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Original Article
Journal of Reinforced Plastics
and Composites

Qualification of a composite system 0(00) 1–13

! The Author(s) 2013
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for pipeline repairs under dry, wet, sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0731684413505009
and water-submerged conditions jrp.sagepub.com

Luke P Djukic1, Alan YL Leong2, Paul J Falzon1 and KH Leong2

Abstract
A new glass/epoxy prepreg system has been developed as a solution to a long-standing challenge of corrosion and other
damage, such as gouging and denting, sustained by piping, pipelines, and risers. The system has been designed to be
applicable in the majority of operational conditions encountered in the oil and gas sector, encompassing onshore as well
as offshore environments. This paper discusses the comprehensive qualification process undertaken to enable the repair
of wall-thinning defects (Type A) and through-wall defects (Type B). The results show that the composite system meets
the requirements of ISO/TS 24817 and so also concurrently complies with ASME PCC-2.

Keywords
Composite overwrap repair, qualification, mechanical properties, preimpregnated composite

systems can only be applied on dry surfaces and are

Introduction adversely affected by surface moisture and contamin-
Pipeline and piping systems used in the oil, gas, and ants. Two chemical types most commonly used for
petrochemical industry are subject to damage during pipeline repair are epoxy and polyurethane (PU)
service, such as gouging, denting, and corrosion. The resins. PUs have the advantage of curing at ambient
pipelines and pipings are used in dry conditions (e.g. temperatures via moisture activation, but the downside
sections of risers above water and close to platforms), is that they are hydrolysed relatively easily in water
wet conditions (e.g. risers at the splash zones), or fully (IW) and by and large have low-glass transition tem-
submerged underwater conditions (e.g. subsea risers or perature (Tg) values. In contrast, epoxy resins are
pipelines). Repair of such infrastructure is a long-stand- more moisture stable and can be formulated to provide
ing challenge. high Tg and environmental stability using aromatic
Engineered fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or com- amino compounds.3
posite overwrap repair, which can be applied in situ An assessment of commercially available resins that
without hot work, can partially or completely restore can be applied and cured underwater was undertaken,
the pressure capacity of a corroded or ruptured pipe, revealing a number of technical gaps. First, there is a
with the added benefit of corrosion protection. It is also lack of actual underwater resin properties with many
possible to apply a composite repair without shutting
down the pipeline, which presents a significant
economic benefit.1 1
Advanced Composite Structures Australia Pty Ltd, Port Melbourne,
Good adhesion between the composite repair and VIC, Australia
2
the corroded substrate is essential for effective load PETRONAS Research, Kawasan Institusi Bangi, Kajang, Selangor DE,
transfer between the pipe and the composite overwrap Malaysia
and to prevent the ingress of water into the repair-sub-
Corresponding author:
strate interface. Generally, thermosetting polymers such Luke P Djukic, Advanced Composite Structures Australia Pty Ltd, 1/320
as epoxies have excellent durability and barrier proper- Lorimer Street, Port Melbourne, 3207, VIC, Australia.
ties against moisture.2 However, most thermosetting Email: l.djukic@acs-aus.com

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2 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)

manufacturers quoting dry adhesion and mechanical cure and test temperatures used throughout the quali-
properties in their technical data sheets. In addition fication program.
to the lack of experimental data, published research
work also reports relatively low-bond strength for
Laminate and pressure tests
joints prepared underwater.4,5 These resin systems gen-
erally have high viscosity to allow them to be able to The tension and shear coupons were used to measure
apply directly to wet or submerged surfaces, but the parameters, which are to be used in the design of
high-resin viscosity results in poor impregnation repairs, in both the reinforcement fabric warp (longitu-
unless very light weight reinforcement fabrics are dinal) and weft (transverse) directions. Note that these
used. Finally, the resins generally have low Tg due to coupon tests were only undertaken at room tempera-
their ambient temperature cure formulation, making ture (RT) and 55 C, as it was assumed that the elastic
them unsuitable pipelines transporting high-tempera- properties of the coupons would be largely depend-
ture fluids. ent on the glass reinforcement fabric found within the
To address this technological/market gap, a research composite, and so it was not deemed necessary to test
program was undertaken to develop, test, and qualify a specimens cured at other temperatures. In the cases
polymer resin composite overwrap system suitable for where the failures may be resin dominated, such as
use in the repair and/or corrosion protection of infra- shear lap joint (SLJ) tests, all nominated qualification
structure, such as pipelines and risers, used in the oil, temperatures, viz. RT, 40 C, 55 C, and 80 C,
gas, and petrochemical industry. The system was were tested.
designed to be applicable in dry, wet, and fully sub- The glass transition temperatures (Tg) were mea-
merged conditions.6 The qualification of the mechan- sured to determine the operating limits of the resin
ical properties, according to ISO/TS 24817,7 of this for use in-thin wall (Type A) and through-wall (Type
composite system for steel pipe repair is described B) repairs. ISO/TS 248177 states that for Type A
and discussed in this paper. Mechanical performance repairs, the Tg should be at least 20 C higher than the
of the repair system was investigated for repairs applied operating temperature of the pipeline, and for Type B
both IW and out of water (OOW) under laboratory repair, it should be 30 C higher. Because the Tg is
conditions. It is noted that in qualifying the system dependent on the cure temperature, it was necessary
according to ISO/TS 24817, it also concurrently com- to measure it after curing of the composite at each of
plies with PCC-2.8 the qualification temperatures.
The mechanical properties of the composite system The SLJ strengths were measured to determine
that were measured included tensile and shear strength, whether the system passed the 5 MPa minimum set
single lap shear strength, glass transition temperature, out in ISO/TS 24817.7 Furthermore, the standard
and effects of hot/wet conditioning. These properties states that the SLJ strength shall not be reduced by
were used in development of repairs for pipe specimens more than 70% of the as-manufactured joint strength
with wall thinning—(Type A) and through-wall (Type as a result of hot/wet conditioning. The SLJ strength
B) defects, which were subsequently tested. Results for can also be used in sizing repairs to a limited extent, as
each of these mechanical properties are presented in per methods presented in ISO/TS 24817.7
this paper. The Type A specimens, with an 80% wall thinning
defect, were designed according to the guidelines out-
lined in ISO/TS 24817,7 and these specimens were used
Qualification test program to check whether the repair system was able to rehabili-
The manufacture and testing reported here was con- tate and restore the pressure rating of a pipe, under
ducted under laboratory conditions; however, wherever short-term loading with a region where the wall was
possible, attempts were made to closely represent those reduced in thickness by 80% of the original condition.
seen in field installation. To this end, repairs were The repairs were applied and cured both IW and OOW
applied OOW to represent above water repairs and at each of the qualification temperatures, and all pipes
IW to represent repair of a subsea pipeline or a riser were tested at RT.
of pipeline located in a splash zone. The Type B specimens, with a through-wall defect,
were also designed according to the guidelines outlined
in ISO/TS 24817,7 and these specimens were used to
Qualification basis calculate the pipe/composite interface fracture energy
Tests selection and procedures were based on the parameter, which can then be used to design for
requirements set out in ISO/TS 24817.7 This section repair against through-wall defects. As a subset of the
will outline the rationale behind each test and the Type B testing, a 5 J impact was applied above the hole,
type of specimen as well as the selection of specimen also in accordance with ISO/TS 248177 to determine

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Djukic et al. 3

whether such an impact would affect the fracture temperature in the composite at the interface with
energy parameter. pipe, which is considered a more critical region, due
to its close proximity to the pipe. The composite resin
system under qualification can cure sufficiently for use
Cure and test temperatures
in repairs at all of the intended operating temperatures,
Cure and test temperatures were chosen to allow quali- and for this reason, a more simple and reliable cure
fication of repairs cured at 40 C, 55 C, and 80 C, and it scenario is that the cure temperature is equal to the
is assumed that with qualification of these tempera- intended operating temperature. For this reason, the
tures, intermediate temperatures will also be covered. cure temperature of coupon specimens and the internal
It is important to relate these operating temperatures to and external temperatures of the pipe specimens during
the cure temperature and test temperature. cure were set to the intended qualification temperature.
The test temperature should be equal to the operat-
ing temperature where possible, which does not require
Hot-wet conditioning
additional explanation. RT was also used as a test tem-
perature, and this choice is based on the possibility of The specimens labeled as ‘‘unconditioned’’ were tested
the pipe fluid cooling to ambient temperature, due to as manufactured. The ‘‘conditioned’’ specimens were
transport over long distances or in the event of a pro- hot/wet conditioned in fresh water at the intended test
longed shutdown. The Type A and Type B tests were temperature until near weight/weight equilibrium was
only performed at ambient temperature (approximating achieved according to ASTM D5229.9 In the case of the
RT) due to equipment limitations. The RT recorded SLJs, this condition was difficult to measure due to the
during this test program was in the range of 13–20 C. presence of a polymeric paint layer present on the sur-
The cure temperature of the composite was assumed face of the steel substrates in order to inhibit corrosion.
to be equal to the operating temperature of the pipeline. The conditioning period of the SLJs exceeded 2000 h in
In a pipeline containing a moving fluid above ambient all cases, whereas the tensile and shear coupon condi-
temperature, the fluid is a very significant heat source, tioning period exceeded 3000 h in all cases. This is
to which the repair will acclimatise. If an elevated cure beyond the 1000-h requirements set out in ISO/TS
temperature was required, a large amount of external 24817.
heat would be required to significantly raise the repair The series of tests that were conducted are sum-
temperature above the fluid temperature, and in some marised in Tables 1 to 3. It is noted that specimens
cases, this external temperature application could be were selectively cured at 40 C, 55 C, and 80 C, and
expected to go beyond the temperature at which the some were conditioned under hot-wet conditions prior
composite will begin to undergo thermal degradation. to testing. The coupon specimens were then tested at
Furthermore, it is even more difficult to change the both RT and their cure temperature, whereas the pipe

Table 1. Qualification test matrix for mechanical properties of prepreg at 55 C.

OOW IW

Unconditioned Conditioned Unconditioned Conditioned

Test type RT 55 C RT 55 C RT 55 C RT 55 C

LT 10 10 – 10 10 10 – 10
TT 10 10 – 10 10 10 – 10
IPS 10 10 – 10 10 10 – 10
SLJ 10 10 – 10 10 10 – 10
Glass transition (Tg) 5 5 5 –
Type A repair 5 – – – 5 – – –
Type B repair—10 mm defect 3 – – – – – – –
Type B repair—15 mm defect 3 – – – 3 – – –
Type B repair—20 mm defect – – – – 3 – – –
Type B repair—25 mm defect 3 – – – 3 – – –
Type B repair—25 mm defect 5 J impact 1 – – – 1 – – –
IPS: in-plane shear; IW: cured in water; LT: longitudinal tension; OOW: cured out of water; SLJ: single lap shear; TT: transverse tension.

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4 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)

specimens were only tested at RT due to limitations in Single-lap joints were manufactured from Bluescope
the apparatus. Steel Xlerplate of 5 mm thickness. This steel was chosen
Also, not listed in the test matrices is that three tests for this qualification program because it complies with
were performed on unrepaired Type A specimens, in ASTM A3610 and has a similar composition to steel
order to provide a baseline strength for the wall- used in pipelines. Pipe specimens were manufactured
thinned specimens and that one of the repaired Type from Orrcon Broadspec API 5 L X42 Pipe with an
A specimens cured OOW at 55 C was tested up until outer diameter of 168.3 mm and wall thickness of
rupture following successful completion of the short- 6.4 mm. This steel was chosen for this qualification pro-
term pressurisation test. gram because it was overstrength for X42 pipe and
equivalent to X61 steel piping (61 ksi yield). The inten-
tion was to use pipe specimens achieving as close to the
Materials
properties of X65 pipe as possible. The steel substrates
PipeAssureTM prepreg was used in this qualification were prepared to a surface roughness of 50–60 mm by
program. This was supplied in 300-mm width rolls grit blasting using Garnet 16/40 grit. Measurements
with an areal weight of 1730 g/m2 and contained were performed using Testex tape according to
Colan Fabrics Duomat 750 E-glass reinforcement. The ASTM D4417.11
reinforcement layer consisted of a chopped strand mat
(CSM) backed woven roving, composed of 350 g/m2
glass in the warp (longitudinal or 0 ) and 280 g/m2 Manufacture and test procedures
glass in the weft (transverse or 90 ). Each ply, in its
Cure conditions
cured state, had a thickness of approximately 0.85 mm.
Two separate primers were used for the applications Two types of manufacture and cure were conducted: (i)
where the prepreg was being applied to steel surfaces; OOW and (ii) IW. For OOW cures, the specimens were
PipeAssureTM PR25 used OOW and PipeAssureTM laid up at RT OOW and then cured in an oven at 40 C,
PR30 used IW. The OOW primer was applied at a 55 C, or 80 C. For IW cures, the specimens were laid
thickness of 1150 g/m2, whilst the IW primer was up at 25 C in a polyethylene tank containing substitute
applied at an approximate thickness of 3600 g/m2. ocean water prepared according to ASTM D114112 and

Table 2. Qualification test matrix for mechanical properties of prepreg at 40 C.

OOW IW

Unconditioned Conditioned Unconditioned Conditioned

Test type RT 40 C RT 40 C RT 40 C RT 40 C

Single lap shear (SLJ) 10 10 – 10 10 10 – 10

Glass transition (Tg) 5 5 – –
Type A repair 1 – – – 1 – – –
IW: cured in water; OOW: cured out of water.

Table 3. Qualification test matrix for mechanical properties of prepreg at 80 C.

OOW IW

Unconditioned Conditioned Unconditioned Conditioned

Test type RT 80 C RT 80 C RT 80 C RT 80 C

SLJ 10 10 – 10 10 10 – 10
Glass transition (Tg) 5 5 – –
Type A repair 1 – – – 1 – – –
IW: cured in water; OOW: cured out of water; SLJ: single lap shear.

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Djukic et al. 5

then cured in a corrosion-resistant stainless steel tank at in the 90 direction. Strain gauges were placed on one
40 C, 55 C, or 80 C. The cure durations were as fol- side of each of the specimens in the +45 and 45
lows: (i) 96 h for 40 C, (ii) 48 h for 55 C, and (iii) 24 h directions and on the in-plane face of the outermost
for 80 C. These cure durations were determined from ply, between the V-notches.
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements The coupons were loaded at a constant displacement
as part of the development process for the composite rate of 2 mm/min until the failure of the specimen. For
resin system, prior to commencement of the qualifica- specimens that were tested at 55 C, an environmental
tion program. chamber was used. The shear modulus of elasticity (G)
For flat-panel layups, including the tension, in-plane was determined using the chord modulus method pre-
shear (IPS), glass transition temperature, and single lap sented in ASTM D537914 by examining the stresses
shear joints, a low-consolidation pressure of 2 kPa was nearest readings to strains of 2000 me and 6000 me. It
applied during cure, using 1-in thick steel plates, to simu- was not possible to directly measure the shear strain
late the consolidation pressures achieved in at failure as the strain gauges became ineffective at
pipe-wrap specimens. For the Type A and Type B pipe the high strains, due to microscopic damage to the com-
specimens, consolidation pressure was applied using posite matrix. As a result, the shear strain ( p) at the
clingwrap wound 3–5 times around each specimens. peak shear stress ( p) was estimated, by dividing the
peak stress by the shear modulus of elasticity (G).
Tension tests
Glass transition temperature tests
Longitudinal (0 ) tension (LT) and transverse (90 ) ten-
sion (TT) coupons were manufactured and tested in The glass transition temperature (Tg) was determined
accordance with ASTM D3039.13 The specimens were by the use of DSC according to ASTM E1356.15
250 mm long (including 50 mm clamp distance at either Specimen sizes were between 5 and 20 mg. After placing
end), 25 mm wide, and nominally 3.4 mm thick. The LT the specimen in the test furnace, the temperature was
specimen configuration was [0]2s, and the TT specimen cooled to 20 C where it was held until equilibrium
configuration was [90]2s. The CSM side of the prepreg was achieved, at which point the test was considered
reinforcement fabric was positioned on the centerline of to have begun. The specimen was then heated to 150 C
the laminates, with respect to the through-thickness at a rate of 20 C/min, bringing the test to completion.
direction. The heat flow into the specimen was measured as a
Specimens were loaded at a displacement rate of function of the temperature. The Tg is reported as the
2 mm/min. Strains were recorded using a biaxial extens- midpoint temperature (Tm) as per ASTM E1356.15
ometer between 0 and 3000 me to allow the elastic
modulus (E) to be calculated between 1000 and
3000 me using the chord method presented in ASTM
Single-lap shear joint tests
D3039.13 For specimens that were tested at 55 C, an SLJs comprised flat A36 steel and prepreg substrates,
environmental chamber was used. The strain to failure with a primer in between, and were tested according to
(eu) was conservatively estimated for each of the speci- ASTM D5868.16 For the IW specimens, both the pre-
mens by dividing the ultimate stress ( u) by the calcu- preg and primer were bonded to the steel IW whilst
lated chord modulus (E). The Poisson’s ratio (LT) was they were uncured (i.e. wet). Each adherend had a
calculated from the strain readings taken during the LT width of 25 mm and length of 100 mm. The joints had
tests. Refer to ASTM D303913 for more information on a 25-mm overlap length and a total gauge length (dis-
property calculation. tance between grips) of 75 mm, with 50 mm reserved for
clamping of each adherend. The laminate configuration
was [0]12 (10.2 mm thick) with the CSM layer in contact
IPS tests
with the primer, and the transverse direction (90 )
In-plane shear (IPS) specimens were manufactured and aligned with the applied loading direction. The steel
tested in accordance with ASTM D537914 using an substrates of the specimens that were hot/wet condi-
Isopescu shear rig. The laminate was of [0]2s configur- tioned were painted using Permax 3000S to inhibit cor-
ation, with CSM positioned at the centerline with rosion, such that the paint was slightly covering the
respect to the through-thickness direction. The speci- primer layer at the bondline. The composite substrates
mens were 76 mm long and 20 mm wide, with a nominal were not painted.
thickness of 3.4 mm. A 90 included angle V-notch was During the test, specimens were loaded at a rate of
machined centrally in each of the 76 mm sides, and the 13 mm/min in accordance with ASTM D5868.16 For
76 mm sides were oriented in the longitudinal (0 ) dir- specimens that were tested at elevated temperatures
ection. The 20 mm width of the specimen was oriented (40 C, 55 C, or 80 C), an environmental chamber

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6 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)

Figure 1. Type A repair.

was used. The average shear stress at failure ( SLJ) was Pipe specimens incorporating a Type A wall-thin-
calculated by dividing the failure force by the measured ning defect and spiral repair wrap were manufactured
area. in accordance with ISO/TS 24817.7 The pipe specimens
had an overall length of 1500 mm and incorporated a
defect with a minimum wall thickness of 1.28 mm (80%
Type A wall-thinning defect repair tests wall-thinning defect), as shown in Figure 1, which was
Test conditions. The objective of the Type A test was to filled with Bio-Fix 911 kevlar filled epoxy grout prior to
determine whether a specimen complies with a min- repair application. A 500-mm wide spiral wound repair
imum burst requirement according to ISO/TS 248177 wrap was then applied around the pipe, incorporating
and ASTM D159917 Procedure B. This involved the an edge taper at either end of approximately 50 mm.
gradual application of an internal test pressure of The plies were wound such that there was a 50% over-
32.6 MPa (i.e. the design pressure of the pipe) to the lap between the previous revolutions, hence each indi-
pipe specimen at RT over approximately 100 s, which vidual ply accounted for two layers. A total of 11 plies
was sustained for 60 s. If no visible damage or drop in were used, hence 22 layers, totalling a thickness of
pressure was observed over this period, the specimen approximately 18.7 mm. The CSM layer of the first
was considered to have passed the test. Upon meeting ply was placed into contact with the primer on the
this passing requirement for the test, the pressure was steel surface, and each subsequent ply was placed
further increased in order to determine the maximum with the CSM down.
load-carrying capacity of the repaired pipe. Tests were
also conducted on specimens with unrepaired Type A Design calculations. The Type A repair calculations are
defects, in order to find a reference failure pressure. detailed here. All equations relating to thickness were

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Djukic et al. 7

Table 4. Steel pipe properties for Type A repair design.

Steel pipe
outer Measured averaged Measured averaged ISO/TS 248171 Yield stress,
diameter, D (mm) wall thickness, t (mm) defect depth (mm) defect depth (mm) Sa (MPa)

168.3 6.44 5.16 5.15 426

Table 5. Measured repair lamina properties. calculated as 32.6 MPa as per equation (1) for both
Modulus Poisson’s ratio IW and OOW.
Type of
manufacture E11 (GPa) E22 (GPa) 12 2  t  Sa ð2Þ  ð6:44 mmÞ  ð426 MPaÞ
pf ¼ ¼ ¼ 32:6 MPa
IW 16.89 14.97 0.18
D ð168:3 mmÞ
OOW 17.46 15.91 0.19 ð1Þ

IW: in water; OOW: out of water. For the OOW coupons, the circumferential elastic
modulus is calculated to be 16.6 GPa according to
Table 6; hence as per equations (2) and (3),7 the
reproduced from ISO/TS 24817 Annex C,7 whereas required repair thickness is 16.6 mm. At an approxi-
axial length calculations are reproduced from ISO/TS mate ply thickness of 0.85 mm, the required number
24817 Section 6.5.8.7 The input parameters for this of repair plies is 19.5.
computation are the steel pipe properties as shown in  
Table 4 and the applied repair modulus as per Table 5. 1 pf  D
tREPAIR ¼  Sa  ts ð2Þ
The short-term repair failure strain (eSHORT) is deemed ðEc ÞðeSHORT Þ 2
by the code to be 0.008. The steel pipe used for this test
was Orrcon Broadspec with an OD of 168.3 mm (D)
and a nominal wall thickness of 6.4 mm (t). The aver- For OOW repairs:
aged measured wall thickness was 6.44 mm as per
Table 4. The adopted material yield was 426 MPa (Sa ) 1
tREPAIR, OOW ¼
as per the test mill certificate provided by the steel ð16, 600 MPaÞð0:008Þ
 
manufacturer. Hence, for the purpose of designing the 32:6 MPa  168:3 mm
  426 MPa  ð6:44  5:16Þmm
Type A specimen, the pipe is treated as API-5 L-X61. 2
To design the repair, taking the helical winding and ¼ 16:6 mm
associated ply angles into account, it was necessary to
ð3Þ
first calculate the elastic moduli using orthotropic
material angular transformation equations, and the
elastic modulus data were presented in Table 7. The For the IW coupons, the circumferential elastic
average angle of the ply longitudinal (0 ) direction modulus was 16.1 GPa, hence the required repair thick-
was taken to be 15 to the circumferential direction ness is 17.1 mm, which is equivalent to 20.1 plies as per
of the pipe. The 15 angles are approximate and vary equations (2) and (4). For IW repairs:
slightly between plies based on the proximity to the
center of the pipe along with the thickness of 1
tREPAIR, IW ¼
the wrap. This angle was calculated based on helical- ð16, 100 MPaÞð0:008Þ
 
winding requirement, the requirement to overlap each 
32:6 MPa  168:3 mm
 426 MPa  ð6:44  5:16Þmm
subsequent revolution by 50% (therefore, each ply of 2
composite represents two plies in the layup), the ¼ 17:1 mm
300 mm width of the prepreg, and the diameter of ð4Þ
the pipe. The circumferential elastic modulus (E11)
and the axial elastic modulus (E22) properties used in Based on the helical-winding process used to apply
design of the Type A specimen are listed in Table 5. the repair, there must be an even number of plies used
The Type A repair was designed using short-term in the repair. In order to keep both the IW and OOW
pipe spool survival test calculations according to ISO designs consistent, and to maintain conservatism in the
TS 24817 Annex C.7 The test pressure (pf ) was design, the number of plies required was rounded up

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8 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)

Table 6. Calculated repair laminate properties.

Circumferential Axial modulus,

Type of manufacture Wrap angle ( ) modulus, Ec (GPa) Ea (GPa) Poisson’s ratio, 12

IW 15 16.1 14.5 0.2

OOW 15 16.6 15.2 0.21
IW: in water; OOW: out of water.

Table 7. In-plane coupon test results at 55 C.

Unconditioned Conditioned

RT 55 C RT 55 C

Property Avg SD Avg SD Avg SD Avg SD

OOW manufacture
E, LT (GPa) 17.5 0.6 16.7 0.2 – – 17.0 0.3
 u, LT (MPa) 235 18 232 7.7 – – 132 6.7
"u, LT (%) 1.35 0.08 1.39 0.04 – – 0.77 0.05
E, TT (GPa) 15.9 0.291 15.4 0.440 – – 15.4 0.4
 u, TT (MPa) 217 7.8 208 11.4 – – 110 6.4
"u, TT (%) 1.37 0.04 1.36 0.09 – – 0.72 0.04
LT 0.183 0.009 0.162 0.011 – – 0.184 0.022
G (GPa) 3.284 0.413 2.354 0.312 – – 2.510 0.38
 p (MPa) 80.3 7.5 50.0 6.9 – – 47.5 4.4
 p (%) 2.42 0.3 2.13 0.2 – – 1.91 0.20
IW manufacture
E, LT (GPa) 16.9 0.4 16.9 0.4 – – 16.6 0.6
 u, LT (MPa) 208 23.1 208 23.1 – – 119 9.1
"u, LT (%) 1.23 0.13 1.23 0.13 – – 0.71 0.04
E, TT (GPa) 15.0 0.4 15.0 0.4 – – 14.7 0.5
 u, TT (MPa) 182 25.2 182 25.2 – – 100 9.6
"u, TT (%) 1.22 0.18 1.22 0.18 – – 0.68 0.07
LT 0.192 0.011 0.192 0.011 – – 0.196 0.016
G (GPa) 2.86 0.25 2.86 0.25 – – 2.75 0.6
 p (MPa) 65.1 7.4 65.1 7.4 – – 47.2 5.0
 p (%) 2.26 0.16 2.26 0.16 – – 1.77 0.33

to 22. Hence, for a helically wound pipe, with 50% The taper is recommended to have a 5 : 1 ratio based
overlap per revolution, the number of plies required on thickness.7 Since the wrap thickness was approxi-
in manufacturing the specimen was 11. mately 19 mm, the total length allocated for each
The length of the repair was calculated using the taper was 95 mm (ltaper ). It is noted that of this allocated
equations detailed in ISO TS 24817 Section 6.5.8, taper length significant taper only occurred in the
which are reproduced here as equations (5) to (7). 50 mm closest to the repair edge in these specimens,
The total axial extent of the repair (l) can be calculated with the remainder of the ‘‘taper region’’ being of
using equation (5). approximately uniform thickness to the rest of the
repair. The length of the defect (ldefect ) was 168.3 mm,
l ¼ 2lover þ ldefect þ 2ltaper ð5Þ as per Figure 1. Therefore,

where
l ¼ 2lover þ ldefect þ 2ltaper ¼ 2ð65:8Þ þ 168:3 þ 2ð95Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
lover ¼ 2 Dt ¼ 2 ð168:3  6:44Þ ¼ 65:8 mm ð6Þ ¼ 489:9 mm ð7Þ

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Djukic et al. 9

Figure 2. Type B repair.

Based on the length calculation presented in equa- specimens are shown in Figure 2. The pipe specimens
tion (7), an overall repair length of 500 mm was had a total length of 800 mm and incorporated a
adopted. 10-mm diameter hole in the pipe, centrally located in
the axial direction. Teflon (PTFE) film inserts, with a
weak adhesive on one side to allow them to be attached
Type B through wall defect repair tests to the pipe, were placed over the hole to simulate
Test conditions. The objective of the Type B test was to 15 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm defects, which is an accept-
determine the repair laminate/substrate interface able practice according to ISO/TS 24817. A 200-mm
toughness parameter (energy release rate) for pipes wide circumferentially wound repair wrap was then
with through-wall defects, as described in ISO/TS applied around the pipe, making up 12 layers in total,
24817.7 This was done by pressurising the pipe to the and a thickness of approximately 10.2 mm. The longi-
failure pressure at a rate of 1 MPa per minute and tudinal (0 ) ply direction was oriented in the circumfer-
noting the failure pressure. If the failure was found to ential direction. The CSM layer of the first ply was
occur via delamination (D), whereby water was found placed into contact with the primer on the steel surface,
to weep from the sides of the repair, and the result was and the second ply was placed with the CSM down.
considered admissible for calculation. If the failure For one of the specimens, a 5 J impact was applied
occurred through other means, such as weeping over the top of the hole prior to testing, using a 12.5-
through thickness of the repair via microcracks (M) mm diameter hemispherical indentor. The hole had a
or yielding of the pipe (Y), then the result was con- 25-mm PTFE insert in place.
sidered inadmissible. Refer to ISO/TS 24817 Annex
D7 for details on how to calculate the mean energy Data reduction. The method for determining the repair
release rate ( mean) and the 95% lower confidence laminate/substrate interface toughness parameter
limit ( LCL). (energy release rate) for pipes with through-wall defects
Pipe specimens incorporating a Type B through-wall is described in this section. All equations in this section
defect were also manufactured in accordance with were reproduced from ISO TS 24817 Annex C.7 This
ISO/TS 24817.7 Dimensions and schematics of the was done by loading the pipe to the failure pressure and

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10 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)

then calculating the repair laminate/substrate interface the 0 and 90 direction of the plies, as per ISO/TS
toughness parameter using the formula presented in 24917 Annex B.7
equations (8) and (9).7
pffiffiffiffi
pi ¼ Aðdi Þ i ð8Þ Test results and discussion
where
Coupon test results
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi The results of the coupon tests are presented in Table 7.
u8 9 There are no formal requirements on the qualification
u< 0:001 =
u of the tensile and shear-coupon properties as per ISO/
Aðdi Þ ¼ t n o ð9Þ
:ð12 Þ 3 d4 þ 1 d þ 3 d2 ; TS 24817.7 Rather, the data listed in this table can be
Eac 512t3 i  i 64Gti i
i
used as is in the design of a repair.
The data summarised in Table 8 for the SLJs show
and where n is the number of observed datapoints, pi is that the strength of the unconditioned FRP—steel
the pressure, expressed in MPa, at failure of observa- joints with an overlap length of 25 mm, manufactured
tion i, Aðdi Þ is the function of defect size and repair both OOW and IW, is in excess of the required strength
laminate properties of observation i, of 5 MPa for the FRP-steel interface, as per the require-
G is the shear modulus of the repair laminate, in ments set out in ISO/TS 24817 Annex B,7 at all tem-
MPa,  is the Poisson’s ratio of the repair laminate, di peratures and conditions tested.
is the diameter of the defect, in mm, ti is the thickness of The hot/wet-conditioned specimens are required to
the repair laminate, in mm, and Eac is thepcombinedffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi achieve a minimum failure strength of 5 MPa, and this
tensile modulus of the repair laminate, Ea Ec , in failure strength should be at least 30% of that of the
MPa. Note that in this case, Ea is taken as ETT, and unconditioned SLJs, as per the requirements set out in
Ec is taken as ELT. ISO/TS 24817 Annex B.7 The hot/wet conditioning was
The mean energy release rate in J/m2 ( mean) is then performed for a period of greater than 2000 h in all
calculated using the results of all tests according to cases, which is more than double the minimum time
equation (10)7 and the 95% lower confidence limit frame (1000 h) required to achieve a long-term condi-
( LCL) using equation (11).7  is the variance of meas- tioning result as per ISO/TS 24817. The extended con-
urement of pressure, calculated using equation (12),7 ditioning period was observed in order for the
and tv is the statistical Student’s t value and is based specimens to reach a weight close to equilibrium. The
on a two-sided 0.025 level of significance, i.e. 95% hot/wet-conditioned specimen test results presented in
lower confidence limit. Table 8 show that SLJs cured OOW and IW and tested
at 40 C, 55 C, and 80 C surpass the code requirements
Pn !2
A ðd Þ p after hot/wet conditioning.
i i
mean ¼ Pi¼1
n 2
ð10Þ ISO/TS 24817 states that the glass transition tem-
i¼1 Aðdi Þ perature of the composite matrix must exceed the oper-
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!2 ating temperature of the pipeline by greater than 20 C
Pn
1 for a wall-thinning defect (Type A) or 30 C for a
i¼1 Aðdi Þ pi
LCL ¼ Pn 2
 t v  Pn 2
ð11Þ through-wall defect (Type B). This means that for
i¼1 Aðdi Þ i¼1 Aðdi Þ
each of the chosen qualification temperatures of 40 C,
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 55 C, and 80 C, (i) for use with wall-thinning defects,
Pn  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2
i¼1 pi  Aðdi Þ mean
the glass transition temperature must be greater than
¼ ð12Þ 60 C, 75 C, and 100 C, respectively, and (ii) for use
n2
with through-wall defects, the glass transition tempera-
When in performing calculations,  was considered ture must be greater than 70 C, 85 C, and 110 C. For
to be 0.201 and 0.192 for OOW and IW, respectively. the OOW results presented in Table 8, the wall-thinning
Eac was calculated to be 16.7 GPa for both repair types. defect requirements are met as soon as the composite
G was assumed to be 3.0 GPa based on a rule of has been cured, but not the through wall. The glass
mixtures calculation and similar experience with fiber- transition temperature climbs during hot/wet condi-
glass/epoxy composites systems, since it was not pos- tioning, which is thought to be the result of postcuring
sible to use the coupon results reported in Table 7, of the composite at the elevated hot/wet-conditioning
which tested the shear plane parallel to the plane sub- temperature, and following conditioning the through-
tended by the 90 and through-thickness directions of wall requirements are met. Hence, for OOW-cured
the plies. The required shear plane for the Type B cal- laminates, a postcure is recommended prior to service
culation is that this is parallel to the plane subtended by of through-wall defect repairs. The glass transition

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Djukic et al. 11

Table 8. Tg and SLJ test results.

Unconditioned Conditioned

RT ET RT ET

Property Avg SD Avg SD Avg SD Avg SD

OOW manufacture
Tg 40 C ( C) 70.3 2.1 – – 94.8 3.4 – –
Tg 55 C ( C) 76.5 1.2 – – 113.8 1.6 – –
Tg 80 C ( C) 101.6 2.0 – – 140.4 2.7 – –
 SLJ 40 C (MPa) 14.4 1.8 14.8 1.7 – – 11.7 2.5
 SLJ 55 C (MPa) 15.7 1.7 13.3 1.8 – – 8.0 1.1
 SLJ 80 C (MPa) 9.2 1.0 8.2 1.0 – – 6.9 0.6
IW manufacture
Tg 40 C ( C) – – – – – – – –
Tg 55 C ( C) 99.9 0.6 – – – – – –
Tg 80 C ( C) – – – – – – – –
 SLJ 40 C (MPa) 13.9 0.5 12.5 0.5 – – 10.8 1.3
 SLJ 55 C (MPa) 11.5 1.5 11.0 1.5 – – 9.7 1.1
 SLJ 80 C (MPa) 5.9 0.6 5.6 – – 6.8 1.1

temperature of the composite cured IW was only mea-

Table 9. Type A test results. sured after curing at 55 C, and this was found to be
Maximum 23.4 C higher than that of the equivalent OOW cure
Cure Hold applied case, meeting both wall-thinning and through wall-
temperature pressure pressure defect requirements immediately, indicating that
Test no. ( C) (MPa) (MPa) Pass/fail curing IW is advantageous in this respect.
No repair
1 N/A 0.0 11.8 N/A Type A test results
2 N/A 0.0 12.9 N/A
The repaired Type A defect pipes were all found to
3 N/A 0.0 13.0 N/A
surpass the code requirements that they survive short-
OOW manufacture term pressurisation to 32.6 MPa, as per Table 9. The
1 40 32.6 37.5 Pass
average fluid pressure at which the unrepaired Type A
2 55 32.6 37.75 Pass defect pipes failed was 12.6 MPa. In contrast, after
3 55 32.6 38.0 Pass meeting the 32.6 MPa requirement, the Type A speci-
4 55 33.0 33.0 a Pass mens with repairs applied OOW and IW were all
5 55 32.6 38.1 Pass pressurised to approximately 38 MPa, which is approxi-
6 55 32.6 38.0 Pass mately triple the failure pressure of unrepaired pipes.
7 80 32.6 38.0 Pass The tests on the repaired specimens were stopped short
IW manufacture of failure of the defect due to yielding of the pipe out-
1 40 32.7 37.5 Pass side the defect region, an example of which is shown in
2 55 32.6 37.1 Pass Figure 3(a). Each of the repaired pipes surpasses the
3 55 32.7 36.9 Pass requirements for short-term pressurisation according
4 55 32.6 37.8 Pass to ISO/TS 24817. In a secondary test, one of the
5 55 32.7 37.9 Pass pipes cured OOW at 55 C was pressurised until failure,
which occurred at approximately 42 MPa outside the
6 55 32.6 37.6 Pass
repaired region, as shown in Figure 4. This shows
7 80 32.6 36.6 Pass
that in the case of the Type A repair presented here,
a
No further pressurisation possible due to test apparatus failure. the pipeline is able to sustain pressure beyond that

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12 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)

Figure 3. Pipe repair specimens after test completion: (a) Type A; (b) Type B.

Figure 4. Type A specimen showing rupture outside of repaired region.

Table 10. Type B test results.

Admissible for
Test no. Hole diameter (mm) Weep pressure (MPa) Failure mode calculation (Y/N)

OOW repair
1 10 – Y N
2 10 24.0 D Y
3 10 – Y N
4 15 8.4 D Y
5 15 12.5 D Y
6 15 11.7 D Y
7 25 7.2 D Y
8 25 6.8 D Y
9 25 13.5 D Y
10 (impacted) 25 10.2 D Y
IW repair
1 15 13.6 D Y
2 15 12.8 D Y
3 15 14.8 D Y
4 20 8.5 D Y
5 20 11.0 D Y
6 20 11.6 D Y
7 25 4.5 D Y
8 25 7.8 D Y
9 25 7.5 D Y
10 (impacted) 25 9.7 D Y

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Djukic et al. 13

permitted by original pipeline strength, in the region can be used for the calculation of repair geometries on
containing the defect. pipes with through-wall defects.

Acknowledgements
Type B test results
The authors acknowledge the professionalism of Det Norske
There are no formal requirements that are required in Veritas (DNV) who was contracted to carry out independent
the code for through-wall (Type B) repairs. Rather, the third-party witnessing of the whole qualification test pro-
fracture parameter calculated from the Type B charac- gram. In particular, thanks to D. Gosling and Dr A.T.
terisation tests can be used in the design of other repairs Echtermeyer of DNV for useful discussions.
for through-wall defects. The results of the Type B tests
are presented in Table 10. The results show that the References
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limit (LCL ) was calculated to be 57.7 J/m2. For the for underwater structural repair. In: Eleventh inter-
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repair composite of the configuration presented in posite repairs for offshore risers at topside and splash
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this paper.
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It can be seen that the OOW mean is 11.5% higher
7. ISO/TS 24817. Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas
than that of the IW; however, the 95% lower confi- industries—composite repairs for pipework—qualifica-
dence limit of the OOW specimen is actually tion and design, installation, testing and inspection,
26.6% lower than the IW. This difference comes International Organisation for Standardization, 2006.
about due to less data being available to perform the 8. PCC-2. Repair of pressure equipment and piping, ASME,
calculation for the OOW repair, due to OOW results 1 2011.
and 3 being inadmissible as a result of pipe yielding 9. ASTM D5229-92. Standard test method for moisture
failure. absorption properties and equilibrium conditioning of
polymer matrix composite materials.
10. ASTM A36. Standard specification for carbon structural
Summary and conclusion steel.
11. ASTM D4417-03. Standard test methods for field meas-
The composite overwrap repair method presented is
urement of surface profile of blast cleaned steel.
now qualified in terms of mechanical performance for 12. ASTM D1141-98. Standard practice for the preparation
use OOW and IW, according to ISO/TS 24817. of substitute ocean water.
Mechanical performance was reported at RT, 40 C, 13. ASTM D3039-08. Standard test method for tensile prop-
55 C, and 80 C in this paper, which included test erties of polymer matrix composite materials.
results on coupons, pipes with thin-wall defects (Type 14. ASTM D5379-05. Standard test method for shear proper-
A), and through-wall defects (Type B), all of which ties of composite materials by the V-notched beam
were prepared under laboratory conditions. method.
The glass transition temperature of the specimens 15. ASTM E1356-08. Standard test method for the assign-
prepared OOW is shown to be slightly low for use in ment of glass transition temperatures by differential scan-
ning calorimetry.
Type B repairs; however, the glass transition reaches an
16. ASTM D5868-01. Standard test method for lap shear
acceptable level over time when postcuring is applied.
adhesion for fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) bonding.
The Type A specimens surpass code requirements of the 17. ASTM D1599-99. Standard test method for resistance to
short-term pressurisation tests. The results of testing of short-time hydraulic pressure of plastic pipe, tubing, and
Type B specimens produced a fracture parameter that fittings.

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