c
 


 

After learning briefly about the history of concrete, let us focus upon the properties of concrete. Concrete
is an artificial building material whose production differs from application to application. Amongst general
properties of concrete, we must understand that concrete should possess certain physical and chemical
properties, tensile strength, low-level of permeability to avoid moisture and retain chemical and volume
stability.

Concrete essentially has a high level of compressional strength, while the tensile strength of concrete is
relatively very weak. As concrete can crack under its own weight, it needs to be reinforced. It is generally
reinforced using steel bars or fiber and iron mesh. To reduce the tensile strength of concrete, it is also
pre-stressed with the use of steel cables. The deciding factor for strength is also inherently related to the
proportion and ratio of water and cement, the type of cement used and the strength of used aggregate.

Generally, concrete made using lower water-cement ratio makes a stronger concrete than when higher
ratios are used. It is noticed that concrete made out of rough broken rock pieces is much stronger than
concrete made using smooth pebbles. The reason is that the material should not result into more surface
bondage area as this will increase the quantity of bondage, which is cement, resulting in weaker concrete.
It is known that limestone possesses higher bonding properties than conventionally used gravel.

Normally, a 28-day compressive strength testing is done to achieve desired workability. The 28-day test
for compressive strength is achieved by determining the right quantity of cement required in water cement
ratio. In structures like arches, vaults where shapes and structures with internal forces require concrete.

Workability of concrete means the ability of a concrete to fill the mould appropriately, producing the
desired work without plummeting the quality of concrete. Concrete workability is achieved with the water
ratio, shape and size of aggregate and the level of hydration. It is observed that workability can be
considerably improved by increasing the quantity of water, or with usage of plasticizer. More water
content can lead to bleeding and segregation, which can result in poor quality concrete formation.

Curing is a process that keeps the concrete intact by providing an appropriate environment. It is
considered that good curing ensures a moist environment for hydration. This steady hydration results in
low level of permeability, thus increasing concrete s strength and quality. Concrete also needs to be
protected from shrinkage. As concrete has low thermal expansion co-eficient, which means that it cannot
handle repetitive expansion and shrinkage. If there is no external force used for expansion, it can result in
sizeable force acting against it, resulting in shrinkage and cracking of structure. As concrete grows older,
it goes on shrinking due to internal forces caused within the material.

Cracking of concrete begins at micro level. Normally, concrete is kept in a wet state to allow easy
moulding when required. Hydration and hardening of concrete can lead to shrinkage and cracking when it
has not yet developed the tensile strength. It is important to reduce stress before curing. Freezing of
concrete before the curing is complete can seriously hamper the process of hydration. This can also
decrease the concrete strength and weaken and damage the concrete.
 Creeping is described as constant deformation of a material owing to internal stress taking place in the
material. The amount of reinforcement of concrete structures ensures minimal shrinkage, creep and
cracking.

These general concrete properties of concrete are taken care of during building of concrete. Depending
upon the end application, concrete is accordingly treated for maximum strength and durability.

¢



 

Concrete is a manmade building material that looks like stone. Combining cement with aggregate and
sufficient water makes concrete. Water allows it to set and bind the materials together. Different mixtures
are added to meet specific requirements. Concrete is normally reinforced with the use of rods or steel
mesh before it is poured into moulds. Interestingly, the history of concrete finds evidence in Rome some
2000 years back. Concrete was essentially used in aqueducts and roadway construction in Rome.

It is said that the Romans used a primal mix for their concrete. It consisted of small gravel and coarse
sand mixed with hot lime and water, and sometimes even animal blood. To trim down shrinkage, they are
known to have used horsehair. Historical evidence states that the Assyrians and Babylonians used clay
as the bonding material. Even ancient Egyptians are believed to have used lime and gypsum cement for
concrete. Lime mortars and gypsums were also used in building the world-acclaimed pyramids.
 However, Romans are known to have made wide usage of concrete for building roads. It is interesting to
learn that they built some 5,300 miles of roads using concrete. Concrete is a very strong building material.
Historical evidence also points that Romans used Pozzalana, animal fat, milk and blood as admixtures for
building concrete.

The first recorded fact points to the year 1756 when John Smeaton, an engineer made the present day
concrete by mixing coarse aggregate (pebbles) and powered brick and mixed it with cement. In 1793, he
built the Eddystone Lighthouse in Cornwall, England with the use of hydraulic cement. Another major
development took place in the year 1824. An English inventor Joseph Aspdin invented Portland cement.
He made concrete by burning grounded chalk and finely crushed clay in a limekiln till the carbon dioxide
evaporated, resulting in strong cement.

It was in Germany that the first systematic testing of concrete took place in 1836. The test measured the
tensile and compressive strength of concrete. Another main ingredient of concrete is aggregate and
includes sand, crushed stone, clay, gravel, slag and shale. Concrete that uses imbedded metal is called
reinforced concrete or Ferroconcrete. It was Joseph Monier who first invented reinforced concrete in
1849. He was a Gardner who made flowerpots and tubs of reinforced concrete with the use of iron mesh.
The reinforced concrete thus combined the tensile power of metal and the compression strength of
concrete for tolerating heavy loads. He received a patent for this invention in the year 1867.

In 1886, the first rotary kiln was introduced in England that made constant production of cement. In 1891,
George Bartholomew made the first concrete street in Ohio, USA. By 1920s, concrete found major usage
in construction of roads and buildings. It was in 1936 that the first concrete dams Hoover and Grand
Cooley were built.

There has been no looking back for concrete since its modern development. Known as the strongest
building material, concrete has found major uses in dams, highways, buildings and many different kinds
of building and construction.

j


 

There are different types of concrete. One of the most popular concrete used is Portland cement, mineral
aggregates and water. Concrete often solidifies as the cement hydrates and glues all the other
components together. It has a high compressive strength and general uses of concrete include
pavements, fences, gates, walls and more. In old times, concrete was often referred to as liquid stone.
Sometimes external stabilizers are included to concrete to give it desired characteristics. Some of the
major concrete types include,





 
 The Self-compacting concretes use superplasticizers that accounts for the excessive fluidity of the
concrete. It acts like a sticky self-levelling fluid that is combined using vibration.

c

Pump concrete consist of more quantity of sand than normal concrete. It is specifically made smooth to
allow easy pumping from roadside to the construction site. Due to the increased quantity of water to make
the concrete wet, it also requires more cement to attain the appropriate strength.

 

 

Sprayed concrete or Shotcrete makes use of compressed air to cast it to a structure. There are two
different kind of sprayed concrete the dry-mix and the wet-mix concrete. Dry mixed concrete is a dry
mixture of cement and aggregates that are shot using compressed air through hoses. The water required
for hydration is added at the nozzle. The wet mixture is appropriately hydrated and pumped through
hoses. Sprayed concrete is usually reinforced using fiber.




 

It is the most common concreting applications. The slump is + 15mm.

j 

 

This concrete is used for casting columns and loads or any areas where concrete has to flow into
position.



 

Special class might be any concrete specifically required by customers like pre-stressed concrete and
light weight concrete.




Chipping concrete is made by passing the mixture between very small spaces, small size stones.




No fines concrete as the name suggests is a concrete with no sand in its mixture. It is a porous mass also
known as a washed-out concrete. It uses water so that minimum paste remains stay at the bottom during
placing.





 
 Concrete mould wrapped in a mesh of iron rods is called reinforced cement concrete or RCC. Concrete
with reinforced steel acquires the capacity to carry enormous loads. It is the most versatile material with a
wide range of applications in construction.

Different types of concrete are produced depending upon the end application. The modern types of
concrete includes cellular or aerated concrete which is light weight and durable, making it easy to be
handled. Aerated concrete is widely used for modern construction as it is mortarless and can be produced
with different densities.

÷




 

Concrete has been used for construction since ancient times. Modern day concrete application include
dams, bridges, swimming pools, homes, streets, patios, basements, balustrades, plain cement tiles,
mosaic tiles, pavement blocks, kerbs, lamp-posts, drain covers, benches and so on .

It is interesting to note that over six billion tons of concrete is produced each year, and is the second most
widely used substance. Concrete is specific to different applications like rebuilding, mending and
construction. Concrete building components in different sizes and shapes are also made before hand and
later applied. They include wall panels, doorsills, beams, pillars and more. Post-tensioned slabs is a
preferred method for industrial, commercial and residential floor slab construction.

Ready Mixed concrete is durable and hard wearing and is used for variety of applications owing to its
crack-resistance and durability. Situ concrete is cast in place, on site. Precast concrete finds application
in concrete curtain walls, exterior cladding and structural walls, as it monolithic and can be easily used for
two-way structural systems. It is also adjustable to post tensioning and easily adapts to any building
shape.




 

Cast-in-place concrete is an unhardened state, like ready-mix, and is placed in moulds. Ready mixed
concrete is proportioned and mixed off the project site. It finds application in foundations and slabs-on-
ground, walls, beams, columns, floors, roofs, bridges, pavements, and other infrastructure.

Controlled-density fill is used as structural fill, foundation pillar, pavement base an pipe bedding. It is also
known as flowable mortar.


 

The life expectancy of concrete flooring materials is much more than other flooring material. It is used to
enhance concrete applications and to add colour and texture to interiors, driveways, pathways and patios

þ  


Fiber cement is made using a mixture of sand, cellulose fibers and cement. It has a wood-like
appearance, is durable and used for decorative shapes and trim applications.

 




Vegetative roofs are used in residential societies, office buildings, hospitals, schools, recreational
facilities, shopping centers and airports.




Concrete is used to provide prolonged building benefits by functioning as thermal mass, acoustical barrier
and durable structure

j



It is a Portland cement concrete overlay on existing asphalt concrete pavement and used in airport
pavements, highways, secondary roads, and other pavements.

 ÷



 Beams, drain tiles, piers, steps

 Post, Beam and Deck
 Pilasters and round column forms
 Brickledge application
 Hardscape < Pavers
 High Performance Admixtures
 Masonry
 Soil solidification
 Stucco < Tilt-up
 Insulating Concrete Form
 Motorways/roads, overpasses and parking structures
 Brick/block walls and bases for gates, fences and poles
 Building structure, fences and poles

Over the years, concrete has established itself as a sturdy building material used for different
applications. The inherent benefits of using concrete as a construction material are durability, fire-
resistance, low maintenance, energy efficiency and environmental friendliness. Owing its generic
qualities, it is not surprising that concrete is used more than any other man-made material on earth.
m
 


?
??

O
 ?
???
?????
?? ?
?
 ???

???
??? !?O?"?#???#?
 $?? ?#???%?? ??
  ?????
 !??

&#??
?? ?? ?? ? ???


 ??
???$? ???  ?? ? $?
?$??'?

#?!(????
???# ?
????

? ?$?
???

?

?? $? !?)?
??  ? ???#?$? ????
?

*!?)????
 ? ??????#?

???!?+?#??#????
? ? ? ??*??#??,-!!!???
# ??#??????? ???
???*
??? ???*!?+ ????

.? *!?/???? ?$?
?????
!?O? ?
?
 ???* ?? ? ????? ?#$?
?$? ??#??? ?#??#????
$??
? ?? *??? !?


???$??
???#?# ?
$ !?
??$?$ ??$ ?"?? ??
 $????!? ??$???#? ?
??? !?0??$??????$?1?!?
2??$? ???? ? !?3???
?? ???
?
  ?'420(??$?#??
?!?0? $?"? ??
5??
?? ?1?$? ?1? !?+???????
 ?$?????$ ??#
????
1
 ????$?$???$!?

???
#???

???
???
??$?#???
$!?+?  ?$???? ?

$??????????$?
???
# ?
? ?
!?6? ???$??#?? ??
?????
 ?????#!?
+? ? ?????? ????
  ?? ? ?????????
!?+??  ????
?$ ??
???$?!?)????????
????

?

??*???*???

  ?$???#?? ?!?+?
?
??#?? ???!??

??
??
  ?*?7?
¢

 
??

0???#? !?
? ??$??$???
!?8?
#???????$??
?$? ????1?
!????
??????#???

 ?
?? !?

#??????
9:?
??#?#?;:99?
??? ??
" !??
 O 

 


  
    ?

O#?? ?$? ??!?O??3?0??

? ??$?
 ?$??!??$???
??#????$ ?
? ??
 ?
  ??$ ??'?,!?)* ?.?$*?<
?
2<(!???????# ??
 ?
?#??  ?
?=<? ????
$?? 
??? ?$*!?/??????
*?$ ??
??????
 !?8#?

??? ???  ????*?
#?
??????$!?3 ?*? ?????
?#??*? ?!??
¢
     

?

) ????? ?!?????$?*?

?$? ?*? ?? ?>???? ?
??

 ??
$!?@
?? ?.??????
$??
??!?
??$?# ? ?
???
!?2
?????
#?????
$??*?*!??
     
 
m 
    
  ??
0?$%???A??2 ?0?
  O    ?

?? ?? ??? ????

O ?,"? ?$?$!??

??
??
???????0?
?8?$!?
??????2 ?0!??
?

?
 ?

?
 ?

?
 ?

?
 ?

??