compared with other laboratories they
have been to before. The time constraints during the laboratory exercise are also a
difficult adjustment.

Ina usual two-hour laboratory section, students are required to setup and perform four
induction motor experiments, to take the necessary measurements, and to investigate
steady-state performance of the motor under various loading conditions.
Because of the time limitations, students often rush through the experiments in order to
finish them on time, which unfortunately prevents them from getting a true feeling of
motor operation and from appreciating what has been accomplished during the laboratory
practice.

Therefore, simulation tools must be developed for induction motor experiments to serve
as useful preparatory exercises before students come to the laboratory. The objective of
this paper is to present simulation models of these induction motor experiments in an
effort to design a computational laboratory The dc, no-load, and blocked-rotor simulation
models are developed as stand-alone applications using MATLAB/Simulink[8] and
Power System Blocked.

For the load experiment, students are required to write a computer program using MAT
Lab’s M-file programming for the per-phase equivalent circuit of the induction motor to
compute operating quantities.
INDUCTION MOTOR TESTS

The steady-state operating characteristics of a three-phase

induction motor are often investigated using a per-phase equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig. In this circuit, and represent stator resistance and leakage reactance, respectively;and
denote the rotor resistance and leakage reactance referred to the stator, respectively;
resistance stands for core losses; represents magnetizing reactance; and denotes the slip.
The equivalent circuit is used to facilitate the computation of various operating quantities,
such as stator current, input power, losses, induced torque, and efficiency.

When power aspects of the operation need to be emphasized, the shunt resistance is
usually neglected; the core losses can be included in efficiency calculations along with
the friction, windage, and stray losses.

The parameters of the equivalent circuit can be obtained from the dc, no-load, and
blocked-rotor tests. In the following, both experimental setup and Simulink/PSB models
of each test are described.
The PSB is a useful software package to develop
simulation models for power system applications in the MATLAB/Simulink
environment. With its graphical user interface and extensive library, it provides power
engineers and researchers with a modern and interactive design tool to build simulation
models rapidly and easily.

MATLAB and Simulink/PSB have been widely used by educators to enhance teaching of
transient and steady-state characteristics of induction machines. Of course, other
commercial software packages, such as Maple and MathCAD, are commonly used in
electrical engineering education with their advantages and disadvantages .
The reason that MATLAB with its toolboxes was selected is that it is the main software
package used in almost all undergraduate courses in the authors’ institutions as a
computation tool to reinforce electrical engineering education.

Therefore, students can easily access to MATLAB, and they already have the basic
programming skills to use the given Simulink models and to write computer programs
when required before coming to the machinery class.
No-Load Test

The no-load test on an induction motor is conducted to measure

the rotational losses of the motor and to determine some of its equivalent circuit
parameters. In this test, a rated, balanced ac voltage at a rated frequency is applied to the
stator while it is running at no load, and input power, voltage, and phase currents are
measured at the no-load condition.

Fig illustrates the experimental setup of the no-load test conducted at Drexel University’s
IPSL. Fig shows the Simulink/PSB realization of the no-load test, where a three-phase
balanced Y-connected ac source whose per-phase voltage is 120 V/60 Hz is applied to the
stator terminal of the induction motor.

The electrical inputs of the induction motor block are the three electrical connections of
the stator (terminals A-B-C), while the electrical outputs (terminals a-b-c) are the three
electrical connections of the rotor, which is short-circuited. The input block (terminal
Tm) is the mechanical torque at the machine’s shaft.

This torque is set to be zero to simulate the no-load condition.

The equivalent circuit parameters obtained from experimental
data and the number of poles is specified using the induction motor-block dialogue box.
Three current measurement blocks are used to measure the instantaneous current of each
phase.

The output of each current measurement block is connected to a root-mean-square (rms)

block, called signal rms, to determine the rms value of each phase current. This block
computes the rms value of the input signal over a running window of the one cycle of the
specified fundamental frequency (60 Hz). Three display boxes read these rms values.
Similarly, a voltage measurement block, an rms block, and a display box are used to
measure the phase A voltage.
The outputs of the voltage measurement block and the current measurement block of
phase A are connected to a power measurement block, called the active and reactive
power measurement, that computes the active power and reactive power.

The output of this block is connected to a scope and to a display block to obtain the
waveforms and the values of and. The output terminal of the induction motor block
(terminal m-SI) allows for the measurement of several variables, such as speed and
electrical torque.
A machine measurement block is used to get the mechanical speed. Through the scope
and display block, the waveform and the steady-state value of the rotor speed can easily
be measured in rad per second, or the corresponding data can be written to MATLAB’s
workspace to make use of other graphical tools available in MATLAB. Fig shows the
evolution of the mechanical speed during the no-load simulation.
The rotor speed reaches its steady-state value (188.5 rad/s for
the tested motor) quickly, indicating that MATLAB/Simulink is an appropriate tool to
investigate steady-state behavior of induction motors as well.

One can see that there are some differences between the hardware setup and
Simulink/PSB model. For example, the per-phase-based real and reactive input power is
measured in the simulation model, while in the experiment the total three-phase real input
power is measured. However, this difference is not significant since under the three-phase
balanced operation; computations are usually completed using the per-phase quantities.

Similarly, the per-phase voltage is measured in the simulation, as opposed to the line-to-
line voltages measured in the hardware experiment. These measurements enable the
approximate computation of the sum of the magnetizing reactance and the stator
leakage reactance as follows.
where is the per-phase voltage , is the phase measured reactive power, and is the average
phase current measured . Using measured input power and the stator resistance obtained
from the dc test, rotational losses of the motor given by the sum of the friction, windage,
and core losses can be found, as follows:

Blocked-Rotor Test
 The blocked-rotor test on an induction motor is performed to
determine some of its equivalent circuit parameters. In this test, the rotor of the induction
motor is blocked, and a reduced voltage is applied to the stator terminals so that the rated
current flows through the stator windings.
The input power, voltage, and current are measured. For some design-class induction
motors, this test is conducted under a test frequency, usually less than the normal
operating frequency so as to evaluate the rotor resistance appropriately.

The experimental setup of the blocked-rotor test is not shown here since it is similar to
that of the no-load test shown in Fig. The only difference is that a synchronous generator
coupled with a dc motor and auto transformer were installed in the circuit in order to
perform the blocked-rotor test at various frequencies and to control input voltage to the
stator. Fig. shows the Simulink/PSB model of the blocked-rotor test.
This model is almost the same as that of the no-load test shown
in Fig. However, there is a slight difference between the two models.

In the blocked-rotor model, the inertia of the induction motor is set to infinity in order to
simulate the blocked-rotor condition. Several measurements blocks are used to measure
the current, voltage, and active/reactive powers.

The mechanical torque to the rotor is set to an arbitrary nonzero value [in this case, 5
Newton-meter (N.m)], which will not affect the
blocked-rotor condition since the inertia isinfinite. Because of the infinite inertia, rotor
speed remains at zero during the blocked-rotor simulation. Various test frequencies for
blocked-rotor simulation can be easily achieved by changing the frequencies of the
-connected voltage sources rather than using a synchronous generator coupled with a dc
motor. The measurement data from the blocked rotor test enables one to determine
approximately the blocked-rotor resistance and reactance at the test frequency
where is the blocked-rotor resistance, and is the blocked-rotor reactance at the test
frequency.

If the test frequency is different from the rated frequency, one can compute the total
equivalent reactance at the normal operating frequency as follows since the reactance is
directly proportional to the frequency.

When the three tests are completed, equivalent circuit parameters can easily be computed.
1) The stator resistance is directly computed from the dc test.
2) The no-load test gives the sum of the magnetizing reactance and the stator leakage
reactance .
3) The blocked-rotor test gives that of the stator and rotor leakage reactance. One needs
to refer to test codes to find out the empirical proportions for stator and leakage reactance
given for three-phase induction motors by class.When the classification of the motor is
not known, one assumes that. The magnetization reactance can now be evaluated using,
as follows:
As for the rotor resistance , a better approximation is required since it has a more
significant effect on the motor performance when compared with the other circuit
parameters.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS OF THE INDUCTION

MOTOR TESTED

the equivalent circuit under blocked-rotor condition, the following expression achieves
the desired approximation
COMPARISON OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

To illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed simulation

models, one compares the equivalent circuit parameters determined by simulations with
those obtained from hardware experiments. The motors used for this purpose are the
three-phase 60-Hz Y-connected, and the 5-Horse Power (HP) induction motors of 200-V
rating 1735 r/min located at Drexel University’s IPSL. A set of hardware experiments are
first performed (i.e., dc, no-load, and blocked-rotor tests) on four induction motors to
obtain appropriate equivalent circuit parameters for software simulations. The resulting
parameters are presented in Table I.

SIMULATION RESULTS OF THE INDUCTION MOTOR

TESTS FOR MOTOR
For each induction motor tested the Simulink/PSB models of the dc, no-load, and
blocked-rotor tests were run. The simulation data of no-load and blocked-rotor tests for
motor 1 is shown in Table II, where various quantities, such as voltage, current, and
power required to compute equivalent circuit parameters, are presented.
The dc test simulation data for motor 1 is as follows: 12.66 V and 15.74 A. The
simulation data for the other three motors is similar to that of Motor 1 and, thus, is not
given here.Table III gives the equivalent circuit parameters computed, using the
simulation data and the corresponding errors relative to those obtained experimentally.

The error computations assume that equivalent circuit parameters determined

experimentally are accurate. The results indicate that relative errors are negligible, and
the proposed simulation models accurately predict equivalent circuit parameters.
The largest error occurs in the stator and rotor leakage reactances, since one assumes that
two reactances have equal contributions to the blocked-rotor reactance, which might not
be the real case.
POWER SUPPLY UNIT

5v Power Supply

C O N 1 1
D 1
LM 7805 +5v
1 4 - + 2 1 3
1 2 IN U 1 O U T
2 D B 106
R 1
A C In p u t

GND
C 9 330E
3

C 11
4 7 0 u F /2 5 V 2 C 1 0 0 .1 u F
D 2

100uF/16V
LE D
Almost all the electronic devices and circuits require a D.C, source for all the operation.
One form of D.C. source is batteries. But they are costly and require frequent
replacement. The easily available and most economical source is A.C. into a suitable
D.C. such a device is called power supply. The power supply consists of the following
the three sub divisions
1. Rectifier

2. Filter

3. Voltage regulator
RECTIFIER
A rectifier is a device which offers a low resistance to the
current in one direction and a high resistance in the opposite direction. Such a device is

capable of converting A.C. voltage into a pulsating D.C. voltage. The rectifier employs
one or more diodes. It may be either a vacuum diode or a semiconductor diode.
There are two types
1. Half wave rectifier

2. Full wave rectifier

3. Bridge rectifier

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier is a full wave rectifier. It consists of four

diodes , arranged in the form of a bridge . it utilizes the advantages of the full wave
rectifier and at the same time it eliminates the need for a centre tapped transformer. The
supply input and the rectified output are the two diagonally opposite terminals of the
bridge.
 During the positive half cycle, the secondary terminal A is
positive w.r.t. terminal B. now the diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and hence do
not conduct. The current flows from terminal A to terminal B through D1, load
resistance RL and the diode D3 and then through the secondary of the transformer.
During the negative half cycle, terminal B is positive w.r.t
point A. now diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and hence conduct. Diode D1 and D3
are reversed biased and hence do not conduct. The current flows from terminal B to
terminal A through diode D2, the load resistance RL and diode D4 and then through the
secondary of the transformer.
On both positive and negative half cycles of the A.C. input, the
current flows through the load resistance RL in the same direction. The polarity of the
voltage developed across RL is such that the end connected to the junction of the diodes
D1 and D2 will be positive.

ADVANTAGES

1. Centre tapped transformer is not necessary.

2. D.C. saturation of the transformer does not take place since the two currents flow
in the opposite direction through transformer secondary.

3. Transformer utilization factor is increased.

4. PIV rating across each diode is Vm.

DISADVANTAGES

1. The circuit requires a four diodes and hence additional voltage drop that reduce
the output voltage through the transformer secondary.
 2. It’s rarely used with thermionic diode value because of heater supply problem.

FILTER

Output from the rectifier unit having harmonic contents , so we can

provided the filter circuit, filter circuit is used to reduce the harmonics. Here we can use
the pi filter .pi filter consists of capacitance and inductance (i.e. two capacitance in
parallel and one inductance in series). These eliminates the harmonics from both voltage
and current signals.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulator is used to maintain the constant voltage with the

variation of the supply voltage and the load current, mainly we can use the two types of
voltage regulator they are
1. series voltage regulator
2. zener diode voltage regulator .

TEMPERATURE CIRCUIT
 +5V

R4
10K
R2
4 .7 K A D C _C H 0
R3 1K 1
2 Q1
3B C 5 4 7
R T1
10K

These temperature control circuit is mainly consists of

transistor and resistance, it is used to maintain the constant temperature with the variation
of passive circuit parameters.
TEMPERATURE SENSORS

A sensor is a device that converts a physical condition into an electrical

signal for use by the PLC. Sensors are connected to the input of a PLC.

The temperature sensor which we are used in our project to sense the
temperature of the coaches is LM 35

3.2.1. LM-35
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors,
whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade)
temperature.

The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors

calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant
voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling.

The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide
typical accuracies of -1/4ºC at room temperature and +3/4ºC over a full
-55ºC to 150ºC temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming and
calibration at the wafer level.

The LM35's low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent
calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy.
It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies.
As it draws only 60 µA from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less
than 0.1ºC in still air.
The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55ºC to a 150ºC temperature range,
while the LM35C is rated for a -40ºC to a110ºC range (-10ºC with
improved accuracy).

The LM35 series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor

packages ,while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available in
the plastic TO-92 transistor package.

The LM35D is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline

package and a plastic TO-202
3.3 BC-547

BC-547 is an NPN silicon planar epitaxial transistor which is used in AF

small signal amplifier stages and direct coupled circuits. The signals are
actually amplified so as to drive the relay circuit. The electromagnetic relay
which is being used in the delta PLC needs a strong current to drive it, so
to amplify the amount of current coming out of the PLC ,a driver amplifier
is used.
 3.4 Current transformer & Voltage transformer

3.4.1General Description

A current transformer is a type of "instrument transformer" that is

designed to provide a current in its secondary which is accurately proportional
to the current flowing in its primary.

Current transformers are designed to produce either an alternating current or

alternating voltage proportional to the current being measured. The current
transformers used with the Watt node transducers produce a 333 mV alternating
voltage when the rated current is measured (either 30A, or 50A). The OSI power
transducers employ CT's that produce 5V output at rated value.

Current transformers measure power flow and provide electrical inputs to power
transformers and instruments. Current transformers produce either an alternating
current or alternating voltage that is proportional to the measured current. There
are two basic types of current transformers: wound and toroidal. Wound current
transformers consist of an integral primary winding that is inserted in series with
the conductor that carries the measured current. Toroidal or donut-shaped
current transformers do not contain a primary winding. Instead, the wire that
carries the current is threaded through a window in the toroidal transformer.

Current transformers have many performance specifications, including primary

current, secondary current, insulation voltage, accuracy, and burden. Primary
current, the load of the current transformer, is the measured current.

Secondary current is the range of current outputs. Insulation voltage represents

the maximum insulation that current transformers provide when connected to a
power source. Accuracy is the degree of certainty with which the measured
current agrees with the ideal value.

Burden is the maximum load that devices can support while operating within their
accuracy ratings. Typically, burden is expressed in volt-amperes (VA), the
product of the voltage applied to a circuit and the current.
 4.1.1.Accuracy:

he accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors

including:

• Burden
• Burden class/saturation class
• Rating factor
• Load
• External electromagnetic fields
• Temperature and
• Physical configuration.
• The selected tap, for multi-ratio CT's
 3.4Voltage Transformer:

Voltage transformers (VT) or potential transformers (PT) are another

type of instrument transformer, used for metering and protection in
high-voltage circuits. They are designed to present negligible load to
the supply being measured and to have a precise voltage ratio to
accurately step down high voltages so that metering and protective
relay equipment can be operated at a lower potential. Typically the
secondary of a voltage transformer is rated for 69 V or 120 V at rated
primary voltage, to match the input ratings of protection relays.

The transformer winding high-voltage connection points are typically

labeled as H1, H2 (sometimes H0 if it is internally grounded) and X1,
X2 and sometimes an X3 tap may be present. Sometimes a second
isolated winding (Y1, Y2, Y3) may also be available on the same
voltage transformer. The high side (primary) may be connected
phase to ground or phase to phase. The low side (secondary) is
usually phase to ground.

The terminal identifications (H1, X1, Y1, etc.) are often referred to as
polarity. This applies to current transformers as well. At any instant
terminals with the same suffix numeral have the same polarity and
phase. Correct identification of terminals and wiring is essential for
proper operation of metering and protection relays.

While VTs were formerly used for all voltages greater than 240 V
primary, modern meters eliminate the need VTs for most secondary
service voltages. VTs are typically used in circuits where the system
voltage level is above 600 V. Modern meters eliminate the need of
VT's since the voltage remains constant and it is measured in the
incoming supply. This is mostly used in H.V.
 RMS TO DC CONVERSION (AD536A):

The AD536A is a complete monolithic integrated circuit that

performs true rms-to-dc conversion. It offers performance
comparable or superior to that of hybrid or modular units
costing much more.
The AD536A directly computes the true rms value of any
complex input waveform containing ac and dc components.
A crest factor compensation scheme allows measurements
with 1% error at crest factors up to 7.
The wide bandwidth of the device extends the measurement
capability to 300 kHz with less than 3 dB errors for signal
levels greater than 100 mV.
An important feature of the AD536A, not previously available
in rms converters, is an auxiliary dB output pin.
The logarithm of the rms output signal is brought out to a
separate pin to allow the dB conversion, with a useful
dynamic range of 60 dB.
Using an externally supplied reference current, the 0 dB
level can be conveniently set to correspond to any input
level from 0.1 V to 2 V rms.
The AD536A is laser trimmed to minimize input and output
offset voltage, to optimize positive and negative waveform
symmetry (dc reversal error), and to provide full-scale
accuracy at 7 V rms.
As a result, no external trims are required to achieve the
rated unit accuracy.
The input and output pins are fully protected. The input
circuitry can take overload voltages well beyond the supply
levels.
 Loss of supply voltage with the input connected to external
circuitry does not cause the device.

The AD536A is available in two accuracy grades (J and K)

for commercial temperature range (0°C to 70°C)
applications, and one grade (S) rated for the −55°C to
+125°C extended range.

The AD536AK offers a maximum total error of ±2 mV ± 0.2%

of reading, while the AD536AJ and AD536AS have maximum
errors of ±5 mV ± 0.5% of reading.
All three versions are available in a hermetically sealed 14-
lead DIP or a 10-pin TO-100 metal header package. The
AD536AS is also available in a 20-terminal leadless
hermetically sealed ceramic chip carrier.

The AD536A computes the true root-mean-square level of a

complex ac (or ac plus dc) input signal and provides an
eluvia-lent dc output level.

The true rms value of a waveform is a more useful quantity

than the average rectified value because it relates directly to
the power of the signal. The rms value of a statistical signal
also relates to its standard deviation.
An external capacitor is required to perform measurements
to the fully specified accuracy.
The value of this capacitor deter-mines the low frequency ac
accuracy, ripple amplitude, and settling time.
The AD536A operates equally well from split supplies or a
single supply with total supply levels from 5 V to 36 V.

With 1 mA quiescent supply current, the device is well suited

for a wide variety of remote controllers and battery-powered
instruments.
RELAY DRIVER CIRCUIT

+12V

D1 NO
AC LOAD
1N4007

NC

1K
M C P o rt P i n Q1
2N 2222
 Relays are components which allow a low-power circuit to switch a
relatively high current on and off, or to control signals that must be electrically isolated
from the controlling circuit itself. Newcomers to electronics sometimes want to use a
relay for this type of application, but are unsure about the details of doing so. Here’s a
quick rundown. To make a relay operate, you have to pass a suitable .pull-in. and
.holding current (DC) through its energizing coil.
And generally relay coils are designed to operate from a particular supply voltage. Often
12V or 5V, in the case of many of the small relays used for electronics work. In each case
the coil has a resistance which will draw the right pull-in and holding currents when it’s
connected to that supply voltage.
So the basic idea is to choose a relay with a coil designed to operate from the supply
voltage you’re using for your control circuit (and with contacts capable of switching the
currents you want to control), and then provide a suitable .relay driver.
Circuit so that your low-power circuitry can control the current through the relay’s coil.
Typically this will be somewhere between 25Ma and 70mA. Often your relay driver can
be very simple, using little more than an NPN or PNP transistor to control the coil
current. All your low-power circuitry has to do is provide enough base current to turn the
transistor on and off, as you can see from diagrams A and B.
In A, NPN transistor Q1 (say a BC337 or BC338) is being used to
control a relay (RLY1) with a 12V coil, operating from a +12V supply. Series base
resistor R1 is used to set the base current for Q1, so that the transistor is driven into
saturation (fully turned on) when the relay is to be energized.
That way, the transistor will have minimal voltage drop, and hence dissipate very little
power. As well as delivering most of the 12V to the relay coil. How do you work out the
value of R1? It’s not hard.
Let’s say RLY1 needs 50mA of coil current to pull in and hold reliably, and has a
resistance of 240ohmso it draws this current from 12V. Our BC337/338 transistor will
need enough base current to make sure it remains saturated at this collector current level.
To work this out, we simply make sure that the base current is greater than this collector
current divided by the transistor’s minimum DC current gain hFE. So as the BC337/338
has a minimum hFE of 100 (at 100mA), we’d need to provide it with at least 50mA/100
= 0.5mA of base current. In practice, you’d give it roughly double this value, say 1mA of
base current, just to make sure it does saturate. So if your control signal Vin was
switching between 0V and +12V, you’d give R1 a value of say 11kohm, to provide the
1mA of base current needed to turn on both Q1 and the relay.
If our relay has a coil resistance of say 180ohm, so that it draws say 67mA at 12V, we’d
need to reduce R1 to say 8.2kohm, to increase the base current to about 1.4mA.
Conversely if the relay coil is 360ohmand draws only 33mA, we could increase R1 to
15kohm, giving about 0.76mA of base current.
Each time we go for about twice the relay coil current divided by Q1.s hFE. Get the idea?
As you can see a power diode D1 (1N4001 or similar) is connected across the relay coil,
to protect the transistor from damage due to the back-EMF pulse generated in the relay
coil’s inductance when Q1 turns off. The basic NPN circuit in diagram A is fine if you
want the relay to energies when your control voltage Vin is high (+12V), and be off when
Vin is low (0V).
But what if you want the opposite? That’s where you’d opt for a circuit like that shown in
diagram B, using a PNP transistor like the BC327 or BC328. This is essentially the same
circuit as in A, just swung around to suit the PNP transistor’s polarity. This time
transistor Q2 will turn on and energies the relay when Vin is low (0V), and will turn off
when Vin is high (+12V).
Otherwise everything works just as before, and the value of base resistor R2 is worked
out in the same way as for R1. In fact because the minimum hFE of the BC327/328 PNP
transistors is also 100 at 100mA, you could use exactly the same values of R2 to suit each
relay resistance/current. The simple transistor driver circuits of A and B are very low in
cost, and are generally fine for driving most relays.
However there may be occasions, such as when your control circuit is based on CMOS
logic, where the base current needed by these circuits is a bit too high. For these
situations the circuit shown in C might be of interest, because it needs rather less input
current. As you can see it uses a readily available and very low cost 555 IC as the relay
driver, plus only one extra component: bypass capacitor C1. Although we normally think
of the 555 as a timer/oscillator, it’s actually very well suited for driving a small relay.
Output pin 3 can both source and sink 200mA (enough to handle most small relays
comfortably), and the internal flip-flop which controls its output stage is triggered swiftly
between its two states by internal comparators connected to the two sensing inputs on
pins 2 and 6.
When these pins are taken to a voltage above 2/3 the supply voltage, the output switches
low (0V); then they are taken below 1/3 the supply voltage, the output swings high. And
the 555 can happily work at 5V, as you can see, so it’s very suitable for driving a 5V
relay coil from this supply voltage.
3.8 RS-232 DETAILS

3.8.1 SERIAL COMMUNICATION

3.8.1.1. INTRODUCTION:
In computing, a serial port is a serial communication physical
interface through which information transfers in or out one bit at a
time (contrast parallel port). Throughout most of the history of
personal computers, data transfer through serial ports connected
the computer to devices such as terminals or modems. Mice,
keyboards, and other peripheral devices also connected in this
way.

While such interfaces as Ethernet, FireWire, and USB all

send data as a serial stream, the term "serial port" usually identifies
hardware more or less compliant to the RS-232 standard, intended
to interface with a modem or with a similar communication device.
3.8.2 HOW RS232 WORKS

This section describes how RS232 works in general without

describing complex handshake methods - only the simplest system is
described - this it the most useful and the most likely to work
Data is transmitted serially in one direction over a pair of wires.
Data going out is labeled TX (indicating transmission) while data coming in
is labeled Rx (indicating reception). To create a two way communication
system a minimum of three wires are needed TX, RX and GND (ground).
Crossing over TX & RX between the two systems lets each unit talk to the
opposite one.
Each byte can be transmitted at any time (as long as the previous
byte has been transmitted). The transmitted byte is not synchronized to
the receiver - it is an asynchronous protocol i.e. there is no clock signal.
For this reason software at each end of the communication link must be
set up exactly the same so that each serial decoder chip can decode the
serial data stream.
 (Fig17. RS232 TRANSMISSION)

3.8.3. BAUD:

This is simply the transmission speed measured in bits per second.

It defines the frequency of each bit period. For a baud rate of 2400 (2400
bps) the frequency is 2400Hz and the bit period is 1/2400 or 416.6us. This
is the information that a receiver uses to recover the bits from the data
stream.
8.4. VOLTAGE LEVELS

3.8.4.1. TRANSMITTING A DATA BIT STREAM

To make it work over long cables high voltages are sent from each
transmitter since due to cable resistance the voltage reduces the further
the signal has to travel. The output voltage specification is from +5V to
+25V (transmitting a logical zero) and -5V to -25V (transmitting a logical
one).

Note: all signals in the cable have to generate the same voltage
levels e.g. DTR, DSR, RTS, CTS. So you need a lot of level translator
chips for a full interface but for very short distances you only need TX and
RX and ground.

The receiver can accept minimum signal levels of ±3V. The

maximum voltage of ±25V does not have to be used and a common
voltage in use is ±12V (output by MAX232 transceiver chip) A mark
(logical one) is sent as -12V and a space (logical zero) is sent as +12V i.e.
the logic sense is inverted
3.8.4.2. RECEIVER

At the receiver the input voltage levels are defined as ±3V i.e. to
receive a logic zero the voltage must be greater than 3V and to receive a
logic one the voltage must be smaller than -3V. This allows for losses as
the signal travels down the cable and provides noise immunity i.e. any
spurious noise up to a level of ±3V can be tolerated without it having any
effect on the receiver.
3.13 ALGORITHM

STEP 1:-Start

STEP 2:-The temperature , current ,voltage is taken from both the Motor

STEP 3:-The measured temperature, voltage , current the inputs are then
compared with the threshold value.

STEP 4:-If the value of the input increases the threshold value then the
processing unit activates the driver circuit

STEP 5:-The driver circuit will then gives us the output

STEP 6:-Stop
3.14.1 ADVANTAGES

 Response of a PLC is much faster than a microcontroller

 A PLC can handle more than one inputs at a time

 Programming in plc takes less time than in microcontrollers

3.14.2 APPLICATIONS

 SCADA
 HMI (human machine interface)
 Computer numeric control
4.1 RESULT

The program has been successfully implemented and the

temperature control and voltage control, current control in
INDUCTION MOTOR has been done using Programmable logic
controller.
4.2 DISCUSSIONS:-

The implementation of the project included programming of the

delta PLC and interfacing the hardware components with the
PLC.

During the implementation certain problems were encountered

with the interfacing of the temperature sensor with the PLC. The
required output voltage to activate the PLC is 24 volts but the
output acquired was less than that so to overcome this problem
we are using BC547 to bring the required amplification in the
voltage.