Chemosystematics

Reasons why plant pigments

have been used in systematics
only during the last 50 years:

 Pigments often unstable

 Environmental variation (pH;
elevation modifies blue colors)
4 main types of pigments:
 1. Anthocyanins
 2. Yellow flavonoids
 3. Colorless flavonoids
 4. Betalains

*First 3 are flavonoids and

unrelated to betalains
Flavonoids: most important source of nongreen
coloration; Benzene ring structure with side
chains = infinite variety

• important in yellow flowers

• important in blue flowers
• important in white flowers

Delphinium
(larkspur)
Flavonoids: also Alcea rosea nigra
important in black flowers

Lisianthius
nigrescens

Salix gracilistyla
var.melanostachys
Benzene ring structure with
side chains = UV absorbing

Morning glory

normal
UV
Flavonoids appear dark to UV viewing
insects – serve as nectar guides.
1.Anthocyanin flavonoids

• most important and widespread group of

coloring matter in plants
• found in almost all families of angiosperms
• replaced by betalains in all families of a
lineage of Caryophyllales (except
Caryophyllaceae + Molluginaceae)

Ice plant (Aizoaceae),

Carnation (Caryophyllaceae)
betalain
anthocyanin
ANTHOCYANINS

Sarcodes sanguinea
(snow plant), Ericaceae
2. Anthoxanthins (Yellow flavonoids)

• 20 families in distribution
• give yellow color to flowers (in
part); also found in leaves but
masked
• works in conjunction with yellow
carotenoids -chemical mimicry
 2. Anthoxanthins (Yellow flavonoids)

• black-eyed Susan - normal yellow flavonoids

light

• - UV colorized
yellow carotenoids
• - UV black/white: closer to
how UV-sensitive insects view
in this range of spectrum -
bull’s
eye
2. Anthoxanthins (yellow
flavonoids) in Gesneriaceae (African
violets)
Example: relationships within Gesneriaceae
(African violet family)
Subfamily Gesnerioideae
Neotropical distribution
Epigynous flowers
Yellow flavonoids + carotenoids
Subfamily Cyrtandroideae
Paleotropical distribution
Hypogynous flowers
Carotenoids only
 2. Yellow flavonoids - utility in classification
of Gesneriaceae

Ovary Distribution Pigments

TAXA position
Subfam. inferior New World Yellow
Gesnerioideae flavonoids+
carotenoids
Subfam. superior Old World Carotenoids
Cyrtandroideae only

Columnea superior New World Yellow

flavonoids +
carotenoids
Biogeography, not gynoecium,
consistent with chemical signal
Saintpaulia (African violet)
Sources of anthocyanins:
1.African violet flowers; Geranium flowers
2.Leaves of Coleus, Begonia, red cabbage and red
lettuce
3.Fruits of cranberry, raspberry, strawberry and
plum

3. Colorless flavonoids - systematic

utility: helps in the expression of
anthocyanins
4. Betalains - named after Beta (beet);
structurally different from flavonoids, N-
containing.

• found only in families of

Caryophyllales (beets, cacti, pokeweeds,
amaranths)

• anthocyanins and not betalain found in

Caryophyllaceae + Molluginaceae

Mollugo
verticillata Dianthus
deltoides
 Families of Caryophyllales that contain
betalains

 Aizoaceae
 Amaranthaceae
 Basellaceae
 Cactaceae
 Chenopodiaceae
 Nyctaginaceae
 Portulacaceae
Echinocereus
Opuntia

Lampranthus (ice
plant) Aizoaceae
BETALAINS

Red,
violet

Yellow,
orange
Volatiles Compounds
Volatile compounds often restricted to families, genera, or
even species – parsley, sage, Rosemary, thyme. Animals, in
turn, are attracted or repulsed by the odors

Parsley,
Apiaceae

thyme

rosemary

LAMIACEAE
sage
Classical taxonomists used plant odors
consciously or unconsciously in classifying
plants into groups.
Pinaceae - conifers
Lamiaceae - mints
Apiaceae - carrots
Linnaeus’ “Sensual System” of
classification
1. Aromatic
2. Fragrant
3. Musk-like
4. Garlic-like
5. Goat-like
6. Foul
7. Nauseating

Amorphophallus
Camellia - fragrant
 Six major volatile groups
1. Terpenes - pinenes.
menthol, catnip
2. Aliphatic oils - Magnolia,
amyl acetate
3. Aromatics - wintergreen
4. Aminoid (N) - offensive,
Aristolochiaceae, Araceae
5. Sulphides (S) - onions Aliphatic oil
6. Glucosinolates (S) - mustard pheromone in
orchids

Glucosinolates Sulphides
 AMINOID
TERPENES

Aristolochia
elegans
Amorphophallus
Nepeta (catnip
titanum
or catmint),
Lamiaceae
 Glucosinolates (mustard oil
glucosides)- useful in the classif of
Capparales

Old schemes: Cruciferae, Capparaceae, Papaveraceae, and

Fumariaceae grouped under Rhoeadales.
New schemes: Capparales: Cruciferae and Capparaceae
Papaverales: Papaveraceae and Fumariaceae

(alkaloid-containing)

Dicentra
formosa
Cleome spinosa
MUSTARD OIL EVOLUTION
Systematic issue: 15 different looking families share
mustard oils - are they related?
Limitation of flavonoids
 Placement of Psilotum as the
most primitive fern ally
 Psilotum has biflavonyls, just like
lycopods and gymnosperms
TERPENOIDS
 Limited distribution
 Complex instrumentation and
experience
Sesquiterpene lactones
 Certain groups in Compositae exhibit
distinct types of STL
 Phytogeography of Vernonia (tribe
Vernonieae): 2 major centers of
distribution, Neotropics and Africa
Stevia rebaudiana