Cooper 3 Relativistic Electrodynamics

Department of Physics Part II Experimental and
University of Cambridge Theoretical Physics
Relativity and Electrodynamics
Handout 3: Relativistic Electrodynamics
Dr Nigel Cooper
Michaelmas 2001
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS i
Contents
6 Relativistic Electrodynamics I 1
6.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
6.2 Is Charge a Lorentz Invariant? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
6.3 The 4-Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
6.4 The 4-Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6.5 The 4-Potential and Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Note on Linear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7 Relativistic Electrodynamics II 9
7.1 Transformation of E and B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.2 Covariance of Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.3 Magnetism as a Relativistic Effect and the Lorentz Force . . . . 12
7.4 The Field-Strength Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Transformation of E and B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Maxwell’s Equations in Frame-Independent Form and the Lorentz
Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.5 Electromagnetism as the Simplest Relativistic Theory . . . . . . 17
8 Relativistic Electrodynamics and Radiation 19

8.1 Fields of a Uniformly Moving Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.2 Potentials Due to an Arbitrarily Moving Charge . . . . . . . . . 21
8.3 Radiation by an Accelerated Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Approximate Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.4 Cyclotron and Synchrotron Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Cyclotron Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Synchrotron Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Notes by P. Alexander (2000); modified NRC (2001)

ii R ELATIVITY AND E LECTRODYNAMICS
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS 1
6 Relativistic Electrodynamics I
6.1 Background
Let us start our discussion of relativistic electrodynamics by considering where
we have got to already in our theoretical developments. What follows this
section is going to be an intriguing, and hopefully interesting, discussion of
the relationship between SR and EM. Indeed it is a very elegant piece of
theory. It is crucial to realise that everything we shall discuss is based very
firmly on experimental evidence. The theoretical elegance comes from how we
can develop a single physical model which follows using logical deduction from
the experimental basis
So let’s recap on where we have got to:
• Experimental observations which contradict the existence of a preferred

frame of reference lead directly to the elegant circumvention of the prob-
lem by Einstein’s proposition of the principle of relativity. This is com-
bined with the fact that the speed of light, at least in one frame, is
independent of the motion of the source to give Einstein’s law of light
propagation. From these we deduce that transformation of coordinates
between inertial frames must obey Lorentz Transformations:
 00    0 
x γ −γβ 0 0 x
 x01   −γβ γ 0 0   x1 
 
 2 = .
 x0   0 0 1 0   x2 
x0
3
0 0 0 1 x3
• By introducing the concept of spacetime we gain a powerful mathemat-

ical structure. The principle of relativity is embodied simply in the con-
cept of a physical 4-vector which has a physical significance independent
of the underlying representation in any one inertial frame. The struc-
ture of spacetime is embodied in the metric tensor which tells us how
to form scalar products; an important property of spacetime and one
which relates directly to Einstein’s law of light propagation. The rep-
resentation of 4-vectors in different frames is just given by the Lorentz
Transformations.
A · B = Aµ Aµ = gµν Aµ Aν
 
1 0 0 0
 0 −1 0 0 
gµν = 
 0 0 −1 0


0 0 0 −1
2 R ELATIVITY AND E LECTRODYNAMICS
µ
x0 = Λµν xν
• By requiring all physical quantities to be tensors (invariants) [e.g. scalars,

4-vectors] we build up a theoretical model for the dynamics of particles
in spacetime by calling only upon a few extra ideas such as conservation
laws which we believe must also hold.
• Starting from experimental results on currents and charges (e.g. due

to Faraday, Ampère etc.) we follow Maxwell and deduce four equations
linking E and B to their sources (charge and current densities).
∇·E = ρ/²0
∇·B = 0
∇×E = −Ḃ
∇×B = µ0 j + µ0 ²0 Ė
• We then showed that we can re-express the E and B fields in terms of a

scalar and vector potential and find that Maxwell’s equations reduce to
four component equations in terms of these potentials.
B = ∇×A
∂
E = − A − ∇φ
∂t
2 1 ρ
∇ φ − 2 φ̈ = −
c ²0
1
∇2 A − 2 Ä = −µ0 j
c
• We are able to solve these equations to find the potentials in terms of

the sources. The result is strongly indicative of the key role of the speed
of light; remarkably Einstein’s law of light propagation appears to be
embodied in these solutions, although we have used nothing yet of the
theory of SR in our development of EM to this point.
| r −r 0 |
³ ´
0
1
Z ρ r ,t − c dV 0
φ(r, t) =
4π²0 all space |r − r 0 |
| r −r 0 |
³ ´
0
µ0
Z j r ,t − c dV 0
A(r, t) =
4π all space |r − r 0 |
Therefore we note that there must be an intimate link between EM and SR as

we have already argued, and these solutions are very suggestive of EM actually
already being correct from the point of view of Special Relativity. But, how
do we show this and how do we do calculations? Our success in developing
special relativity points the way; rewrite our electromagnetic theory explicitly
in 4-vector form then we know that it must be a correctly relativistic theory,
and we have a good basis to work with.
So where to next? We can make some guesses at this point which seem totally
reasonable and will turn out to be correct. The fact that we have one scalar
and one 3-vector potential is suggestive of them forming a single 4-vector. A
few moments thought about units suggest that an appropriate 4-vector might
be µ ¶
µ φ
A≡A = ,A
c
and similarly for current and charge
J ≡ J µ = (cρ, j) .
But this is not a proof, so we will have to do a little more work.

More importantly what happens if our solutions to Maxwell’s equations were
valid at low velocity only and that we needed to generalise them in some way?
This is equivalent to asking the crucial question, “is the charge a Lorentz
Invariant”. We cannot answer this theoretically. We must address this problem
experimentally and therefore this is where we start our detailed discussion.
6.2 Is Charge a Lorentz Invariant?

In this section we will consider the experimental evidence which indicates that
charge is a Lorentz Invariant to the accuracy of current measurements.
Firstly we note that atoms are very accurately known to be neutral, yet they
contain slow moving nuclei and fast moving electrons and in different atoms the
electrons will move with different “velocities”, or more strictly have different
momenta which remains a good quantum concept. Further, atoms remain
neutral when heated and we are viewing them in a different inertial frame. We
can quantify this effect with a simple experiment (many such variants can be
based on this idea).
Consider a 10kg block of copper containing about 1026 atoms with a total
charge in conduction electrons of about 107 Coulombs. Upon heating, the nu-
clear motion is increased more significantly than the electron motion (phonons
are induced). If the charge on the protons changed due to this motion then
the copper would charge up. If the copper is in the form of a sphere and we
could detect a change in potential of say 1mV (easily done) then we would be
sensitive to a net charge of about 10–14 Coulomb (the sphere is about 65 mm
radius). No such effect is observed hence the charges cannot differ by more
than 1 part in 1021 !
Within particle accelerators and mass spectrometers the dynamics of electrons
depend on e/m and their dynamics are correctly predicted by using the analysis
we have already developed and taking e as a constant. This has been verified
to the highest energies attainable with modern accelerators.
We therefore know to very high accuracy that charge is a LI.
6.3 The 4-Gradient

We will start our detailed theoretical analysis by considering a 4-vector oper-
ator, the 4-gradient: µ ¶
µ 1∂
¤=∂ ≡ , −∇ .
c ∂t
(The symbols ¤ and ∂ µ represent the 4-gradient operator in symbolic and
component notations, respectively.) The possible importance of this operator
is suggested by the form of the wave equations satisfied by the vector and
scalar potentials. We have already seen that differentiation of a 4-vector by a
coordinate does not result in a 4-vector and we had to consider differentiation
by LI or scalars. Clearly this operator is not a scalar, therefore is it itself a
4-vector? We shall prove that it is by showing directly that it transforms as
we would expect it to as a 4-vector.
Consider the time-like component in a frame S0 and relate this to the frame S
using the chain rule
µ ¶
1 ∂ 1 ∂t ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂y ∂ ∂z ∂
= + + + .
c ∂t0 c ∂t0 ∂t ∂t0 ∂x ∂t0 ∂y ∂t0 ∂z
We can now use the Lorentz transformations to evaluate each of the partial
differentials between the coordinates
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
= γ, = γV, =0 and =0
∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0
hence µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1∂ ∂
0
= γ + γV =γ − γβ − .
c ∂t c ∂t ∂x c ∂t ∂x
Similarly we can show that

µ ¶ µ ¶
∂ ∂ 1∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
− 0 =γ − − γβ and − = − , − = − .
∂x ∂x c ∂t ∂y 0 ∂y ∂z 0 ∂z
Therefore the 4-gradient transforms like a physical 4-vector and hence must
be a 4-vector.
Consider the scalar product of the 4-gradient with some 4-vector X.
1 ∂X 0 ∂X 1 ∂X 2 ∂X 3 ∂X µ
gµν ∂ µ X ν = ∂ν X ν = + + + = .
c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂xµ
In our earlier language ∂ µ is a contravariant operator. Its covariant form, ∂µ ,

is given by: µ ¶
∂ ν 1∂
∂µ = = gµν ∂ = ,∇ .
∂xµ c ∂t
We can therefore see immediately that ¤2 ≡ ¤ · ¤ = ∂µ ∂ µ must be a scalar

and Lorentz Invariant
1 ∂2 2 1 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
¤2 = − ∇ = − − −
c2 ∂t2 c2 ∂t2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
This operator is known as the d’Alembertian.1 It is the spacetime equivalent

of the 3-space Laplacian.
6.4 The 4-Current

Our preliminary discussions suggested that a possible form for the a current 4-
vector (which we shall call the 4-current or more strictly the 4-current-density)
might be:
J = (cρ, j).
This we shall show is indeed the correct form and is a physical 4-vector. Let
us consider the scalar product of the gradient 4-vector with J
∂ρ
¤ · J = ∂µ J µ = +∇·j
∂t
1
Be careful, some texts use the symbol ¤ to represent the d’Alembertian itself (what
we call ¤2 ). In practice, there should be no ambiguity, as the d’Alembertian is a scalar,
while ¤ ≡ ∂ µ is a 4-vector. The meaning of the symbol ¤ in any equation can therefore be
deduced by reading off the number of components it is required to have.
Now we know that in the rest frame of the charge density that ∂ρ ∂t
+∇·
j = 0: this is just the equation of continuity from electromagnetism which
expresses the conservation of charge. If we take the conservation of charge to
be something which should indeed hold in all frames then we can identify J
as a physical 4-vector since we know that the 4-gradient is a 4-vector. This is
not, however, something we should take so lightly, so let us consider this in a
little more detail.
Imagine a macroscopic charge, Q, which occupies some volume V0 in its instan-
taneous rest frame S0 . In S0 the charge density is ρ0 = Q/V0 . Now in a general
frame, S, in which the charge is moving at speed u the volume occupied by the
charge Q (which is unchanged since it is a Lorentz Invariant) will be given by
V = V0 /γ
z z
S
Q u S
Q
V V0
x x
and the charge density in this frame is therefore
ρ = γρ0
Now consider two nearby points on the world line of Q separated by the 4-
vector (cdt, dr). The current in S0 is zero, but in S
dr
j = ρu = γρ0
dt
Therefore in S
µ ¶
dr d d
J = (cρ, j) = γcρ0 , γρ0 = ρ0 γ (ct, r) = ρ0 (ct, r)
dt dt dτ
where we have used dτ = dt/γ, with τ the proper time. Since ρ0 is a Lorentz
Invariant (it is defined in the rest frame of the charge) and the proper time is
a Lorentz Invariant, then J must be a 4-vector since (ct, r) is a 4-vector.
Therefore we have proven that J, the 4-current, is a physical 4-vector, and
hence that the conservation of charge must hold in all frames.
∂ρ
¤·J = +∇·j = 0
∂t
The scalar product of the 4-current density with itself gives a Lorentz Invariant
J · J = c2 ρ2 − j 2 = c2 ρ20
where again ρ0 is the charge density in the rest frame of the charges.
Applying the Lorentz transformations to the current 4-vector we can easily
find the transformation properties for the current and charge density to be
cρ0 = γ(cρ − βjx )

jx0 = γ(jx − βcρ)
jy0 = jy
jz0 = jz .
Alternatively we can write these same equation in a vector form noting the
component of j parallel to the direction of motion to give
cρ0 = γ(cρ − βjk ) = γ(cρ − β · j)

j 0 = γ(j k − βcρ) + j ⊥ .
6.5 The 4-Potential and Maxwell’s Equations
Let us return and consider Maxwell’s equations in terms of the scalar and
vector potentials
1 ρ
∇2 φ − 2
φ̈ = −
c ²0
1
∇2 A − 2 Ä = −µ0 j.
c
We will now show that these equations can be written in terms of 4-vector
quantities. We will introduce (again as we have already postulated) the 4-
potential: µ ¶
µ φ
A≡A = ,A ,
c
and rewrite our Maxwell’s equations in terms of the potential using the
d’Alembertian
1 ∂2
µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
1 1 2 2 φ ρ
2
φ̈ − ∇ φ = 2 2
−∇ = = µ0 cρ
c c c ∂t c c²0
1 ∂2
µ ¶
1
Ä − ∇2 A = 2
− ∇ A = µ0 j
c2 c2 ∂t2
These equations can clearly be combined by introducing the 4-current and

4-potential to give
1 ∂2
µ ¶
2 2
¤ A= − ∇ A = µ0 J
c2 ∂t2
or simply
¤2 A = µ 0 J
Since ¤2 is a Lorentz invariant and J is a 4-vector this proves that A is a 4-

vector. We have now succeeded in writing Maxwell’s equations in a way which
clearly demonstrates that they represent a set of Lorentz Invariant equations.
We say that we have “written Maxwell’s equations in a manifestly covariant
form”. We must also have that the scalar product of ¤ and A is an invariant
µ ¶
µ 1∂ φ
¤ · A = ∂µ A = − (−∇ · A) = invariant = 0
c ∂t c
this is just the Lorenz Gauge where we “choose” the invariant to be zero in all
frames, and as before this reduces to the Coulomb gauge in the rest frame of
the charges.
Note on Linear Materials
We have considered throughout this analysis the effects of charges and currents
in vacuo. We can easily generalise to linear materials by making the following
substitutions
µ ¶
µ √ ∂
¤=∂ = µµ0 ²²0 , −∇
∂t
µ √
A = A = ( µµ0 ²²0 φ, A)
µ ¶
µ ρ
J=J = √ ,j .
µµ0 ²²0
7 Relativistic Electrodynamics II
7.1 Transformation of E and B
In the discussion of section 6 mention of the electric and magnetic field were
conspicuous because of their absence. To some extent this is because our 4-
potential and 4-current provide the natural physical quantities with which we
can talk about relativistic electrodynamics, however if we wish to consider
forces on charged particles it is essential that we now consider the electric and
magnetic field explicitly.
We will start by deriving expressions for E and B in two frames S and S0 and
hence derive their transformation properties. To do this we will start with
the 4-potential and 4-gradient transformation laws. We have already had the
results necessary for the 4-gradient and the transformation of the 4-potential
is simply derived by applying the Lorentz transformations to A = φc , A
¡ ¢
φ0 = γ(φ − V Ax ), A0x = γ Ax − Vc2φ ,

¡ ¢
A0y = Ay , A0z = Az
and for the 4-gradient

µ ¶ µ ¶
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ V ∂
= γ + γV , =γ + 2
c ∂t0 c ∂t ∂x ∂x0 ∂x c ∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
0
= , 0
=
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
We find B and E in the usual way
∂A0
B 0 = ∇0 × A0 , E 0 = −∇0 φ0 −
∂t0
Consider first the components of B.
∂A0z ∂A0y ∂Az ∂Ay
Bx0 = 0
− 0
= − = Bx
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
and
∂A0x ∂A0z
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂Ax V ∂φ ∂Az V ∂Az
By0 = − =γ − 2 −γ + 2
∂z 0 ∂x0 ∂z c ∂z ∂x c ∂t
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂Ax ∂Az V ∂φ ∂Az
= γ − +γ 2 − −
∂z ∂x c ∂z ∂t
µ ¶
V
= γ By + 2 Ez
c
Similarly µ ¶
V
Bz0 = γ Bz − 2 Ey
c
Now consider the components of E
∂φ0 ∂A0x
Ex0 = − 0
−
∂xµ ∂t0 ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
∂ V ∂ ∂ ∂ γV
= −γ + (γφ − γV Ax ) − γ +V γAx − 2 φ
∂x c2 ∂t ∂t ∂x c
2
∂Ax V 2 ∂φ
µ ¶
2 ∂φ ∂Ax V ∂φ V ∂Ax ∂Ax V ∂φ
= −γ −V + 2 − 2 + − 2 +V − 2
∂x ∂x c ∂t c ∂t ∂t c ∂t ∂x c ∂x
2
µ ¶µ ¶
V ∂φ ∂Ax
= −γ 2 1 − 2 +
c ∂x ∂t
= Ex
and for Ey
∂φ0 ∂A0y
Ey0 = − −
∂y 0 ∂t0
µ ¶
∂ ∂ ∂
= − (γφ − γV Ax ) − γ +V Ay
∂y ∂t ∂x
µ ¶
2 ∂φ ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Ax
= −γ −V + +V
∂y ∂y ∂t ∂x
= γ (Ey − V Bz )
Similarly
Ez0 = γ (Ez + V By )
Collecting these results
Ex0 = Ex Bx0 = B¡x

V
Ey = γ (Ey − V Bz ) By0 = γ ¡By +
0
¢
E
c2 z ¢
V
Ez0 = γ (Ez + V By ) Bz0 = γ Bz − E
c2 y
We can also express these results in terms of the components of E and B

parallel to and perpendicular to the velocity V indicating the transformation
between the two frames:
E 0k = E k E 0⊥ = γ (E
¡ + V1 × B)⊥ ¢
0 0
B k = B k B ⊥ = γ B − c2 (V × E) ⊥
The transformation between B and E is very revealing. It suggests that the

magnetic and electric fields are two aspects of the same phenomenon which
just depend upon the frame in which we view the process. This is perhaps
most apparent when we note the similarity between the transformations in
vector form and the familiar form of the Lorentz force on a particle moving in
E and B fields. We will return to this shortly.
7.2 Covariance of Maxwell’s Equations

We have in fact already shown that Maxwell’s equations are covariant (preserve
their form) under relativistic transformations by showing that we could write
them in terms of 4-vector quantities alone. Here we will show the same physical
result explicitly by transforming the field between frames as an example of
using the transformation laws we have just derived.
Let us consider Maxwell’s 4th equation
∂E
∇ × B − ² 0 µ0 = µ0 j
∂t
We want to prove that we have exactly the same form of the equation in
some other frame S0 . Since the algebra is very tedious we will do this for
just one vector component of just this Maxwell equation; let’s consider the x0
component in the frame S0 .
∂E 0 ∂Bz0 ∂By0 1 ∂Ex0
µ ¶
0 0
∇ × B − ² 0 µ0 0 = − − 2 0
∂t x0 ∂y 0 ∂z 0 c ∂t
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂ γV ∂ γV
= γBz − 2 Ey − γBy + 2 Ez
∂y c ∂z c
µ ¶
γ ∂ ∂
− 2 +V Ex
c ∂t ∂x
½ µ ¶ ¾
∂Bz ∂By V ∂Ey ∂Ez ∂Ex 1 ∂Ex
= γ − − 2 + + − 2
∂y ∂z c ∂y ∂z ∂x c ∂t
½µ ¶ ¾
1 ∂E V
= γ ∇×B− 2 − 2∇ · E
c ∂t x c
µ ¶
V ρ
= γ µ 0 jx − 2
c ²0
= µ0 γ (jx − V ρ)
= µ0 jx0
Where we have used the transformation laws for the fields, currents and the
gradient operator. Of course we can show that this holds for all the other com-
ponents as well and hence we conclude that Maxwell’s equations are covariant.
It is nice to actually see that this works, but it also emphasises the power
of using the arguments concerning physical 4-vectors which demonstrated the
same physics certainly more elegantly and (perhaps) more clearly.
7.3 Magnetism as a Relativistic Effect and the Lorentz

Force
In this section we will investigate in more detail what was hinted at by the
transformation laws we have derived for the field components, namely that the
electric and magnetic fields are different manifestations of the same underlying
physics. Consider a current carrying wire and a charge q at a location P.
At P we have a magnetic field found using Ampère’s theorem
µ0 I
B= .
2πr
To detect this magnetic field the charge must be moving; let us take the particle
velocity to be u.
In Lab, S:
ρ=0 jx = I/a
In rest frame of charge, S0 :
ρ0 = γ(0 − ujx /c2 ) jx0 = γ(jx − u × 0)

γuI
= − 2 (a is LI)
ca
Therefore in the rest frame we see a radial electric field which we can find from
Gauss’s theorem:
1 −γuI −µ0 γuI
Ey0 = al =
2πrl ²0 c2 a 2πr
and the force on the charge is
dp0y µ0 I
0
= −γqu (inwards)
dt 2πr
But p0y = py and d0 = γ d hence the force equation gives

dt dt
dpy
= −quB
dt
which is just one component of the Lorentz force, f = q(u × B), in S. What
appears as a force due to the magnetic field in one frame appears as an electric
force in the rest frame.
By considering variations on the geometry we could easily demonstrate the

other components of the Lorentz force. Further if there were an electric field
in S we can now state that the correct form for the force on a charge q in the
presence of electric and magnetic fields is:
f = q (E + u × B)
Consider now a stationary charge adjacent to a line charge and no current
In a frame moving with velocity −V in the x0 direction

Consider in S the ratio of the magnetic to electric forces

|magnetic force on q| V Bx V 2 ²0 µ 0 V2
= = = 2 ∼ 10−23
|electrostatic force on q| Ey 1 c
where the numerical estimate comes from taking a typical carrier drift velocity
in a wire to be 10−3 ms−1 . How is it that we ever detect the effects of a magnetic
field? The answer is that conductors are neutral to an accuracy much better
than one part in 1023 .
Magnetic fields are a manifestation of a relativistic

effect with β ∼ 10−11 .
7.4 The Field-Strength Tensor

In the analysis of the preceding three sections we have lost much of the elegance
and simplicity of earlier analysis based on the 4-potential and 4-current-density.
More importantly since we are no longer working explicitly with 4-vectors the
“covariant” or frame independent nature of the equations in not immediately
obvious, although as we showed in Section 7.2 it is present. However we cannot
avoid introducing the electric and magnetic fields since they are what lead to
measurable effects on charges. Let’s re-examine the definition of E and B and
relate it directly to the 4-gradient, ∂ µ , and 4-potential Aµ .
Recall µ ¶ µ ¶
µ φ µ 1∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
A = ,A and ∂ = ,− ,− ,−
c c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Then we can write for the x-component of the electric field
∂Ax ∂φ
= −c ∂ 0 A1 − ∂ 1 A0
¡ ¢
Ex = − −
∂t ∂x
and for the x-component of the magnetic field

µ ¶
∂Az ∂Ay
= −c ∂ 2 A3 − ∂ 3 A2 .
¡ ¢
cBx = c −
∂y ∂z
We can define an anti-symmetric second-rank tensor which therefore contains
all of the E and B components as an outer product
F αβ = c ∂ α Aβ − ∂ β Aα
¡ ¢
which in matrix form has components which we can easily identify as

 
0 −Ex −Ey −Ez
 Ex 0 −cBz cBy 
F αβ = 
 Ey

cBz 0 −cBx 
Ez −cBy cBx 0
Transformation of E and B
Since F αβ was formed from 4-vector components then it must be a proper

physical 4-tensor. This means that it must transform according to the Lorentz
Transformations. We therefore have
αβ
F0 = Λαµ Λβν F µν
and the transformation of the field-strength tensor immediately gives the trans-
formations of E and B. Let’s see how this works by considering the F 0 02
component
02
F 0 = Λ0µ Λ2ν F µν = Λ0µ Λ22 F µ2 = Λ00 Λ22 F 02 + Λ01 Λ22 F 12
i.e. − Ey0 = γ(−Ey ) + −βγ(−cBz )

or Ey0 = γ (Ey − V Bz )
and of course the other components follow similarly.
Maxwell’s Equations in Frame-Independent Form and the Lorentz

Force
Let us take the scalar product of the field-strength tensor with the 4-gradient
∂ν F νµ = c (∂ν ∂ ν Aµ − ∂ν ∂ µ Aν ) = c∂ν ∂ ν Aµ = c¤2 A = cµ0 J µ
[NB ∂ν Aν = 0 because we use the Lorenz Gauge.]

Hence we can recover Maxwell’s equations in terms of the field-strength tensor,
and therefore in terms of the fields from:
∂α F αβ = cµ0 J β
Writing out the components we easily see that these four equations are, in
terms of the 3-vector fields just
∇ · E = ρ/²0
∇ × B − µ0 ²0 Ė = µ0 j
i.e. two of Maxwell’s equations. What has happened to the other two? We
recover them by noting that
∂ δ F νµ + ∂ ν F µδ + ∂ µ F δν = 0
which follows from the definition of the field strength tensor in terms of the
4-potential. Expanding this in components shows that it is equivalent to
∇·B = 0
∇ × E = −Ḃ
Hence we have been able to write Maxwell’s original equations for the fields
explicitly in a frame independent or covariant form. We have come full cir-
cle, but en route shown the complete unity between Special Relativity and
Electromagnetism.
For completeness we can now write the Lorentz force in a frame independent
way
dP µ q
= F µν Uν
dτ c
It is a useful exercise to check that these four equations do reproduce the

appropriate dynamics for a (relativistic) particle in electric and magnetic fields.
7.5 Electromagnetism as the Simplest Relativistic The-

ory
The analysis we have seen strongly hints that Electromagnetism may be special
from the point of view of SR. It is certainly a relativistically correct theory.
Is it an unavoidable consequence of SR? In fact, it is not a direct consequence
of SR. However, as we now show, the whole of EM can be “derived” based on
only a few, simplifying, assumptions on the form a relativistic theory can take.
We start by recalling the scalar product of the 4-force, F,2 with the 4-velocity,
U, is identically zero
F · U = 0.
We can then ask the question: “What is the simplest form that F can take to
satisfy this equation?” Clearly, since this must hold for all U, F can neither
be arbitrary nor be independent of U. The simplest form is to consider F
to be linearly dependent on U. Since U · U is not zero, it cannot be simply
proportional to U, hence the simplest form is:
F µ = αGµν Uν
where α is just some scalar constant we introduce for later notational conve-
nience. For F · U = 0 to hold we have Gµν Uµ Uν = 0 and hence we require:
Gµν = −Gνµ .
From G we can construct a new 4-vector, K
K µ ≡ ∂ν Gνµ (1)
which has zero divergence
∂µ K µ = ∂µ ∂ν Gνµ = 0
due to the antisymmetry of Gµν . K is therefore a 4-vector which has the prop-
erties of a conserved 4-current. What is more, by (1) it acts as the appropriate
source in what looks like Maxwell’s equations in terms of F µν .
However, we have not quite finished. The rest of Maxwell’s equations follow
from one last assumption: that the tensor Gµν can simply be formed from the
gradient of a 4-Vector B. Antisymmetry demands
Gµν = ∂ µ B ν − ∂ ν B µ
If you now make the identifications: α = q, B = A, Gµν = F µν /c, K = µ0 J,
you will find that we have constructed all of electromagnetism. In this sense,
electromagnetism is the simplest relativistic theory one can imagine.
2
Be sure not to confuse the 4-vector F = F µ with the field strength tensor F µν . If in
doubt, count the indices.
8 Relativistic Electrodynamics and Radiation
8.1 Fields of a Uniformly Moving Charge

We shall start be calculating the fields of a uniformly moving charge
S y y V
S
(x,y) (x,y)
r r
θ x θ x
V
We shall call the frame in which the charge is moving at a speed V the lab
frame, S; the rest frame of the charge is S0 . We consider the instant t = t0 = 0
when the charge is at the origin of both frames.
In the (x0 , y 0 )-plane of S0 we have for the fields (since the charge is at rest it is
just the static fields)
µ 0 0 ¶
0 q x y
E = , ,0 and B 0 = 0
4π²0 r03 r03
Applying the Lorentz Transformations to these (Section 7.1) gives in S

qx0 γqy 0
Ex = Ex0 = ; Ey = γEy0 = ; Ez = 0
4π²0 r03 4π²0 r03
with x0 = γx and y 0 = y. The system has polar symmetry and therefore we
can take the x-axis as the polar axis and write x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ giving
2 2 2
r0 = x0 + y 0 = γ 2 r2 (1 − sin2 θ) + r2 sin2 θ
V2
µ ¶
2 2 2
= γ r 1 − 2 sin θ
c
1 V2
[where 1 − γ2
= c2
]
Therefore
q cos θ q sin θ
Ek = 2 ¢3/2 E⊥ = 2 ¢3/2
4π²0 γ 2 r2 1 − Vc2 sin2 θ 4π²0 γ 2 r2 1 − Vc2 sin2 θ
¡ ¡
γV 0 V
Br = Bθ = 0, but Bϕ = 2
Ey = 2 E⊥
c c
What do we note?
• There is now a magnetic field which is purely azimuthal which arises

from the current due to the moving charge.
• The electric field has the usual 1/r 2 fall off.
• The electric field is purely radial, although its magnitude has an angular
dependence which depends on the Lorentz factor γ.
Let’s think about this last point a little. We see from the above that
E⊥ sin θ
= ,
Ek cos θ
i.e. the field is directed away from the origin which is the present position of
the charge.
This is perhaps a little surprising since one might expect it to depend on
where the charge was some time ago. However, we are dealing with a steady-
state situation in which the charge is in a uniform state of motion. There is
therefore no characteristic time in the problem (set for example by the start
of the particle’s motion) and therefore the only defining point at any time is
the particle’s current position. This argument makes it less surprising that
the electric field radiates from the current particle position and that the fields
are carried along by the particle much like fields fixed in a solid body. Below
we shall consider the case when the electron accelerates and then we shall see
that things are very different.
S y Direction of E−Field
l
x
lV/c
position at retarded time present position
Let’s examine the magnitude of the field as a function of the Lorentz factor.
• For γ ∼ 1: E has the usual isotropy, B is azimuthal and small.
• For γ À 1:
Near θ = 0
1 q
Ek ∼ i.e. very small
γ 4π²0 r2
2
Near θ = π/2:
1 q γq
E⊥ ∼ 2 2 2 2 3/2
= i.e. very large
γ 4π²0 r (1 − V /c ) 4π²0 r2
Therefore the fields are flattened into the zy-plane, much as in the sketch.
y
Lines of electric field
x, V
8.2 Potentials Due to an Arbitrarily Moving Charge
We now consider the potentials generated by a charged particle, with charge q,

that traces out an arbitrary3 world line (ct, w(t)) in a frame S. What are the
potentials, A and φ, that this motion generates? One can ask this question
as a function of the space and time co-ordinates of the observation point; for
simplicity we choose a co-ordinate system that places the observation point at
the origin, O = (0, 0).
3
We do of course restrict the path w(t) not to have superluminal velocity.
ct
w (t) (particle trajectory)

O
x
light cone
velocity,V
(ctR ,wR)
In Section 4.8, we determined the potentials in terms of integrals over the

retarded charge and current densities. The fields one observes at O arise from
the charge distribution at each position r̃ at the earlier “retarded” time t̃ =
−|r̃|/c. In the present case of a single point-particle, with position w(t),
simplifications arise because only a single space-time point on the particle’s
world-line contributes to the potential. The retarded time and position are
determined by the condition
tR = −|w(tR )|/c
i.e. the point where the trajectory cuts the (backward pointing) light-cone
of the observation point O (see diagram). We denote this space-time point
(ctR , wR ), and the instantaneous velocity of the particle at this retarded time
tR by
V ≡ ẇ(tR ).
We choose axes such that this velocity is along the x-axis of the frame S,
V = V x̂, and calculate the potentials in the inertial frame S0 moving with
respect to S at velocity V in the “standard configuration” (the space-time
origin of S0 coincides with that of S),4
µ 0 ¶ µ ¶
0µ φ 0 q
A = ,A = , 0, 0, 0 .
c 4π²0 r0 c
4
It may help to note that for a point-particle only a single instant in the world-line
contributes to the potential, so we may equally well consider the potentials to be generated
by a particle that is in uniform motion at the retarded velocity V , passing through the
point (ctR , wR ). Be careful: this is correct for the potentials; it does not apply for the fields,
which are gradients of the potential with respect to the observation point. The variation of
the retardation time tR as a function of observation point causes the fields to depend on the
curvature of the trajectory – i.e. the particle’s acceleration.
In the lab frame, S, this transforms to

µ ¶
µ γq βγq
A = , , 0, 0 .
4π²0 r0 c 4π²0 r0 c
The length r 0 is the spatial distance between the charge and the point of
observation in S0 . We wish to determine this length for the present problem
in terms of quantities measured in S. Following convention, we choose r 0 to
denote the vector from the charge to the point of observation. In the case of
interest, r = −w R in S at a time tR = −|r|/c, and r 0 may be determined by
LT
the Lorentz transformation of the event (c(−|r|/c) , −r) −→ (c(−|r 0 |/c), −r 0 ).
Applying the LT to the time coordinate we have
−|r 0 | = γ (−|r| + βx)

= −γ(r − β · r)
where we have introduced the vector β = V /c. The length r in this expression
is of course the distance between the point at which the potential is determined
and the point where the charge was allowing for the light-travel time, r =
|wR |. In other words we have to evaluate this expression at the retarded time.
Inserting the expression for r 0 we now have our results for the potential of an
arbitrarily moving charge:
q µ0 q[V ]
φ= A=
4π²0 [r − β · r] 4π[r − β · r]
These potentials are called the Liénard-Wiechert potentials, where the brackets
“[ ]” indicate that the quantities are to be evaluated at the retarded time as
usual. As we have seen in the previous section if the particle is in a uniform
state of motion then we get fields which just move along with the charge. The
situation is very much more interesting if the charge accelerates.
8.3 Radiation by an Accelerated Charge
The following diagram shows how the field lines develop for a charge initially
in steady motion with a speed V = 0.8c to the right is decelerated and comes
to rest.
(a) shows the field for a uniformly moving charge. Only the fields in the upper
half plane are shown in all of the figures.
(b) The charge is brought to rest. The field now develops a kink which propa-
gates out at the speed of light. To a distant observer the field emanates from
the location the charge would have moved to, P1 .
(c) The fields a short time later.
Approximate Calculation
We will now do an approximate calculation of E and B in the kink. This

was first done by J.J. Thomson in 1903, 2 years before Einstein published his
Special Theory of Relativity.
Imagine a charge that has been travelling at a constant velocity, v, such that
x = vt, until the moment t = 0 at which point it decelerates at a rate |a| = v/τ
to come to rest at a time t = τ (and position x = vτ /2). It then remains at
rest for t > τ .
We shall assume that v ¿ c, which allows several simplifications. In particular,
the final position of the particle x = vτ /2 is small compared to other relevant
lengthscales, and may be considered to coincide with the origin. Also, we
are permitted to neglect the relativistic compression effects discussed in 8.1

(γ ' 1).
Consider the configuration of the electric field at a time t = T À τ . Observers
further from the origin than R = cT cannot know that the particle has decel-
erated. The field in this region is that of a charge moving (and appearing to
continue to move) at a constant speed v. The field appears to emanate from
a point charge at position x = vT .
An observer whose distance from the origin is less than c(T − τ ) cannot know
that the particle had previously been moving. In this region the field is that
of a charge at rest close to the origin (actually at x = vτ /2).
The field is clearly kinked between these two regions, in the manner illustrated
in the above figure. We now calculate the electric field in the shell of width
cτ , with reference to the following diagram.
cτ θ
s i n
vT D
R=cT
B
C
θ
A θ θ x
Fields of the
Fields of x=vT moving charge
the stationary charge
The lines AB and CD represent electric field lines in the inner and outer
regions, which both make the same angle θ to the x-axis about the points from
which the fields appear to emanate (x = vτ /2 ' 0 and x = vT respectively).
Consider the flux through the bases of the cones formed by rotating the lines
AB and CD around the x-axis. The field patterns in the two regions are just
the uniform radial fields from the charge (since we are neglecting relativistic
compression), so the flux enclosed by these two cones is identical. Hence, since
∇ · E = 0 in free space, for all the flux within AB in the inner region to emerge
within CD in the outer region, AB and CD must be part of the same field line.
This tells us the direction of the field in the thin shell is parallel to BC (the
segment BC may be considered straight, for v ¿ c).
Geometry then gives the ratio of the transverse and radial components.
Er cτ cτ c2
= = =
Eθ vT sin θ (|a|τ )(R/c) sin θ |a|R sin θ
Now Er must take the same value as it does in the inner region close to B
(integrating ∇ · E = 0 over a small shell containing B), such that Er =
Q/4π²0 R2 from Gauss’s theorem. This then gives
|a|R sin θ Q µ0 Q|a| sin θ

Eθ ∼ 2 2
∼ .
c 4π²0 R 4πR
Note that the field falls of like 1/R as is appropriate for a radiation field.
We can now estimate the B-field again in the kink. Maxwell’s 4th equation in
integral form gives in free space:
∂ ∂
I Z
B · dl = ²0 µ0 E · dS = ²0 µ0 ΦE
∂t ∂t
Let us apply this to the path formed by rotating the point C around the x-
axis. This is a circle around the direction of the particle velocity and in a plane
perpendicular to it. The area will be the spherical surface bounded on the left
by C. The electric flux, just before the arrival of the kink, is given by:
Q 4πR2 (1 − cos θ)
ΦE = ,
4π²0 R2 2
where we have used the expression for the field due to the charge at x = vT .
After a time τ the kink has swept past the point C and the flux through the
surface will be smaller value
Q 4πR2 (1 − cos θ0 )
Φ0E =
4π²0 R2 2
originating from the static charge close to the origin. However, from geometry
we have
R(θ − θ0 ) ' vT sin θ

vT v
⇒ θ0 − θ = − sin θ = − sin θ
R c
Thus for small v/c, (θ 0 − θ) is small and we may write

dΦE Φ0 − ΦE Q v Q |a| Q
' E ' sin θ(θ0 − θ) = − sin2 θ = − sin2 θ
dt τ 2²0 τ c 2²0 τ c 2²0
H
But B · dl =2πR sin θBϕ , hence we find
1 dΦE µ0 Q|a| sin θ Eθ
Bϕ ∼ ²0 µ 0 =− =− .
2πR sin θ dt 4πRc c
Therefore both Eθ and Bϕ vary like radiation fields: i.e. decay as 1/R, are
mutually perpendicular, and are in phase with relative amplitude c. The ac-
celerated charge is radiating and the power radiated is given by (being careful
to choose the outward-going Poynting vector)
−Bϕ Eθ µ0 Q2 |a|2 sin2 θ
N= = .
µ0 16π 2 R2 c
The total power radiated is
µ0 Q2 |a|2
Z
P = N 2πR2 sin θ dθ =
6πc
This is known as the Larmor Formula.

This result is exact in the limit as v tends to zero, i.e. for an accelerating
charge in its instantaneous rest frame. We can find the result in a general
frame by noting that (i) the total power radiated is a Lorentz invariant, 5 and
(ii) in the IRF a2 = aµ aµ where aµ is here the acceleration 4-vector. But we
have (problem 8) a general expression for this scalar product, hence
µ0 Q2 (−A · A) µ0 Q2 6 2
P = = (γ a|| + γ 4 a2⊥ )
6πc 6πc
This result is the relativistic Larmor formula, or Liénard formula. Here parallel
and perpendicular refer to the direction of the velocity.
5
That the power radiated is a Lorentz invariant can be seen by considering a small
amount of energy dE 0 emitted in a time dt0 in the IRF of the charge (t0 is therefore the
proper time). The power loss in the IRF is then P 0 ≡ dE 0 /dt0 . In the IRF, the radiation is
emitted with a sin2 θ distribution and carries no net linear momentum; the four-momentum
lost is dP = (dE 0 /c, 0, 0, 0). Transforming to a frame S, we therefore find dE = γdE 0 , and
dt = γdt0 (as usual). Hence the power loss in S is P ≡ dE/dt = (γdE 0 )/(γdt0 ) = P 0 . The
power loss is the same in all inertial frames.
8.4 Cyclotron and Synchrotron Radiation

Consider a charged particle, of mass m and charge q, moving in a uniform
magnetic field B = B êz . The equation of motion is
d(γmu)
= qu × B
dt
γ̇mu + γmu̇ = qBu × êz
Take the dot product of this equation with the velocity u
γ̇mu2 + γmu · u̇ = 0
By direct differentiation, γ̇ = γ 3 u̇u/c2 ⇒ u · u̇ = (γ̇c2 /γ 3 ), so inserting in the
above equation we find
γ̇mu2 + γm(γ̇c2 /γ 3 ) = 0
γ̇mc2 (β 2 + 1/γ 2 ) = 0
γ̇mc2 = 0
Thus, the particle has constant energy γ̇ = 0, and
γmu̇ = qBu × êz
This describes circular motion in the xy-plane6 at the angular frequency
eB
ω=
γm
The radius of the orbit is R = u/ω, where u = |u|.
Substituting the acceleration a⊥ = quB
γm
into the relativistic Larmor formula
gives
µ 0 q 4 γ 2 B 2 u2
P =
6πcm2
We can write this in an interesting way by re-introducing the Thomson cross
section
µ2 q 4
σT = 0 2 ,
6πm
and the energy density in the magnetic field, UB = B 2 /2µ0 . Then we have for
the power radiated
P = 2cσT β 2 γ 2 UB
Two limits are important: when the particle velocity is very much less than,
or close to the speed of light
6
The particle can also have a constant velocity along êz . Here, we consider motions only
in the xy-plane.
Cyclotron Radiation
In this case γ ∼ 1. As the particle moves on its orbit the direction of the
acceleration continuously changes as seen by a distant observer. The charge
radiates as if it is two dipoles in quadrature with a frequency ω = qB/m
(this quantity is sometimes called the “Larmor” frequency or “gyrofrequency”,
ωg ≡ qB/m). [See problem 21 for a discussion of the radiation fields.]
Synchrotron Radiation
In this case γ À 1. The emission is then far from isotropic in the lab frame.
In the IRF the power-pattern from the accelerated charge is
[i.e. with sin2 θ distribution with respect to the axis of the acceleration]. In
the lab frame this is significantly aberrated as we have already seen
Therefore as the charge orbits we see a succession of pulses. We can use our
earlier results on aberration to show that the angular width of the pulse is
approximately 2/γ. To calculate what an observer will actually see, we must
allow for light travel time effects.
The leading edge of the observed pulse originates from radiation that is emitted
when the particle is at X, and the radiation forming the trailing edge of the
pulse is emitted when the particle is at Y.
X Y
observer
R
1/γ
The start of the pulse is detected by an observer a distance r away at a time
r + R/γ
tX +
c
where tX is the time when the particle is at X. The end of pulse is detected at
the time
2R r − R/γ
tX + +
γu c
The duration of the pulse is therefore
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 R R 2R 2R 1 1
δt = r− −r− + = −
c γ γ γu γ u c
2 u 1
= (1 − ) ≈ 3
γω c γ ω
where we have used (1 − u/c) ∼ 1/2γ 2 . The observed spectrum contains

significant contributions at a characteristic frequency given by:
1
νs ' = γ 3ω
δt
The spectrum of synchrotron radiation is shown in the figure, with y = ω/ω s

where ωs ≡ (3/2)γ 3 ω.
Intensity
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
y
1 2 3 4 5
Examples
• Significant energy loss in electron synchrotrons. Radiation losses limit

the energy that can be reached in circular accelerators.
• Synchrotrons now used as a source of highly collimated X-rays for spec-

troscopy and X-ray diffraction studies; possible to have powerful lab-scale
equipment.
• Natural sources of synchrotron radiation are very important astronomi-

cally, such as supernovae and radio galaxies.

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Department of Physics Part II Experimental and

University of Cambridge Theoretical Physics

Relativity and Electrodynamics

Handout 3: Relativistic Electrodynamics

8 Relativistic Electrodynamics and Radiation 19

Notes by P. Alexander (2000); modified NRC (2001)

• Experimental observations which contradict the existence of a preferred

• By introducing the concept of spacetime we gain a powerful mathemat-

• By requiring all physical quantities to be tensors (invariants) [e.g. scalars,

• Starting from experimental results on currents and charges (e.g. due

• We then showed that we can re-express the E and B fields in terms of a

• We are able to solve these equations to find the potentials in terms of

Therefore we note that there must be an intimate link between EM and SR as

But this is not a proof, so we will have to do a little more work.

6.2 Is Charge a Lorentz Invariant?

6.3 The 4-Gradient

Similarly we can show that

In our earlier language ∂ µ is a contravariant operator. Its covariant form, ∂µ ,

We can therefore see immediately that ¤2 ≡ ¤ · ¤ = ∂µ ∂ µ must be a scalar

This operator is known as the d’Alembertian.1 It is the spacetime equivalent

6.4 The 4-Current

cρ0 = γ(cρ − βjx )

cρ0 = γ(cρ − βjk ) = γ(cρ − β · j)

6.5 The 4-Potential and Maxwell’s Equations

These equations can clearly be combined by introducing the 4-current and

Since ¤2 is a Lorentz invariant and J is a 4-vector this proves that A is a 4-

Note on Linear Materials

φ0 = γ(φ − V Ax ), A0x = γ Ax − Vc2φ ,

and for the 4-gradient

Now consider the components of E

Collecting these results

Ex0 = Ex Bx0 = B¡x

We can also express these results in terms of the components of E and B

The transformation between B and E is very revealing. It suggests that the

7.2 Covariance of Maxwell’s Equations

7.3 Magnetism as a Relativistic Effect and the Lorentz

At P we have a magnetic field found using Ampère’s theorem

In rest frame of charge, S0 :

ρ0 = γ(0 − ujx /c2 ) jx0 = γ(jx − u × 0)

and the force on the charge is

But p0y = py and d0 = γ d hence the force equation gives

By considering variations on the geometry we could easily demonstrate the

Consider now a stationary charge adjacent to a line charge and no current

In a frame moving with velocity −V in the x0 direction

Consider in S the ratio of the magnetic to electric forces

Magnetic fields are a manifestation of a relativistic

7.4 The Field-Strength Tensor

and for the x-component of the magnetic field

which in matrix form has components which we can easily identify as

Since F αβ was formed from 4-vector components then it must be a proper

i.e. − Ey0 = γ(−Ey ) + −βγ(−cBz )

Maxwell’s Equations in Frame-Independent Form and the Lorentz

∂ν F νµ = c (∂ν ∂ ν Aµ − ∂ν ∂ µ Aν ) = c∂ν ∂ ν Aµ = c¤2 A = cµ0 J µ

[NB ∂ν Aν = 0 because we use the Lorenz Gauge.]

It is a useful exercise to check that these four equations do reproduce the

7.5 Electromagnetism as the Simplest Relativistic The-

8 Relativistic Electrodynamics and Radiation

8.1 Fields of a Uniformly Moving Charge

Applying the Lorentz Transformations to these (Section 7.1) gives in S

• There is now a magnetic field which is purely azimuthal which arises

• The electric field has the usual 1/r 2 fall off.

• For γ ∼ 1: E has the usual isotropy, B is azimuthal and small.

8.2 Potentials Due to an Arbitrarily Moving Charge

We now consider the potentials generated by a charged particle, with charge q,