Values

Values
Basic convictions that a specific
mode of conduct or end-state of
existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence.

Value System
A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s
values in terms of their intensity.

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 Characteristics
• Judgmental element - what is right, good,
or desirable.

• Values have both content and intensity

attributes.

• Values are not generally fluid and flexible.

They tend to be relatively stable and
enduring.
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 Importance of Values
• Provide understanding of the attitudes,
motivation, and behaviors of individuals and
cultures.
• Influence our perception of the world around us.
• Represent interpretations of “right” and “wrong.”
• Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are
preferred over others.

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 Types of Values – Rokeach Value
Survey
Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value Survey
consisting of two sets of values, with each containing 18
individual value items.
Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a
person would like to achieve during his or her
lifetime. e.g.: A comfortable life, Equality, National
Security, Self-respect
Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving
one’s terminal values. e.g.: Ambitious, Courageous, and
Obedient
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 Hofstede’s Framework for
Assessing Cultures
To analyze variations among cultures a research was done
in late 1970s by Greet Hofstede. He surveyed more than
1,16,000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their work-
related values.
Power Distance
The extent to which a society accepts that
power in institutions and organizations is
distributed unequally.
Low Distance: Relatively equal distribution
High Distance: Extremely unequal distribution

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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Individualism Collectivism
The degree to which A tight social framework in
people prefer to act as which people expect
individuals rather than others in groups of which
a member of groups. they are a part to look
after them and protect
them.

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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Achievement
The extent to which societal values are
characterized by assertiveness,
materialism and competition.

Nurturing
The extent to which societal values
emphasize relationships and concern
for others.

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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

Uncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which a society
feels threatened by uncertain
and ambiguous situations and
tries to avoid them.

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Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Long-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that
emphasizes the future, thrift, and
persistence.

Short-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that
emphasizes the past and
present, respect for tradition,
and fulfilling social obligations.

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 The ••Assertiveness
Assertiveness
GLOBE ••Future
FutureOrientation
Orientation
Framework ••Gender
Genderdifferentiation
differentiation
••Uncertainty
Uncertaintyavoidance
avoidance
••Power
Powerdistance
distance
for ••Individual/collectivism
Individual/collectivism
Assessing ••In-group
In-groupcollectivism
collectivism
Cultures ••Performance
Performanceorientation
orientation
••Humane
Humaneorientation
orientation

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 Attitudes

Attitudes Cognitive component

The opinion or belief segment
Evaluative of an attitude.
statements or
judgments Affective Component
concerning The emotional or feeling segment
objects, of an attitude.
people, or
events. Behavioral Component
An intention to behave in a certain
way toward someone or something.

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 Types of Attitudes
Job Satisfaction
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that
an individual holds toward his or her job.

Job Involvement
Identifying with the job, actively
participating in it, and considering
performance important to self-worth.

Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular organization
and its goals, and wishing to maintain
membership in the organization.
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 The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of
cognitive dissonance, seeking to explain the linkage between
attitudes and behavior. He argued that any form of
inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will attempt
to reduce the dissonance.
Dissonance means “an inconsistency.”
Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or
more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.

Desire to reduce dissonance

• Importance of elements creating dissonance
• Degree of individual influence over elements
• Rewards involved in dissonance
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 Measuring the A-B Relationship
• Early research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal relationship to behavior.
• In the late 1960s, this assumed relationship between attitudes and behavior (A-B) was
challenged.
• Recent research indicates that attitudes (A) significantly predict behaviors (B) when
moderating variables are taken into account.

Moderating Variables
• Importance of the attitude
• Specificity of the attitude
• Accessibility of the attitude
• Social pressures on the individual
• Direct experience with the attitude
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 Self-Perception Theory

Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense

out of an action that has already occurred.

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 An Application: Attitude Surveys
Attitude Surveys
Eliciting responses from employees through questionnaires
about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors,
and the organization.
Using Attitude Surveys on regular basis provides managers
with valuable feedback on how employees perceive their
working conditions.

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 Job Satisfaction
• Measuring Job Satisfaction
– Single global rating
• Asking individuals to respond to one question, such as
“All things considered, how satisfied are you with your
job?”
– Summation score
• It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the
employee’s feelings about each one ranked on a
standardized scale.
• Typical factors that would be included are the nature of
the work, supervision, present pay, promotion
opportunities, and relations with co-workers.

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 The Effect of Job Satisfaction on
Employee Performance
• Satisfaction and Productivity
– Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more productive.
– Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more
satisfied workers.
• Satisfaction and Absenteeism
– Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.
• Satisfaction and Turnover
– Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
– Organizations take actions to retain high performers and
to weed out lower performers.

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 Job Satisfaction and OCB

• Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship

Behavior (OCB)
– Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by
and are trusting of the organization are more
willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond
the normal expectations of their job.

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 Job Satisfaction and Customer
Satisfaction
• Satisfied employees increase customer
satisfaction because:
– They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive.
– They are less likely to turnover which helps
build long-term customer relationships.
– They are experienced.
• Dissatisfied customers increase employee
job dissatisfaction.

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Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

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 How Employees Can Express
Dissatisfaction
Exit Voice
Behavior directed toward Active and constructive
leaving the organization. attempts to improve
conditions.

Loyalty Neglect
Passively waiting for Allowing conditions to
conditions to improve. worsen.

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