Introduction

INTRODUCTION
ATOMIC BONDING
FREE ENERGY

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Introduction Definition

Definition of Solid State Welding

A group of welding processes that

produces coalescence at
temperatures essentially below the
melting point of the base metal.
Pressure may or may not be used.

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Introduction

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Introduction

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 Introduction

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 Introduction

Introduction to Solid State Welding

 History of solid state welding dates back to very
ancient time.
 Gold was hammered together by the ancients
earlier than 1000 B.C.
 The iron framework of the Colossus of Rhodes was
forge welded in 280 B.C.
 Versatility of fusion welding eclipsed solid state
welding in the first half of the 20th century.
 Solid state welding experienced a rebirth in the
60’s and 70’s, especially in the field of micro-
electronics.
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 Introduction Broad View for Motivation

Advantages of Solid State Welding

 Eliminates liquid phases.
 Makes the joining of many dissimilar metal
combinations possible.
 Can be applied at different temperatures and under
different stresses
 At high temperature, where the atomic interaction range is
relatively large and solubility of contaminants is high, parts
can be joined together with less deformation.
 At low temperature, where the atomic interaction range is
relatively small and solubility of contaminants is low, more
stress is needed to join two parts together and thus more
deformation is expected.

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 Introduction

Disadvantages of Solid State Welding

 Surface preparation can be necessary.
 Joint design is limited.
 Elaborate and expensive equipment may be
required.
 Non-destructive inspection is very limited.

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 Introduction Materials

Solid State Welding Materials

 Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
 Similar metal welds include:
 Titanium-to-titanium alloy (aircraft rivets) by friction
welding.
 Ultrasonic welding of fine aluminum wire to aluminum
metallization in microelectronics.
 Examples of dissimilar metal includes
 Aluminum to steel, titanium to aluminum, and titanium to
stainless steel (tubular transition joint) by explosion
welding.

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 Introduction Applications

Solid State Welding Applications

 Bonding of stainless steel  Drill pipe.

liners in aluminum fry pans.  Intake / exhaust
 Aluminum cladding bonded
automatic valves.
to uranium fuel rods.
 Ultrasonic and thermo-
 Bi-metallic pipe.
compression bonding in the
microelectronics industry.
 Friction welding in aero-
space and automotive
applications.

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 Introduction Applications

Solid State Welding

Explosion clad titanium

steel tube sheet blanks

180 inch diameter dome of 3/16 inch type

410 stainless steel on 3 inch thick A387 steel
Courtesy AWS handbook
formed from explosion weld.

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 Introduction
Types of Solid State Welds
We Will Look At Each

Linnert, Welding Metallurgy, 1998/SSW1/41/15

AWS, 1994
Introduction

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Introduction

Basic Principles

 In solid state welding,

joining of two surfaces
takes place by atomic
bonding between the
atoms on the surfaces.

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 Introduction

Atomic Bonds
 There are two major types of atomic bonds
 Primary bonds
 Secondary bonds
 Primary bonds are much stronger than
secondary bonds.

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 Introduction

Primary Bonding
 Primary bonds include three types:
 Ionic bonds
 Covalent bonds
 Metallic bonds

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 Introduction

Ionic Bonding

 Bonding takes place

between metallic and
Na+ Cl Na+
nonmetallic elements.
 Metallic atoms give up
valence electrons to
Na+
nonmetallic atoms. Cl Cl

 Examples : NaCl, MgO,

CaCl2.
Na+ Cl Na+

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Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
 Introduction

Covalent Bonding

 Bonding between two

atoms takes place by H

cooperative sharing of
electrons. H C H
 Examples: Gas - N2, O2, CH4.
Solid - carbon (diamond), H
silicon, germanium.
Methane (CH4)

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Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
 Introduction

Metallic Bonding
 Valence electrons are not
bound to any particular
atom and are free to drift
throughout the metal.
 Remaining non-valence
electrons and atomic
nuclei form ion cores.
 Free electrons act as a
glue to hold the ion cores
together.

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Introduction

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Introduction

Secondary Bonding
 Van der Waals bonds ( Ar, Kr, Ne).
 Polar molecule-induced dipole bonds
(HCl, HF).
 Hydrogen bonds ( H2O, NH3).
 Bond energy only about 1/10 of
primary bonds.
 Can cause adhesion of contaminants
to metal surfaces.

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Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
 CoCl2 - 6 H2O

Ion - Dipole Interaction

Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
Dipole - Dipole Interaction Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
Dipole - Induced Dipole Interaction Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
Induced Dipole - Induced Dipole Interaction
Kotz, “Chemistry & Chemical ReaCTIONS”,
Saunders College Pub., 1999
Introduction

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Introduction

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 Introduction

Adhesion of Perfect Metal Surfaces

10 A

 Adhesion of metal surfaces

occurs by inter-atomic
forces.
 For this to happen, the two

mating surfaces must be

brought together within a very
close distance.
 For most metals, this

distance is within a range of

approximately 10 angstroms
(A).
From: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction
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by W.D. Callister, John Wiley & Sons, 1985
 Introduction Free energy formation of a weld

 The potential energy of atoms at missing bond

the free surface is higher than that
of atoms within the bulk of the A
solid.
 The energy per unit area
B
possessed by atoms near the free
surface constitutes the free
surface energy.
 The average surface atom has
about half the bonding energy of Surface energy of A
is greater than B
an interior atom.

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 Introduction Free energy formation of a weld

 The welding of metal A to

metal B results in a A B
decrease in free energy
(Gweld.    
 This negative energy
A B
difference (Gweld) creates
a driving force which
actually promotes  AB

welding.
0 and AB are surface energies
(surface tension) of the free surfaces
and grain boundaries respectively.

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 Introduction Free energy formation of a weld

Summary for Similar Metals

G  - 2 A B
weld AB 0
  0.3    

AB 0 A B
G  1.7
weld 0  AB

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Introduction Free energy formation of a weld

Summary for Dissimilar Metals

 A similar relationship can be
developed for dissimilar metal
welding showing a large
negative (-) G for all dissimilar
metal combinations.

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Introduction

Link to Bonding
Demo

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Introduction

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Introduction

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