Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1.1 Cartography.
Application should include maps at scale 1:5000 - 1:25000 in which the
diversion works, the conveyance device, the penstock, the powerhouse and the
tailrace should be precisely located. The geographic coordinates of the different
devices should be also indicated.
1/3
Material Strickler K [m /s]
Welded steel 70 - 90
Polyethylene (PE) 100 - 110
PVC 100 - 110
Asbestos cement 90 - 100
Ductile iron 60 - 70
Cast iron 70 - 75
Wood-stave (new) 75 - 80
Concrete (steel forms smooth finish) 65 - 70
Clean excavated earth channels 40 - 50
Stony or Cobbles 25 - 30
Gravelly 30 - 35
1.85
L ⎛V ⎞
hf = 6.87 ⎜C ⎟ 2.
D1.165 ⎝ ⎠
where hf [m] is the total head loss due to friction, L [m] is the length of the pipe,
C[m1/3/s] is the Hazen-Williams coefficient which depends on the pipe material and
D [m] is the pipe diameter.
• Minor or local losses (∆h): In addition to friction losses, water flowing through a
conveying system develop head losses due to geometric changes of channel or
pipe at the inlet and outlet cross sections, at trash racks, bends, elbows, joints,
valves and at sudden contractions or enlargements. These losses depend on the
velocity head and are expressed as the product of an experimental coefficient δ
multiplied by the kinetic energy head:.
V2
Δh = δ 3.
2g
where Δh [m] is the local head loss, V [m/s] is the flow velocity, g [m/s2] gravity
acceleration and δ is an experimental coefficient usually given by the device
manufacturer.
200
180
160
140
Flow (m3/s)
120
100
80
60
40
20 Total available water volume
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent time flow equalled or exeeded (%)
The residual flow is defined as the minimum flow that preserve aquatic life in
the stream. There is not a single criteria to define the residual flow. Several
methods have been developed in different countries and some of these methods
have been introduced into the specific national or regional regulations on water
protection. Therefore, the residual flow of each project should satisfy the current
water law of the region where the mini-hydro development is proposed.
The stream factor [CS] measures the utilization of the water resource as:
useful water volume
CS = 5.
Total water volume
When the capacity factor approaches 1, normally the stream factor is small.
This means that the turbines are working really hard but the water resource is
being misused. On the contrary, when the stream factor approaches 1 the capacity
factor approaches zero indicating a misuse of the installed capacity. Optimization
usually leads to the best performance of both factors.
After setting the duration of the design discharge, the residual flow and the
minimum technical flow, the useful water volume can be obtained by integration of
the portion of the FDC bounded by the design discharge, the residual flow and the
minimum technical flow.
Usually the flow value authorized in the water use permission named also,
average annual discharge [QM], is the mean value of the useful water volume.
180
160
140
120
Flow (m3/s)
100
80 maximum flow
60
40 QD
useful water volume minimum flow
20
residual flow
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
As said before, if the scheme is a high head one, the gross head can be
considered constant. In low head schemes the gross head normally is strongly
dependent with the stream flow. Hence, in calculating the plant capacity and
energy production it is necessary to consider this dependence as shown in the
graph.
EXAMPLE OF GROSS HEAD VARIATION WITH STREAM FLOW
2500 5. 0
2000 4. 0
HG
Gross Head (m)
1500 3. 0
Power (kW)
PC
1000 2. 0
500 Power 1. 0
Net head
0 0. 0
0 10 20 30 40 QM 50 60 70 80 90 100
Discharge (m3 / s)
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The peak power PT which is actually the turbine or installed power of the
plant, should be estimated with the design flow QD and the net head HN as follows:
γ × QD × HN × η
PT ⎡⎣kW ⎦⎤ = 8.
1000
ηT = turbine efficiency
ηG = generator efficiency
ηg = gearbox efficiency
ηt = transformer efficiency
The average annual energy output [E] is given as the actual developed
power along the year which can be obtained by the following expression:
useful water volume × g × HN × η
E [kWh] = 10.
3600
where g is the gravity acceleration, HN is the net head.
In mini-hydro schemes it is useful to determine the Firm energy. The firm
energy is defined as the power that can be delivered by a specific plant during a
certain period (usually a year) with at least 90 - 95% certainty. Normally, run-of-
river schemes have a low firm energy capacity while hydropower plants with
storage reservoir have considerable capacity for firm energy. The firm energy is a
significant parameter in economic evaluation when the overall energy production is
small.
2.1.1 WEIR
In mini-hydro schemes weirs are primarily intended to divert the river flow into
the water conveyance system leading to the powerhouse. The weir may produce
additional head and some storage capacity.
Weirs can be placed perpendicular, angular or lateral to the river axis.
However, is a good practice to set the weir crest rectilinear and perpendicular to
the river axis. For low downstream water levels, the weir controls the flow and
defines the relationship between the upstream water level and the discharge as
shown in the discharge rating curve of the figure.
At this level of the project it is not necessary to asses the structural stability of
the weir or dam. Even though, some hydraulic features should be studied:
•The discharge rating curve of the weir: On the discharge rating curve graph the
residual flow, the design discharge and the peak of the design flood with their
respective water surface levels should be indicated precisely.
Hmax
16
H012
stage h
8
Hmin
4
0
0 DMV 1QD 2 QF 3 4
discharge Q
•The length and impact of the backwater effect for the design discharge and for the
peak of the design flood. In order to better estimate the upstream impact and the
eventual damage due to the change of regime of the watercourse imposed by the
weir, the water surface profile should be calculated for the whole length of the
backwater effect.
This calculations should be performed for at least for two flows: the design
discharge and the peak of the design flood. For this purpose, the shape of a
number of cross sections of the stream obtained by recent surveying topographical
work are necessary. Special attention should be paid in modelling the cross
sections interested by crossing structures such as bridges, culverts, etc.
Water surface
304 Ground
Left bank
300
Stage (m)
298
296
294
SE Z. 1 1b GEOMETRA S...
SE Z. 2 0 MAZZUCCHE LL I
SE Z. 1 9 MAZZUCCHE LL I
SE Z. 1 8 MAZZUCCHE LL I
SE Z. 1 6 MAZZUCCHE LL I
SE Z. 1 5 MAZZUCCHE LL I
SE Z. 1 3 MAZZUCCHE LL I
SE Z. 1 2 MAZZUCCHE LL I
SE Z. 1 3b G. S TA MPA ...
SE Z. 1 0b G. S TA MPA
SE Z. 9 b G. S TA MPA
SE Z. 1 4b G. S T...
292
SE Z. 1 6b ...
OL ONA 1 4
OL ONA 1 2
OL ONA 1 1
OL ONA 0 8
OL ONA 0 7
OL ONA 0 6
OL ONA 0 5
OL ONA 0 4
OL ONA 0 3
OL ONA 0 2
OL ONA 0 1
BRIDGE
BRIDGE
290
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Distance (m)
•The water surface profile downstream for the peak of the design flood: If the
proposed scheme does not include a spillway, a water surface profile downstream
the weir is necessary to estimate eventual erosion phenomenon at the wire base or
further downstream the river .
301.50
Level (m s.l.m.)
301.00
Weir crest
300.50
3
Stream Flow (m /s)
For example the plunging pools dimensions of a fish ladder must satisfy the
following expression:
Vf 2
HL = 11.
2g
where Vf is the maximum leaping velocity, g is the gravity acceleration and HL is
the leap hight as shown in the figure.
Often the fish passage device is used also to convey the residual flow. Since
not always the residual flow verifies the depth threshold for passage characteristic
of the fish population, it becomes necessary to introduce a fish screen or any other
item as a deterrent when flow is below the critical value.
For downstream water levels that are equal to or higher than the spillway
crest level, the spillway becomes progressively submerged and its corresponding
discharge decreases. Furthermore, in presence of piles, the governing discharge
will depend on the shape and dimensions of the piles. All these aspects influence
the functioning of a spillway but are not mandatory at this level of the project.
The flow spilled over the weir is usually supercritical with high flow velocities
and turbulence that may produce severe erosion at the toe of the structure, mainly
if the riverbed is not erosion resistant. To avoid any damage downstream the weir,
the hydraulic profile of the river should be verified and if necessary, a structural
solution such as a stilling basin should be adopted.
2.2.1 INTAKE
A proper operation of a water intake should assure the diversion of water just
up to the required design discharge into the power canal or into the penstock with
the minimum possible head losses. Besides, design of the intake should consider
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the possibility to handle debris and sediment transport and to avoid entering of
fishes.
To satisfy these conditions, the intake should be supplied with a trashrack
whose mesh must be fine enough to keep away from the turbine fishes and a good
percentage of solid transport.
The cleaning of this mechanism should not be neglected at this level of the
project. Normally manual raking is only practicable for very small schemes or sites.
Then, the introduction of an automatic raking device to clean the screen and
dispose of the trapped debris should be foreseen.
where Q [m3/s] is the conveyed flow, A [m2] wetted area, K [m1/3/s] is the Strickler
roughness coefficient which depends on the material of the channel walls, R [m] is
the hydraulic radius, given by the ratio A/P with and P [m] wetted perimeter and so
[-] is the river bed slope. Special care should be paid to the choice of the Strickler
coefficient.
To avoid channel overtopping, a generous freeboard and a lateral spillway in
a safety position should be provided.
2.2.3 PENSTOCK
Penstocks are normally used only to convey water into the power house. In
mini-hydro systems, penstocks can be plastic or metallic. The diameter is chosen
as the result of a trade-off between penstock cost and power losses. As a good
practice flow velocities in penstocks should not be larger than 5-7 m/s neither lower
than 0.5 m/s.
In high head schemes the penstock wall thickness can be obtained with the
following expressions:
pD
e=
2 σf
13.
D
e≥
100
where e [m] is the wall thickness of the pipe, p [Pa] is the maximum hydrostatic
pressure , D [m] the pipe diameter and σf [Pa] the allowable tensile strength of the
material
In low head schemes the penstock is subject to low pressures thus it is not
necessary to calculate the wall thickness since the second condition prevails.
2.2.4 TAILRACE
The tailrace is normally a short canal through which water returns to the
stream after passing through the turbine. The tailrace most satisfy the same
conditions given above for the channel. The flow velocity in the tailrace should be
verified (specially in schemes with impulse turbines such as Pelton) to avoid bed
erosion and to ensure that the powerhouse would not be undermined. If necessary,
protection with concrete aprons should be provided between the powerhouse and
the stream.
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In low head systems the level at the tailrace determines the available net
head and influences the operation of the turbine when a reaction turbine is
adopted. The available net head may have a decisive influence on the economic
evaluation, thus, the tailrace design should ensure that during high flows in the
river the water in the tailrace does not rise so far that it interferes with the turbine
runner.
2.3.5 SUBSTATION
The so-called water-to-wire system usually includes the substation. A line
breaker must separate the plant from the grid in case of faults in the power plant.
Power and current transformers metering should be considered at the connecting
link between the plant-out conductors and the take-off line to the grid. In high
environmental sensitivity areas the substation should be enclosed in the
powerhouse.
The standard generation voltages of 400 V or 690 V allow for the use of
standard distributor transformers as outlet transformers and the use of the
generated current to feed into the plant power system. At this level of the project
not other information is needed.
Generally, the cost per kilowatt of new schemes increases as size reduces,
due to economy of scale and the fact that any scheme has a certain fixed cost
element which does not greatly change with size
3.2.1 TARIFFS
The tariff is the unitary electricity price [€/MW] paid to the electricity producer
by the supplier. Actually, electricity tariffs are not a stable entity since they vary
constantly influenced by the markets. Tariffs vary from one country to another and
are strongly influenced also by national policy. It is therefore important to take into
account in the income calculation all these implications.
However, for the purpose of the economic analysis to be included in the
water use application, unless one has come to an agreement for a specific
negotiated tariff, it is advisable to compute the annual revenue with the average
annual price paid by the supplier the last year.
3.2.2 INCENTIVES
Electricity generated from renewable sources can be used to obtain
Renewable Obligation Certificates which all the supply companies need in order to
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prove they are meeting the governments targets for renewable energy. These
certificates have a market value which vary over time, depending on how well
these companies are doing in meeting their targets.
Besides the renewable obligation certificates, all along the European
Community there are a number of supplementary incentives to promote renewable
energy developments, these are specific of each country. For example, in many
countries for domestic developers and other non-commercial owners, the
government has reduced the VAT payable on hydro-electric plant to 5% for
systems supplying buildings which are either residential or used for charitable
purposes.
Moreover, there are a wide range of regional funding mechanisms which can
offer grants towards small-scale developments of renewable energy projects.
The formula for calculating NPV, assuming that the cash flows occur at equal
time intervals and that the first cash flow (negative and represented by the initial
investment I) occurs at the end of the construction period (j=0) is:
n (B j − C j )
NPV = ∑ 17.
j =0 (1 + r ) j
Where:
(Bj - Cj) represent the net cash inflow at the end of each period j.
r = the periodic discount rate. If j = 3 months, r = ¼ of the annual discount
rate.
n = total number of periods j in the project lifetime.
The difference between revenues and expenses, both discounted at a fixed,
periodic interest rate, is the net present value (NPV) of the investment. Therefore,
net present value is an amount that expresses how much value an investment will
result in today’s monetary terms.
Where the numerator represent the present value of the total revenue and
the denominator the present value of the investment. Projects with a ratio of less
than 1 should be discarded.
PERSONS OR
EVENTS DURING CONSTRUCTION IMPACT PRIORITY
THINGS AFFECTED
Geological Surveys Wildlife Noise Low
Existing Vegetation Cutting Forestry Alteration of habitat Medium
New opportunities,
Enlargement of Existing Roads General public Medium
alteration of habitat
Earth Moving Site geology Slope stability Low
Alteration of
Tunnels Excavation Site hydro-geology groundwater Low
circulation
Permanent Filling Material on
Site geology Slope stability Low
Slopes
Aquatic life, site Alteration of river
Embankment Realisation Medium
hydro-morphology hydraulic
Creation of Temporary Earth
Site geology Slope stability Low
Accumulations
Temporary Displacement of
General public Negligible
Persons, Roads, Electric Lines
Realisation of Roads and Sheds Wildlife, general Visual intrusion,
Low
for the Yard public wildlife disturbance
Water Courses Dredging Aquatic ecosystem Alteration of habitat Medium
Temporary Diversion of Rivers Aquatic ecosystem Alteration of habitat High
Use of Excavators, Trucks,
Wildlife, general
Helicopters, Cars for the Noise High
public
Personnel, Blondins
Human Presence During the Wildlife, general
Noise Low
Works on Site public
PERSONS OR
EVENTS DURING OPERATION IMPACT PRIORITY
THINGS AFFECTED
Renewable Energy Production General public Reduction of Pollutants High
Watercourses Damming Aquatic ecosystem Modification of habitat High
Permanent Works in the Riverbed Aquatic ecosystem Modification of habitat High
Diversion of Watercourses Aquatic ecosystem Modification of habitat High
Penstocks Wildlife Visual intrusion Medium
General public,
New Electric Lines Visual intrusion Low
wildlife
Aquatic ecosystem, Modification of habitat,
Ripraps Low
general public visual intrusion
Aquatic ecosystem, Modification of habitat,
Levees Low
general public visual intrusion
Flow Rate modification Fish Modification of habitat High
idem Plants Modification of habitat Medium
Modification of
idem General public
recreational activities
Noise from electromechanical
General public Alteration of life quality Low
equipment
Removal of material from Aquatic life, Improvement of water
high
streambed General public quality
7. Supporting documents.
Impianti ed automatismi
Prove e regolazioni
Finiture, ripristini e
opere di mitigazione
ambientale
8.2 REPORTS:
21. Working paper of the European Commission “ Electricity from renewable sources and the
internal electricity market.