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Sci Amer 8980
Sci Amer 8980
of Ultrasound
Intense ultrasonic waves traveling through liquids generate small
cavities that enlarge and implode, creating tremendous heat.
These extreme conditions provide an unusual chemical environment
by Kenneth S. Suslick
D
uring the early tests of the first heat interacts on longer time scales These chemical effects of ultra-
British destroyer in 1894, Sir at lower energies. The interaction of sound arise from the physical proc-
John I. Thornycroft and Sydney sound with matter through the proc- esses that create, enlarge and im-
W. Barnaby noticed a severe vibration ess of cavitation makes available to plode gaseous and vaporous cavities
from the destroyer’s propeller. They chemists a range of energies on time in a liquid. Ultrasound waves, like
suggested that large bubbles, or cavi- scales that are not available from oth- all sound waves, consists of cycles
ties, formed by the spinning propeller er sources. of compression and expansion. Com-
and imploded by water pressure, were Chemists usually induce cavitation pression cycles exert a positive pres- .
the source of the vibrations. Thorny- not by applying mechanical pres- sure on the liquid, pushing the mole-
croft and Barnaby redesigned the pro- sure but rather by generating intense cules together; expansion cycles exert
peller to reduce the vibrations from sound waves in a liquid. Such waves a negative pressure, pulling the mole-
what came to be known as cavitation, create alternating regions of compres- cules away from one another.
but as the British navy built even fast- sion and expansion that can form bub- During the expansion cycle a sound
er propulsion systems the phenome- bles 100 microns in diameter. The wave of sufficient intensity can gener-
non became an increasingly signifi- bubbles implode violently in less than ate cavities. A liquid is held together
cant problem. In 1917, therefore, the a microsecond, heating their contents by attractive forces, which determine
navy commissioned Lord Rayleigh to to 5,500 degrees Celsius-about the the tensile strength of a liquid. In
study the matter. He confirmed that temperature of the sun’s surface. order for a cavity to form, a large
the vibrations were due to the enor- negative pressure associated with the
T
mous turbulence, heat and pressure he first chemist to recognize the expansion cycle of the sound wave is
of imploding cavities. Although cavi- unusual effects of intense sound needed to overcome the liquid’s ten-
tation continues to be troublesome waves traveling through a liquid, sile strength.
for nautical engineers, it has provided known as sonochemistry, was Alfred The amount of negative pressure
chemists with a unique environment L. Loomis in 1927. In spite of his ear- needed depends on the type and puri-
for high-energy reactions. ly results, the study of sonochemistry ty of the liquid. For truly pure liquids,
Chemistry, after all, is the interac- remained exceedingly modest. A ren- tensile strengths are so great that
tion of energy and matter. Specific aissance in sonochemistry took place available ultrasound generators can-
energy sources limit the control chem- in the 1980’s, soon after the advent not produce enough negative pres-
ists have over the reactivity of matter. of inexpensive and reliable generators sure to make cavities. In pure water,
Light interacts with matter on a short of high-intensity ultrasound (sound for instance, more than 1,000 atmos-
time scale at high energies, whereas pitched above human hearing at fre- pheres of negative pressure would be
quencies greater than 16 kilohertz, or required, yet the most powerful ultra-
16,000 cycles per second). sound generators produce only about
KENNETH S. SUSLICK is professor of Today ultrasound is applied in hos- 50 atmospheres of negative pressure.
chemistry at the University of Illinois at pitals for medical imaging, in indus- The tensile strength of liquids is re-
Urbana-Champaign. He received his B.S.
at the California Institute of Technol-
try for welding plastics and cleaning duced, however, by gas trapped in the
ogv in 1974 and his Ph.D. from Stan- materials and even in the home for crevices of small solid particles. The
ford University in 1978. He holds a Re- burglar alarms and vaporizers. These effect is analogous to the reduction in
search Career Development Award from applications, however, do not utilize strength that occurs from cracks in
the National Institutes of Health and a the chemical effects of ultrasound. Ul- solid materials. When a gas-filled crev-
Sloan Foundation Research Fellowship. trasound can increase the reactivity of ice is exposed to a negative-pressure
In 1986 he was a visiting fellow of Bal- metal powders by more than 100,000 cycle from a sound wave, the reduced
io1 College at the University of Oxford. times. Ultrasound can drive metal par- pressure makes the gas in the crevice
In addition to sonochemistry, he is in-
terested in the role of metals in biologi-
ticles together at such high speeds expand until a small bubble is re-
cal systems. Suslick also enjoys singing that they melt at the point of collision, leased into solution. Most liquids are
folk music and sculpting bronzes. and ultrasound can generate micro- sufficiently contaminated by small
scopic flames in cold liquids. particles to initiate cavitation. In tap
SCIENTIFIC A M E R I C A N F e b r u a r y I989 8 1
-0”
SONOCHEMISTRY makes available a range of energies as well any other source. The relations among energy, pressure and
as combinations of pressure and duration not available from time are shown for sonochemistry and other chemistry fields.
the frequency of the ultrasound wave. self is so small that the heat dissipates ticated models give temperatures of
At 20 kilohertz, for example, the criti- quickly. My co-workers and I at the thousands of degrees Celsius, pres-
cal size is a cavity roughly 170 mi- University of Illinois at Urbana-Cham- sures of from hundreds to thousands
crons in diameter. At this point the paign estimate that the heating and of atmospheres and heating times of
cavity can grow rapidly in the course cooling rates during cavitation are less than a microsecond.
of a single cycle of sound. more than a billion degrees C per The temperature of the imploding
Once a cavity has experienced a very second! This is similar to the cooling cavity cannot be measured with a
rapid growth caused by either low- that occurs if molten metal is splat- physical thermometer because the
or high-intensity ultrasound, it can tered onto a surface cooled near abso- heat is dissipated too quickly to be
no longer absorb energy as efficiently lute zero. At any given time, therefore, registered. Recently my collaborators
from the sound waves. Without this the bulk of the liquid remains at the and I found an alternative that enables
energy input the cavity can no longer ambient temperature. one to check theoretical results exper-
sustain itself. The liquid rushes in and The exact temperatures and pres- imentally. One way to gauge tempera-
the cavity implodes. sures generated during cavity implo- ture is to observe the rate at which
sion are difficult both to calculate familiar chemical reactions take place.
T he implosion of cavities estab- theoretically and to determine ex- More precisely, the temperature is re-
lishes an unusual environment perimentally. Yet these quantities lated to the negative inverse loga-
for chemical reactions. The gas- are fundamental to describing the po- rithm of the rate of the reaction. If the
es and vapors inside the cavity are tential of sonochemistry. Theoretical rates of several different reactions are
compressed, generating intense heat models have been proposed that ap- measured in an ultrasound environ-
that raises the temperature of the liq- proximate the dynamics of cavity im- ment, the temperature from cavity im-
uid immediately surrounding the cavi- plosion at various levels of accuracy. plosion can be calculated.
ty and creates a local hot spot. Even All have difficulty accurately describ- In the process of determining the
though the temperature of this region ing cavity dynamics during the last relative rates of a series of sonochemi-
is extraordinarily high, the region it- stages of implosion. The most sophis- cal reactions, David A. Hammerton in
ULTRAsOUND
I
CHEMISTRY OF ULTRASOUND can differ greatly from the chem- poses iron pentacarbonyl into pure iron and carbon monox-
istries of light and heat. The reactions of iron pentacarbonyl ide. Light yields two iron atoms bonded to nine carbon monox-
Fe(CO)5, an iron atom (green) bonded to five carbon monoxide ide units. Ultrasound produces the cluster compound consist-
units (gray and red), exemplify the differences. Heat decom- ing of three iron atoms bonded to 12 carbon monoxide units.
U
ltrasound is a useful tool in
nearly every case where a liquid
and a solid must react. Further-
more, since ultrasound can radiate
through large volumes of liquid, it is
well suited for industrial applications.
For these reasons future applications
of ultrasound in chemical reactions
will be diverse. In the synthesis of
pharmaceuticals, ultrasound will im-
prove chemical yields over conven-
tional methods.
The greatest advances in sonochem-
istry, however, may be in the produc-
tion of new materials that have unusu-
al properties. The extraordinary tem-
peratures and pressures reached dur-
ing cavitation, for example, may lead
to the synthesis of refractory materi-
als (such as carborundum, tungsten
carbide and even diamond). Refracto-
ry solids have high temperature stabil-
ity and enormous structural strength.
They are important as industrial abra-
sives and hardened tool bits.
INTERPARTICLE COLLISIONS driven by shock waves from cavity implosion cause The extremely rapid cooling that
particles to agglomerate. The collisions between particles of zinc (here magni-
follows cavity implosion may be em-
fied 13,000 diameters) were so violent that the zinc particles melted on impact.
ployed to create metallic glasses. Such
amorphous metals have outstanding
corrosion resistance and unusually
them better catalysts. Many reactions such as nickel, copper and zinc pow- high strength.
require a catalyst in order to proceed ders irradiated with ultrasound show Although chemical applications of
at useful or even appreciable rates. dramatic changes in surface morphol- ultrasound are still in the early stages
Catalysts are not consumed by the ogy. Individual surfaces are smoothed of development, the next few years
reaction but instead speed the reac- and particles are consolidated into ex- promise rapid progress in sonochem-
tion of other substances. tended aggregates. An experiment to istry. The use of ultrasound in labora-
The effects of ultrasound on particle determine the surface composition of tory reactions is becoming common-
morphology, surface composition and nickel revealed that its oxide coating place, and the extension of the tech-
catalyst reactivity have been investi- was removed, greatly improving the nology to industrial-scale reactions is
gated by Dominick J. Casadonte and reactivity of the nickel powder. Ultra- likely to follow. Underlying these de-
Stephen J. Doktycz in our laboratory. sonic irradiation increased the effec- veloping technologies are the recent
They have discovered that catalysts tiveness of nickel powder as a catalyst advances in our understanding of the
nature of cavitation and the chemical
effects of ultrasound.
FURTHER READlNG
ULTRASOUND in Synthesis Kenneth S.
Suslick in Modem Synthetic Methods,
Vol. 4, pages l-60; 1986.
S YNTHESIS WITH ULTRASONIC W AVES .
Philip Boudjouk in Journal of Chemical
Education, Vol. 63, No. 5, pages 427-
429; May, 1986.
S ONOLUMINESCENCE FROM NON -AQUE-
ous Liquids. Kenneth S. Suslick and
Edward B. Flint in Nature, Vol. 330,
No. 6148, pages 553-555; December
10, 1987.
METAL SURFACES can be physically altered by ultrasound. Before this sample of ULTRASOUND: IT S CHEMICAL , PHYSCAL
nickel powder was irradiated with ultrasound (left) it had an unreactive crystalline AND BIOLOGICAL Effects. Edited by
coating on its surface. After irradiation (right) the coating was gone, exposing the Kenneth S. Suslick VCH Publishers,
nickel and boosting its reactivity. Without the coating the nickel powder becomes an Inc., 1988.
excellent catalyst for chemical reactions. The magnification is about 100 diameters.