THE STORY

OF
ANTARCTICA

NATIONAL CENTRE FOR

ANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCH
&
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA
The Story of Antarctica
Story
Anju Tiwari, K.P.Krishnan and Rasik Ravindra
Pages : 64
Year : 2008
ISBN : 978-81-906526-0-5
c National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
Ministry of Earth Sciences, Goa
Geological Society of India
Bangalore

Designed and Printed by National Institute of Science Communication And

Information Resources, C.S.I.R., Dr. K. S. Krishnan Marg, New Delhi-110 012.
 Secretary
Ministry of Earth Sciences
Government of India, Mahasagar Bhavan,
Block-12, C.G.O. Complex, Lodhi Road,
Dr. P.S. Goel New Delhi - 110 003

FOREWORD

A ntarctica is the only place on the Earth that is not owned by anyone. It is a
continent of peace, tranquility and science. The Antarctic Treaty System cur-
rently in place, offers an opportunity to the scientific community world over, to search
for the answers to many unresolved questions pertaining to our mother earth. Com-
mon people, especially the young generation needs to know more about this continent
and its role in global perspective.
Bringing together historical and scientific aspects of Antarctica in a lucid and
interactive manner so that children find it interesting, has been a major objective of
this venture. The triennium 2007-2009 is being celebrated as the International Year of
Planet Earth as also the International Polar Year. It is therefore befitting that informa-
tion relating to a lesser-understood region of earth - Antarctica, is being brought in the
present form. This book is an outcome of determined effort made by many enthusias-
tic, young researchers and scientists of National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Re-
search who were encouraged by the Ministry of Earth Sciences and Geological Society
of India to take up this task. I sincerely hope that this book would enthuse and excite
the imagination of our school children and inspire them to know more about the icy
continent of Antarctica so that it’s pristine environment is preserved for the genera-
tions to come.

(P. S. Goel)

iii
 PROLOGUE
PROLOGUE

A ntarctica deserves special place in Earth’s geography not only because of its
location but also due to its importance in influencing Earth’s climate and sea level.
Unfortunately it continues to be the least studied continent because of its remote and
inhospitable location. Attempts to understand it commenced in earnest during the past
50 year with the launch of International Geophysical Year in 1957-58. India joined the
select group of nations active in Polar Science by launching its first Antarctic expedition
in 1981. Since 1981, scientific expeditions to Antarctica are launched every year. The
26th expedition in this series coincided with International Polar Year (2007-2008).
Geological Society of India has been actively involved in science popularization
via books under “Popularization of Science Series”. Under its aegis two books have
already been published by GSI, which are “Story of Oceans” & “Glaciers: The Rivers of
Ice”. In continuation to this, the society prompted National Centre for Antarctic and
Ocean Research (NCAOR) under Ministry of Earth Sciences, which is the premier
institute for Antarctic research, to bring out a book on Antarctica for school children so
that mysteries surrounding it can be uncovered. I would like to congratulate NCAOR
for producing an informative and beautifully illustrated book and I believe that it will
go a long way in creating awareness about this icy continent in general public and
especially school children’s minds.

(Harsh Gupta)

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr. P.S.Goel, Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences is gratefully acknowledged for ap-
proving this popular write up. Dr. B.P. Radhakrishna and Dr. Harsh K. Gupta have
been the driving force in bringing out this series. Mr. S. Mukherjee, Mr. Arun Chaturvedi,
Mr. M.J.D’Souza and Mr. M.J.Beg from the Antarctica Division, Geological Survey of
India are earnestly thanked for reviewing the draft of the book and providing their
valuable comments. Many websites were scoured to get the right photographs to add
visuals to the text. These are all listed in the bibliography and are duly acknowledged.
Two postgraduate students of the Pune University (Mr. Ashok Sunwade and Ms.Preeti
Oswal) have contributed some of the pictures incorporated in the book.

vi
 CONTENTS

Foreword …………………………..………............................................iii

Prologue …………………………..………............................................. v

I. The mysterious continent.…………………………..………................1

II. It is ice and ice every where..………………………….……...............4

III. Life in Antarctica.............................................................................9

IV. Discovery of Antarctica...................................................................14

V. Is it really no man’s land …..……..…….………………................21

VI. India’s journey to Antarctica……………………………................24

VII. Antarctic science…………...…………………………….................36

VIII. The Indian Contribution to Antarctic Science.................................45

IX. Amazing facts about Antarctica………………………...................52

Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Bibliography . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

vii

I
THE MYSTERIOUS CONTINENT
If you’re exploring the planet, Antarctica is the last stop on the train.... —Barry Lopez
A ntarctica, the white continent, of
ten called as the last wilderness of
our planet earth, stands isolated at the
earth’s southern most part today. This huge
landmass covered with a thick blanket of
ice throws relentless challenges to the
adventurous instinct of mankind. It is wild,
breathtakingly beautiful and still remains
unexplored fully by man. The pristine
environment makes the icy continent a
unique place to conduct scientific research.
Very wisely, the world has designated
Antarctica as the continent for Peace and
Science. Today, we have realized that
Antarctica is a virtual storehouse of
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information about many mysteries of the
earth. This frozen continent holds the key
to the story of drifting continents and the
past climate of earth. It also controls the
key to global climate-pattern of today.
A place of extremes
Antarctica is the highest, coldest and
windiest continent. With very low amount
of snowfall and practically no rainfall, most
of the continent is technically a desert. The
Antarctic icecap stores almost 70% of the
world’s freshwater and 90% of ice. The
Southern Ocean surrounding this
continent freezes up to a distance of 1500
An Iceberg
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km in winter, more than doubling the

actual size (13.9 million sq km) of the
continent. This is also a place of midnight
sun and a continent where darkness prevails
for months together during the Polar
winters. The continent is as large as India
and China put together with no permanent
habitation. There are no forests, no
perennial rivers and no industrial or
military activity. There are also no markets explosions are frozen in the ice. Equally
or super bazaars. Explorers from different important is the evidence for ozone
nations mingle with one-another and call depletion in the upper atmosphere. Studies
themselves Polar men. on the ice sheet and its contribution to
world sea level rise are vital to our
Antarctica is not a merely scientific understanding of the global change.
curiosity but a key part of the fabric of the Southern lights or Aurora Australis, seen
Earth system. The processes taking place during the dark periods in Antarctic sky, is
in the Antarctic system affect the world’s another unique and fascinating
climate and its oceans, linking the
continent inextricably to what we
experience thousands of kilometers away. Aur ora A
urora ustralis
Australis
In understanding global climate change,
Antarctica has a crucial role to play. Locked
up in its more than 4 km thick ice sheet, is
a record of past climate for the last 5,00,000
years or even more. Trapped bubbles held
in the ice act as an archive of atmospheric
gases. Evidence for levels of global pollution
by industry, agriculture and atomic

2

Penguins moving into the sea
Snow covered mountains in Antarctica
phenomenon viewed in Antarctica by the
charged particles received from solar flares.
These lights are like dancing ballerina
wearing multicolored bright dresses.
Snowstorms, blizzards and magnetic storms
are rather a common sight. Infact, their
frequency is so great that one starts missing
these if a spell of good weather continues
for a long period. Some of the magnetic
storms can seriously damage satellites and
even power systems. Early detection of
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these storms and prediction of their possible
damage can save electronic equipment.
The wild life on the peripheral regions of
the continent, comprising birds such as
petrels, skuas, penguins and larger animals
like seals and whales make the place really
lively and interesting as it brings to our
knowledge the art of surviving, breeding
and community living in the most hostile
environment.

II
IT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHERE
A ntarctica surrounds the geographic
South Pole of the earth and is the fifth
largest among the seven continents of the
earth. Ninety eight percent of the Antarctic
continent is under ice cover. Antarctica
totals 13.9 million sq km with an average
elevation of about 2300 m (about 7500 ft)
and its shape is almost circular with an arm
- the Antarctic Peninsula - protruding
Indian Antarctic Expedition Vessel
enters the Polar Circle
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northward and reaching very close to South
America. Ice is the typical, defining
property associated with Antarctica. The
various forms and shapes in which ice
exists in this continent are astounding and
constitute characteristic features of
Antarctica. So, let’s first acquaint ourselves
with the diverse forms of ice in this polar
mass of land and surrounding ocean.

Under The Sheet Of Ice
Sheet
The ice that covers the land of Antarctica
is called ice sheet. This sheet is formed
because layers of snow continuously got
deposited over this continent for hundreds
of thousands of years. The ice sheet is
continuously in motion and its physical
parameters are changing. It forms as snow
crystals fall and pile on top of each other,
creating a huge weight that compresses the
earlier snow and converts it into ice. This
weight places pressure on the ice, which in
turn is forced to move down and across
Glaciers
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Icebergs
the land, flowing from the high interior of
Antarctica to the coast. Near the edge of
the continent, ice is channeled, which form
great rivers of moving ice called glaciers.
Pushing through to the coast, glaciers can
also flow out over the ocean creating Ice
Shelf. The ice shelf is anchored to the land
but floats upon the ocean. With the push
of the ice sheet from behind and the
pounding ocean down below, parts of the
floating ice shelves eventually break off and
become icebergs. Some of these are
grounded near the coast becoming
spectacular guardians to the continent,
while others float with the currents to great
distances. They can vary in size and shape.
Some icebergs are as big as a small country.
Some could take a city on their back on a
cruise and can take years to melt as they float
in the ocean surrounding Antarctica – the
Southern Ocean.
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Continental Ice
The ice that envelops the continent of
Antarctica is called continental ice. This is
also known as ice cap, ice sheet or polar
ice. This ice sheet is not just a flat, solid
mass. It is dynamic and continuously
changing. Some of its varied characteristics
are described and illustrated below.

1. Hexagonal Ice Crystals appear in a variety

of places!
2. Ice Cliffs The margins of the ice sheet are
exposed at times as great cliffs.
3. A Crevasse, as here, shows typical Antarc-
tic blue ice. It can become covered by falling
snow. This is dangerous as the gap beneath
cannot be seen and accidents can take place.
4. Blue ice- Antarctic lakes start freezing as
the temperature drops with the advent of the
Antarctic winter. Blue Ice is the frozen sur-
face of a lake or continental ice that is very
hard and shines like a glass surface.

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Icebergs

Icebergs are not sea ice. They are actually

pieces of freshwater ice that break off the gla-
ciers or ice shelves. They are found in various
shapes and sizes and are one of the most en-
chanting features of Antarctica. The differ- 3
ent sizes and shapes of icebergs tell a story of
the kind of hostile and harsh weather they
have endured with success. Icebergs look strik-
ing during sunrise and sunset. 1 & 2 – Weath-
ered ice berg, 3 & 4 – Flat topped ice bergs,
5 – Pinnacle ice berg, 6 – Tilted ice berg.
4

1
5

2 6

7

The Sea Ice
Sea
Pancake ice
Pack ice
The ice that forms on the sea is very
different from that which forms on the
continent. As the ocean surrounding
Antarctica lives through its annual cycle of
freezing and melting, it depicts different
forms of ice. Close to the continent there
are areas of Fast ice and Polynya. Fast ice
is sea ice attached to the shelf ice and melts
away during Antarctic summer.
The initiation of freezing gives rise to a
greasy surface on the sea, which on further
freezing forms like small Pancake ice floes.
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Polynya
Fast ice
These pancake floes join together to form
Pack ice. During winters, large tracks of
Southern Ocean are covered by this Pack
Ice. In between areas of fast/shelf Ice and
the Pack ice, there are areas of open water
called Polynya. These are formed due to
(i) cold winds from the continent or ocean
currents that instantly drive away the freshly
formed ice in continent’s close proximity,
(ii) warm water upwelling (influx of deep
seawater to the sea surface), which reduces
and altogether stops ice formation.
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III
LIFE IN ANTARCTICA
ANTARCTICA

L et's now meet the inhabitants of this

wonderful continent. The abnormally
harsh climatic conditions in Antarctica
make the survival of any form of life a
struggle. When one thinks of life forms in
Antarctica, the first one to cross our minds
is the penguin. The obvious question that
follows is how do penguins survive in the
coldest and windiest continent? The an-
swer is that penguins (and also other forms
of life in Antarctica like seals and whales)
are protected from the cold and wind by a
thick layer of insulating fat under their
skins. Small forms of lives such as algae,
lichens and mosses can be found beneath
insulating layers of rocks or any other form
of shelter from cold. As the winter passes
by and spring leads to Antarctic summer,

9
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the ice starts melting and the Sun shines know how to care for them! Penguins are
over the continent. This breathes life in the known for their responsible parental care.
icy continent and one can see the birds like In a penguin rookery (please see inner cover
skua, snow petrels, albatross etc. making page for a view of Adelie penguin rook-
their nests where they tend to rear their ery), one parent waits with the baby to keep
chicks. Except for the Emperor, it is the it warm, while the other
breeding season for all other types of pen- parent goes to the ocean
guins. Once the chicks arrive, penguins and gets back with the
meal of the day. Some-
Emperor penguins (Scientific name:
Aptenodytes forsteri) have the upright, regal
posture to express their dignity. They are the
largest of penguin species with an average
weight of around 30-40kg and a height of
more than a meter (~3.8ft.)
Macaroni penguins (Scientific name:
Eudyptes chrysolophus) can be easily recog- Adelie Penguins
nized with their bright yellow crest feathers. Emperor Penguins
They nest on Antarctic islands like South
Georgia and Heard Island. They are about
4.2 kg in weight and some 70 cm tall.
Adelie penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelis
adeliae) outnumber any other penguin spe-
cies in Antarctica. They weigh 5-8 kg and
are about 70 cm in height. Their distribu-
tion is circumpolar, all around the Antarctic
coastline.
Gentoo penguins (Scientific name:
Pygoscelis papua ) are the largest of the
Pygoscelis penguins, though not by much,
they average about 5.5 kg and 71 cm tall for Macaroni Penguins
the southern gentoo; while about 0.7 kg
heavier and 10cm taller for the northern Gentoo Penguin
gentoo.
Chinstrap penguins (Scientific name:
Pygoscelis antarctica) are so called because
of their characteristic band of dark feathers Chinstrap Penguins
under the chin that appears to be keeping
their dark hats on.

10

times it takes longer for him to get back
but the family waits for him. It is amazing
how they remember their way back to the
family!
Antarctica and the adjoining regions
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abound in the seal population, especially
after the ban on its killing was imple-
mented. Seals are mammals that had to
adapt to sea life for survival. There were
nineteen species of seals in the seas but two
of these have become extinct. Mainly five
species of seals are encountered in Antarc-
tica which can be found basking on the
pack ice that surrounds Antarctica.
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Antarctic Plant Life

Plant
SEALS There are no trees or shrubs, and only two
species of flowering plants, Antarctic hair
1. Crabeaters (Scientific name: Lobodon grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarc-
carcinophagus) are large seals, weighing tic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis) are
about 220kg. They are frequently scarred,
found, occurring on the South Orkney Is-
sometimes quite badly by predatory leop-
lands, the South Shetland Islands and along
ard seals or killer whales.
the western Antarctic Peninsula. There are,
2. Antarctic fur Seals (Scientific name: in total, around 100 species of mosses, 25
Arctocephalus gazella) are more accurately species of liverworts, 300 to 400 species of
called “Southern fur seals”. The males can lichens and 20-odd species of macro-fungi.
reach 200kg and can be up to 4 times larger The greatest diversity of species is found
than the females. They are restricted mainly
along the western side of the Antarctic Pen-
to the sub-Antarctic islands, with 95% of
the world’s population being found on the
insula where the climate is generally
island off South Georgia. warmer and wetter than elsewhere in the
Antarctic continent.
3. Leopard Seal (Scientific name: Hydrurga
leptonyx) is one of the largest predators in
Antarctica, smaller only than the killer
whale. They are named for the spotting on
its underside. Females are larger than males
and average about 10ft long and are around
350kg in weight.
4. Weddell Seals (Scientific name:
Leptonychotes weddellii) are animals of the
ice. The pups of these seals stop drinking Antarctic pearlwort
milk and begin eating normal seal food, i.e.
fish from around 7 weeks. When adult, they
weigh about 400kg and can be up to 10ft
long.
5. Elephant Seals’ Males can grow to15ft
long and weigh up to 4 tonnes. They are
called elephant seals partly because of their
size.

Antarctic hair grass

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Antarctic Marine Life Star fish

It is a strange paradox that marine life re-
markably outnumbers the terrestrial life in
Antarctica! Most life in the Antarctic be-
gins in the ocean. Plankton is the founda-
tion of the marine food chain. In the nu-
trient-rich waters south of the Antarctic
Convergence, phytoplankton and zoop-
lankton (microscopic plants and animals)
like Krill occur in profusion in the sum-
mer season. During the remainder of the
year because of the lack of light and heavy
cloud cover, as well as the extensive pack-
ice, the productivity of the oceans gets lim-
ited. The krill swarms are also seasonal and Krill
much of the food chain is dependent on
them. So much so, that if they fail to ap-
pear other species such as penguins and
whales experience drastic breeding failures.
The ocean bottom flora is rich in diversity
with several species of sea anemones, star
fish etc.

Sea Anemone
Minke Whale

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IV
DISCOVERY OF ANTARCTICA
ANTARCTICA

N ow that we know Antarctica is an

icy continental mass situated at the
southern most part of the globe, don’t you
cause no one could cross the ice barrier,
surrounding the continent. In one of the
earliest maps of the world, this southern
wonder how this land was discovered? Who landmass is shown as Terra Australis In-
was the first person to stand on this pris- cognita i.e. the Unknown Southern Land.
tine, beautiful white continent
located in the middle of the
ocean? Let us take a journey
back in time and find out the
fascinating story behind the
discovery of this ‘last wilder-
ness’
Ancient Greeks had postulated
that a large, southern continent
must exist to balance the Arc-
tic in the northern hemisphere.
It is relevant to remember; here that Arctic
(around the North Pole) was discovered Early Voyages
much before the discovery of the South Imagine the condition of those initial ex-
Pole or Antarctica. The imaginary south- plorers who ventured into the task of dis-
ern mass of land was referred to as Anti- covering the Antarctic continent in wooden
Arctic or opposite to Arctic and hence the ships! But man is known for his invincible
name Antarctic. However, Antarctica re- nature, and the fire to find Antarctica had
mained an imaginary, mysterious land be- been ignited.

14

Captain James Cook , the famous naviga-
tor and explorer of the Pacific and Antarc-
tic, became the first human being to cross
the Antarctic Circle reaching 67°15’S,
when the pack ice forced him to turn back
his ship ‘Resolution’, a mere 80 miles from
his destination! Cook had not taken hu-
Antarctic Circle
Captain James Cook Captain Bellingshausen
15
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man greed into consideration. Ironically,
it was Cook’s own penchant for thorough-
ness that fueled the burst of activity because
he had noted in his log (records) that large
numbers of seals and whales were present
in the high latitudes.
The motivation for reaching Antarctica
now was search for new locations where
seals and whales could be found.
The Early Explorers
The seal hunters were actually the early ex-
plorers who located areas of abundance of
seals and raised the hopes that new and un-
discovered lands might be lying further
south. Ships of many countries started en-
circling the Southern Ocean. The Russian
government sent Captain Thaddeus von
Bellingshausen, with a team of two hun-
dred sailors to get the accurate information
about Antarctica. On 27th
January 1820 for the first
time human eyes saw some
distant mountains towards
the southern end of earth.
Bellingshausen had actually
become the first person in
the human history to see
Antarctic continent!

Another remarkable “sealer-scientist,” was
James Weddell, captain of a British ship.
Weddell had taken part in exploration dur-
ing 1820-21 and 1821-22 and had gained
a lot of experience. On February 20, 1823
at longitude 34°16’45"W, and latitude
74°15’S,Weddell became the first man to
go farthest south that anyone had ever gone
before! It would be over 80 years before
anyone could get that far south again in
the Weddell Sea.
Inspired by Weddell’s deep foray into the
Weddell Sea and by the tantalizing glimpses
of land reported
by the sealers, the
French, British,
and United
States govern-
ments launched
exploratory mis-
Captain Weddell sions in 1840s.
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France sent Jules
Sebastian Dumont
d’Urville as the
Captain of its ship,
USA’s Leader of the
expedition was
Captain Charles
Wilkes and the
James Ross
Leader of the Great
Britain’s expedition was Captain James
Clark Ross. These three explorers not only
discovered different parts of the Antarctic
landmass but also deciphered that each
piece of newly discovered land in Antarc-
tica was connected with other parts and
hence it was not an archipelago of islands,
but actually a huge continent!
Searc
earchh for the South Magnetic
South
Pole
James Clark Ross was specifically assigned
the job of finding the elusive South Mag-
netic Pole as he had already found the north
magnetic pole in 1831. Ross’s advent to the
South Magnetic Pole was, however, stopped
by an Ice Shelf (which Ross called the
Victoria Barrier but was renamed after him).
He, did establish that the South Magnetic
Pole lay inland, inaccessible by the sea.

Race To The South P
South Pole
ole
Discovery of the South Pole posed a greater
challenge to the Antarctic Explorers. Each
one of them wanted to set his feet first at
the Pole and become immortal in the hu-
man history. The first person to accept this
challenge was a British, Captain Robert
Falcon Scott, who started his expedition
in 1902 in a ship named “Terra Nova”. Un-
fortunately his expedition had to be
abruptly ended when he was still about 800
km away from the South Pole because all
his dogs and
many of the
team mem-
bers started
suffering
from Scurvy
(Vitamin-C
deficiency).
Three main
members of
Captain R.F. Scott
this team,
Shackleton, Wilson and Scott himself were
on the verge of death. Shackleton, who
was an exceptionally bright member of the
Scott’s team in Terra Nova, started prepar-
ing for his own expedition immediately
after returning back home. After four years
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of preparation, in 1908 he was again in the
Ross Sea with NIMROD, a more mecha-
nized ship than Terra Nova. In January
1909, when Shackleton and his four col-
leagues were only 180 km away from the
South Pole, they found that they were suf-
fering from immense frostbites and their
bodies were not supporting them. They had
to return back completely shattered, both
physically and mentally.
Scott vs Amundsen
Robert Scott planned his expedition to
Antarctica immediately after the unsuccess-
ful return of Shackleton. Scott started his
expedition in November 1910, unaware
that Norwegian explorer Roald
Amundsen was already on his way to the
South Pole!
Amundsen and his team worked remark-
ably well and as a result they reached the
South Pole on
14th Decem-
ber 1911. Be-
fore returning
home to a he-
roic welcome,
they raised
Roald Amundsen the Norwe-

gian flag and kept the records of reaching
the South Pole in a safe box. On the other
hand, Scott and his team faced lot of diffi-
culties in reaching the Pole. On 17th Janu-
ary 1912, they fond the Norwegian flag
hoisted there on the South Pole!
“This told us the whole story. The Norwe-
gians have forestalled us and are first at the
Pole. It is a terrible disappointment and I
am very sorry for my loyal companions. Many
thoughts come and much discussion we have
had. To-morrow we must march on the Pole,
and then hasten home with all the speed we
can compass. All the day-dreams must go; it
will be a wearisome return”. -January
17th1912, quotes from Scott’s Diary.
They were already facing shortage of food
and by 21st March they were not left with
anything to eat. Suddenly a formidable
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blizzard started which continued for five
days. The last lines of Scott’s diary on 29th
March, state:
“There has been nothing to eat for the past
three days. Now, I am not even able to write.
End is not far. For God’s sake, take care of
our families”.
The last major expedition of the heroic era
was marked by Ernest Shackleton’s voyage
in Endurance on August 8, 1914, planned
to cross Antarctica by approaching it
through the Weddell Sea. However,
Shackleton was trapped in the pack ice of
the Weddell Sea and drifted through the
winter. Ultimately, Endurance was crushed
by the ice and sank on November 21, 1915.
Shackleton and his men dragged and rowed
their lifeboats over the pack ice and open
waters until they made it to Elephant Island.
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The Story of “Endurance” in pictures

The Mechanized Age of Exploration explorers were not completely isolated from
Mechanized
The advent of more powerful engines, steel the rest of the world. One of the first to
hulled ships, airplanes, and radios consid- use the new aeronautical technology was
erably enhanced man’s ability to reach dif- Sir Hubert Wilkins (Standing on right side
ficult and inaccessible area of Antarctica, of the cockpit in the picture ; page 20). In
aiding to success of several exploration an expedition supported by Randolph
programmes. The radio was particularly Hearst (a well known publisher) and the
important as for the first time; Antarctic American Geographical Society, Wilkins

19
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

Sir Hubert Wilkins (right side)

made the first Antarctic flight on 16th No- Antarctic explorer to discover new land by
vember 1928. On December 20, he flew air. After that, Antarctic explorers have
over Graham Land and became the first never looked back.

----

20
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA

V
IS IT REALLY NO MAN’S LLAND?
REALLY AND?

P rior to 19th Century when new lands the U.S. Congress to establish the U.S. Ant-
were being discovered, the explorers arctic Service in 1939 to take control of
would raise the flag of their countries and American Antarctic exploration. Other
claim the territory in the name of their countries soon followed suit.
kings or rulers. The first such formal claim The world, however, soon realized that one
over Antarctic territory was made by Brit- could get more from this pristine, un-
ain in 1908. In 1923 Britain handed over touched reserve of snow and ice, in terms
part of their claim on the Ross Dependen- of science rather than the worldly riches.
cies to New Zealand. In 1924, France laid This realization gave birth to a drive to gain
claim to Terre Adelie. Australia claimed a scientific knowledge and enrich humanity
large chunk of territory in 1933. In Janu- by the unique opportunity provided by this
ary 1939, Norway formalized its claim to natural laboratory.
Dronning Maud Land. While most of the
claims took different slices of
United Kingdom
the continent, there were many
Argentina Norway
areas where different parties
made overlapping claims. For Australia
example, in 1940, Chile be-
came the third country to
claim overlapping-sovereignty
Chile
over the Antarctic Peninsula
(after Britain and Argentina).
Although the United States
Unclaimed France
pursued no claims of its own,
Australia
the flurry of claims encouraged New Zealand

21
21
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

The International Geophysical other time in history. In 1957-58 there

Year: P aving the R
Paving oad to the were 44 continental bases, 21 island bases,
Road
Antarctic T reaty
Treaty and 5,362 people involved in the largest
By December of 1955, preparations for the multinational scientific research effort in
International Geophysical Year (IGY) were the history. The IGY was originally sched-
well underway. The year saw thirteen ships uled to last from June 1957 through De-
proceeding to Antarctica with personnel cember 1958. However, it was so success-
for seven separate expeditions. As winter ful, that all participating nations soon
of 1956 closed in, there were twenty-nine formed permanent research programs to
separate parties in Antarctica from seven continue their presence and activities in
countries: British, Chilean, and Argentine Antarctica. The International Council of
outposts on the Peninsula, and French, Scientific Unions (ICSU), which had pro-
American, Australian, Soviet, and British posed the IGY, formed the Scientific Com-
stations on the continent proper. In all, 508 mittee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) to
people stationed in Antarctica, were ready coordinate the continued scientific coop-
to stay there through out the long winter. eration among nations. The success of the
Preparations continued during the 1956- effort, and the need to defuse competing
57 austral summer season. Thirteen more territorial claims also led to the signing of
stations were established, bringing the to- the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. In essence,
tal on the continent to 42, representing 12 this treaty (ratified by all parties in 1961) set
countries (Belgium, Norway, New the continent of Antarctica aside for peace-
Zealand, Japan, and South Africa had
joined the effort). An additional 21 sta-
tions were established on Antarctic and
sub-Antarctic islands. By this time the
IGY was well underway. During the
summer of 1956-57, 42 bases and sup-
porting ships accommodated 6,167
people in Antarctica, more than at any

22
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA

ful and scientific purposes; and placed all ter- research in Antarctica. Another 16 nations
ritorial claims in abeyance till the Treaty lasts. have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Aus-
tria, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Czech Re-
Antarctica After the T Treaty
reaty public, Democratic Peoples Republic of
The original signatories i.e. Argentina, Aus- Korea, Denmark, Greece, Guatemala,
tralia, Belgium, Chile, the French Repub- Hungary, Papua New Guinea, Romania,
lic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, and
Union of South Africa, The Union of So- Venezuela. These nations agree to abide by
viet Socialist Republics, The United King- the Treaty and may attend consultative
dom of Great Britain and Northern Ire- meetings as observers. At present scientists
land, and the United States of America, and other professionals live and work more
signed the Antarctic Treaty on 1st Decem- or less effortlessly at Antarctic stations es-
ber 1959 at Washington, D.C. These 12 tablished by these nations. These stations
signatories became the original consulta- help each other in the hour of need and
tive nations. As of today, 16 additional na- evolve together as one community.
tions (Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Ecuador,
Finland, Ger- ANTARCTIC Neumayer (Germany) Maitri (India)
PENNINSULA
many, India, Italy,
King sejong (Korea)
Netherlands, Po- Palmer (U.S.) RONNE
land, Peru, Re- ICE SHELF
public of Korea, Rothera
Sweden, Spain, (U.K.)

and Uruguay)
have achieved
consultative status
by acceding to the
Treaty and by
conducting sub- ROSS
stantial scientific ICE SHELF

----
23
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

VI
INDIA’S JOURNEY TO ANT
INDIA’S ARCTICA
ANTARCTICA

I n December 1981, the first Indian Ant

arctic Expedition was launched from
Goa under the leadership of the eminent
search. In 1983,
under the leader-
ship of Dr.
scientist Dr. S.Z. Qasim. This pioneer Harsh Gupta, a
team, that included renowned glaciologist, well known
Dr C.P.Vohra and Oceanographer like Dr earth scientist,
H.N.Siddiqui, created history by reaching the third expedi-
the Antarctic continent on 9th of January tion team estab-
1982 and laid the foundation of India’s lished India’s first Dr. S.Z. Qasim
Antarctic Programme. The First expedi- permanent station in Antarctica and appro-
tion was immediately followed by the Sec- priately named it “Dakshin Gangotri” in a
ond (under the leadership of Shri record time of one Antarctic summer. This
V.K.Raina). The success of these endeav- station was home to the Indian team mem-
ors and the recognition by international bers for five long years, sheltering them
community encouraged India to establish from harsh and ruthless conditions of Ant-
her permanent research base at the Ant- arctica as also providing them all the facili-
arctic continent for pursuit of scientific re- ties to conduct scientific research work.

Dr. Harsh Gupta Dakshin Gangotri under construction

24
 The Story of ANTAR
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ARCTICA

Since Dakshin Gangotri (it is affectionately
called DG by the Antarcticans from India)
was situated on an ice shelf, it gradually
sank into snow. By 1988, India had to pre-
pare its second station in Antarctica because
Dakshin Gangotri was no longer safe for
living.
out side activity is highly restricted between
the months of April to October). By 1988-
89, the station construction was nearly over,
paving the way for decommissioning of the
old station during 1989-90 and shifting the
major scientific laboratories to the new sta-
tion named “Maitri”.

DG in 1985 DG in the summer of 1989

An ice-free area
on a small hill
range called
‘Schirmacher Oa-
sis’ was selected in
1987-88 and the
station was built
in two summer
seasons (there be-
ing no sun during
the winter period, Maitri

25
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

Maitri became operational same year (IX spirituality. In yet

Expedition) with commencement of the full- another incident a
fledged wintering under the leadership of Rasik team lost all its
Ravindra, a Geologist from Geological Survey cooking oil in a fire
of India.The inmates of Maitri bring out a House accident and had to
Bulletin - Himvat - that contains interesting survive on boiled
account of personal experiences of members in food through out
hand written or typed pages. To cite some the winter period.
interesting articles, in Himvat of 1989-91 a You can write mails Shri Rasik Ravindra
member recounts his trauma when a heavy snow to the wintering
vehicle ran over him and he still survived with members or to the Leader of the Maitri Station
only minor bruises on his body but strong at <maitri@ncaor.amosconnect.com > for any
impressions on his mind turning him towards information on the Station or Antarctica.

Photograph of some of the leaders of the past expeditions [Standing from L to R, numbers in the parenthe-
ses indicate expedition number: AK Hanjura (x), M Sudhakar (LS Hill Expd.), Rasik Ravindra (IX), Robin Sengupta
(VII), VK Raina (II & Weddell Sea Expd.), CP Vohra (Dy. Leader, I), SZ Qasim (I), V.K. Dhargalkar (XII),
R. Asthana (XXIV), S. Jayaram (XIII) Sudhakar Rao (XIII), AK Hanchinal (XXII), S Mukerji (XI), Arun Chaturvedi
(XV, XIX and XXVII); Sitting : A Dhar (XVIII), N Khare (NCAOR), SM Bhandari (Solar Eclipse Expd),
RPLal (XXI).
26

Shri Kapil Sibal (Honorable Minister of Science and
Technology) along with Dr. Harsh Gupta (then secre-
tary to Department of Ocean Development) and Shri
Rajesh Asthana (Leader, 24th Expedition) at Maitri
Introduction of special flights to Antarc-
tica and facilities of an ice runway very close
to Maitri station has paved the way for
short visits of policy makers and senior sci-
entists to Maitri. Honorable Minister of
Science and Technology, Shri Kapil Sibal
Dr. P.S. Goel (Secretary, MoES), Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Secretary, MoES) with other Antarctic
expeditioners at the ice runway very close to Maitri station
27
The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
visited Maitri in 2005 along with Dr. Harsh
Gupta (then secretary to Department of
Ocean Development), while Dr.P.S.Goel
(Secretary) and Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Sec-
retary) in the Ministry of Earth Sciences visited
the facilities at the Indian station in 2007.
India is all set to establish a new Antarctic
base at Larsemann Hills, in the eastern
Antarctica- a part of the continent that,
about 120 million years ago, was contigu-
ous with India’s east coast. The proposed
station that is to be built on an unnamed,
ice free, coastal area (promontory) fring-
ing the Prydz Bay will be located close to
Russian and Chinese stations- Progress and
Zhongshan respectively. The proposal was
recently cleared by the international body

proposed site
overseeing the environmental aspects of
Antarctica (Committee on Environment
Protection). India is committed to come
up with an environmental friendly, struc-
ture that will preserve the pristine nature
of the place.
The new station will be about 2000 km
away from Maitri. It will have an easy ac-
Artist’s impression of station at Larsemann Hills
28
The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA
cess from the sea, as the
area is free of shelf ice.
This region, including
the islands and prom-
ontories will offer ex-
cellent opportunity for
extensive studies on ge-
ology, tectonics,
paleoclimatic, geophys-
ics, meteorology, oceanography, marine
and fresh water biology.
The induction of women expeditioners to
the icy continent of Antarctica began way
back in 1983 when Drs. Sudipta Sengupta
and Aditi Pant spent their summer in 1983-
84 (III). Since then, women participation
in Antarctic expeditions has been over-

whelming. The other lady members who
took part of earlier expeditions are Ms.
Gouri Indresan (IIT Mumbai, V), Ms. Rita
Kohli (Delhi University, IX), Smt.
Meenakshi Chatterjee (Calcutta Univer-
sity) and Dr. Usha Sachdeva (AIIMS,X),
Dr. P.A. Loka Bharathi (NIO) and Ms. M.
Naidu (AIIMS, XIII), Dr. Manju Mehta,
Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS) and Dr. Girija
Rajaram (IIG, XXVIII), Ms. Stella (IMD,
XX), Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII), Prof.
Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV), Dr. Binita
LADY EXPEDITIONERS IN INDIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS
(Within brackets: Institution and Expedition number)
Dr. Sudipta Sengupta (Jadavpur
University, III and IX)
29
The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
Phartiyal (BSIP) and Ms. Preeti Oswal
(NBRI, XXV).
Another milestone was achieved by Dr.
Kanwal Vilku of the Central Government
Health Services in the year 2000 (XIX) and
by Dr. Devyani Borole (XXV) who spent a
wintering each (16 months) in Antarctica.
How did it feel to stay alone in a men only
company? “all the expedition members
treated us respectfully and it was a memo-
rable stay’’ has been the answer.
Dr. Aditi Pant
(NIO, III)
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

Ms. Gouri Indreasan (IIT, V) Dr. Rita Kohli (Delhi University, IX)

Dr. Meenakshi Chatterji (Univ.of Calcutta, X) Dr. P. A. Loka Bharathi (NIO, XIII)

Dr. Girija Rajaram (IIG, XVIII)

Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS, XVIII)

30
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA

Dr. Manju Mehta (AIIMS, XVIII) Dr. Kanwal Vilku (CGHS, XIX)

Ms. Stella (IMD, XX) Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII)

Prof. Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV) Dr. Binita Phartiyal (NBRI, XXV)

Ms. Preeti Oswal (NBRI, XXV) Smt. Devyani Borole (NCAOR, XXV)

31

Launching of the Expeditions
Launching
How are the Indian expeditions to Ant-
arctica launched? How are the members se-
lected? Who arranges the voyage and who
pays for the expenses? The aspirants, who
wish to explore Antarctica, often ask these
questions. Initially the expeditions were
managed and launched by the Department
of Ocean Development (DoD), a scientific
Department under the Prime Minister of
our country (DoD has now been upgraded
to a full-fledged ministry named as Minis-
try of Earth Sciences). Subsequently, the
Government established an autonomous
institution with headquarters at Goa and
gave it the mandate to launch and manage
Dr. P.C. Pandey National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
32
The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA
the logistic and scientific aspects of the ex-
peditions. Since the Southern Ocean is an
integral part of Antarctic eco system, its
study was also entrusted to this newly con-
stituted Centre. The institute, named as
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean
Research (NCAOR) moved into its own
campus on 5th April 2000 with Dr. P.C.
Pandey as its first Director. Today, the Cen-
tre has modern laboratories for conduct-
ing research in the fields of microbiology,
oceanography, sedimentology, paleo-
climatic and glaciology etc. The sophisti-
cated clean ice core laboratory established
here is the only such facility of its type
existing in India.
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA

The selection of Indian Antarctic Expedition
Team is done through a rigorous process. This
process starts in the month of March, when
NCAOR places advertisement in the lead-
ing national newspapers inviting proposals
from interested scientists to conduct research
in Antarctica. After scrutiny, projects are se-
lected and team members are short-listed.
The team, which is generally a reflection of
the wide spectrum of the Indian Society with
the members drawn from different regions
and with different work experience, repre-
sents universities, research
organizations, defense
laboratories etc. Defense
personnel too join the
team for maintenance and
operation of the Research
Station at Maitri. The
members undergo a detailed medical ex-
amination at All India Institute of Medi-
cal Sciences, New Delhi. The selected
members are then sent to a Himalayan gla-
cier for training and acclimatization under
the guidance of expert mountaineers.
The team is now ready for the expedition. It
assembles at the NCAOR Campus, where
last minute instructions are passed on, for-
eign exchange is arranged, official documents
are handed over and Expedition is wished
‘Bon Voyage’. Initially, the members used to
board the expedition vessel at Goa and it took
almost 20 days to reach Antarctica. Later, ar-
rangements were made to fly the members
to Cape Town, South Af-
rica, from where the char-
tered ship takes them to
Antarctica in approximately
eight days. This saves a lot
of voyage time. From the
coast of Antarctica, where
the ship is
berthed, mem-
bers are flown
to Maitri by the
helicopters that
are chartered
and brought to
Antarctica on
the expedition
vessel itself.

33

Once the ship reaches Antarctic coast, the
cargo is off loaded on the shelf. This is then
loaded on to the trailers and toed to sta-
tion by a number of snow vehicles that
move together in the form of a convoy. As
the journey of over a hundred kilometer
covering a treacherous icy terrain, full of
hidden crevasses, the Leader of the convoy
has a great responsibility to guide the driv-
ers safely to destination. The convoys of-
ten get trapped in snow storms. One can
also get stranded because of vehicles get-
ting trapped in melt water channels.
With improvements in logistics, now it is
even possible to transport key scientists and
some members directly to Maitri by flight
34
The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA
that takes about eight hours from Cape
Town!
The expedition members not only attend
to their scientific tasks, carry out the ex-
periments or collect data by taking traverses
to interior areas, they are also required to
attend to the house keeping, perform du-
ties by turn in the kitchen, assist in watch
over the power generating systems and at-
tend to waste disposal. Antarctica being
governed by a strict protocol on environ-
mental protection, the waste has to be dis-
posed as per a pre defined scientific pro-
cess or removed from the Antarctica – and
mind you this also includes the night soil!
In retrospect, the members who have spent

about sixteen months in the station at a
stretch have little complaints. If you have
been once to Antarctica, you can’t help fall-
ing in love with the pristine beauty, great wil-
derness and awesome ruggedness of this lone-
some, unspoilt, white desert. So strong is the
urge and fascination of this charm, that one
gets swayed. There are members who have
repeatedly opted for wintering more than
once (wintering in Antarctica means staying
back there till the next expedition comes to
relieve the old one, which is only after more
than a year).
The Indian station is located very close to
the Russian Station (Novolazervaskaya) and
35
The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
members of the two stations often visit each
other during the long winters. During the
peak of winters, in June, when we in India
have the longest day (21st June), our scien-
tists at Maitri face the peak of the winters. All
over Antarctica, this day is celebrated as “Mid
Winter Day” when members of adjoining
stations come together to share their experi-
ence and forget the isolation. The severe win-
ter months also mark the dark period, as there
is no sunlight, forcing most of the members
indoors. Many members utilize this period
to sharpen their hidden talents (see above for
the portrait of an Indian Expedition Leader
been drawn by a Russian member).
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

VII
ANTARCTIC SCIENCE
ANTARCTIC

S o far we have learned that Antarctica

is a remote, isolated and a frozen con-
tinent which is arguably the most un-
· East Antarctica (mostly east of
Greenwich), consisting of a single
great continental plateau
touched region on the planet. That makes · West Antarctica (west of Green-
it one of the most important laboratories wich), consisting of a group of
of the world. Humans didn’t even catch a small plateaux, which constitute a
glimpse of Antarctica until ~185 years ago sort of archipelago covered by ice.
and only in the last 50 years have people
begun to explore this vast
polar desert in earnest. To-
day, scientists come to the
South Pole and the conti- WEDDEL
SEA EAST
nent enclosing it, from ANTARCTICA

around the world to study RONNE

POLE OF RELATIVE
NECESSIBILITY
ICE SHELF
geology, climate, astro- SOUTH POLE

physics, marine biology,

ecology, and more! WEST
ANTARCTICA
Elevation
(Metres) ROSS
4000 ICE SHELF
3500
3000
ROSS SEA
What is the physical 2500
2000
1500

geography of Antarc- 1000

0

tica?
TRANS ANTARCTIC EAST ICE CAP
WEST ICE
MOUNTAINS
Geographically, Antarctic CAP
ROSS ICE SHELF
continent comprises two
distinct constituents:

36

East Antarctica is formed by magmatic and
metamorphic rocks of Proterozoic (2500
to 542.0 ± 1.0 million years ago), and partly
Archaean age (4000 to 2500 million years
ago). Conversely, Western Antarctica con-
sists of more recent rocks, of Mesozoic age
(251 to 65.5 million years ago) and Ceno-
zoic age (65.5 million years ago to present),
alternating with volcanic ashes and lava
rocks. The east Antarctic ice cap is much
thicker than the west Antarctic ice cap. The
topography in east Antarctica is also higher
than that in the west Antarctica. The high-
est peak, Vinson Massif (4892m) is situ-
ated in the Ellsworth Mountains of western
100 Million Years Ago
150 Million Years Ago
37
The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
Antarctica, overlooking Ronne Ice Shelf.
Geology
Antarctica was at one time a part of an an-
cient, considerably larger landmass, referred
to by geologists as “Gondwanaland”. The
supercontinent began breaking up ~150
million years ago and its several segments
gradually drifted apart to form the present
land masses of South America, Africa, In-
dia, Australia (with New Zealand), and
Antarctica ( for a simulation of Gondwana
breakup with time scale, refer the link in
www.ncaor.gov.in).
50 Million Years Ago
Present Day
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

How do geologists find out the past always a cold and inhospitable place. Coal
disposition of continents? deposits found today in sandstone beds less
than 500 kilometers from the South Pole
The present outlines of these continents—
show that these materials were laid down
along with the similarity of their geology
during late Paleozoic time (240-300 mil-
and fossil finds—indicate that they had fit-
lion years ago) under marshy conditions
ted together and that Antarctica was not
in a cool, moist climate.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

38

Are there volcanoes in Antarctica? ucts of eruptions—from the Pliocene
Volcanic activity in Antarctica is limited
to only a few places, the most notable be-
ing Mount Erebus on Ross Island. The is-
land is entirely of volcanic origin, as are
White and Black Islands, Brown Peninsula
and Mina Bluff, and the massifs of Mounts
Discovery and Morning. These are prod-
39
The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
through the present—of basaltic lavas from
central cones and fissures at various loca-
tions. Mount Erebus is the largest and by
far the most active of the few volcanoes on
the continent, almost continuously spew-
ing out steam and gases from its summit
crater.
Smoke emanating
from an active volcano
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

Are there rocks lying beneath ice?

rocks
Geologists have dug deep into the Antarc-
tic ice to see what lies beneath! A small part
of Antarctica (~ 2 %) remains ice-free and
is extensively studied by the Earth Scien-
tists to discover the geological history and
evolution of Antarctica in the past many
millions of years. You would be surprised
to know that Antarctica is made up of one
of the world’s oldest rocks which could be
around 3 billion years old! One promi-
nent topographic feature of the Antarctic
continent is the Transantarctic Mountains.
These ranges form a divide between East
(greater) and West (lesser) Antarctica and
cover more than 2,200 kilometers.

Ocean floor around Antarctica

40
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA

Climate ern Ocean, in which flows one of the

We have read that Antarctica is the cold- world’s largest and strongest current that is
est, windiest, driest continent on the Planet known as Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Earth. The weather, strong winds and bru- (ACC). It is a cold oceanic current driven
tal storms have been synonymous with by strong winds generated due to the Ant-
Antarctica since its discovery and continue arctic Circumpolar Trough, which is a zone
to be a major challenge for modern explor- (between 60°S and 65°S) of low pressure
ers. that exhibits variable winds moving from
west to east. ACC is the only current en-
Why is Antarctica’s weather so circling the whole globe as it is unhindered
brutal? by landmasses. It isolates the Antarctic con-
Antarctica’s climate is so inhospitable due tinent from the effect of warm surface
to several factors. The main cause is that ocean currents and thus helps in the gradual
Antarctica has a perpetual ice sheet cover- build-up of ice.
ing the major part of the continent. Ice is
highly reflective and doesn’t absorb
warmth. Attenuation of solar radiation
energy is greatest at high latitudes where
the path through the atmosphere is long-
est. Also, solar energy reaching the surface
at high latitude is spread over a larger area
because the surface is at a greater angle to
the incoming radiation. Therefore, the
earth’s surface at the poles is a heat sink
when compared with that at the tropics.
The poles simply lose more energy than
they receive – they have a negative radia-
tion balance. Another important factor is
that it is surrounded by a vast ocean, South- Antarctic ocean current system

41

Global relevance of Antarctic Science
The Ozone Hole
What is ozone?
Ozone is a form of oxygen in which each
molecule contains three atoms of oxygen
as compared to the normal two. It is a blu-
ish gas and is chemically very active. When
inhaled it is toxic and particularly harmful
to asthmatics and others with respiratory
problems. Ozone also absorbs ultraviolet
radiation (UV), a property of considerable
significance to life on Earth. Ozone occurs
naturally in our atmosphere, which is
dominated by nitrogen (78% of the total)
and oxygen (21%).
42
The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA
Ozone hole in Antarctica?
In 1974 the American scientists Mario
Molina and Sherwood Rowland proved
that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) possibly
played an active role in the depletion of
the ozone layer. CFC are stable industry
gases containing mainly chlorine, fluorine
and bromine, used in refrigeration systems,
air conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in
Zone of ozone depletion

the production of some types of packag-
ing. The hole in the ozone layer over Ant-
arctica was discovered in 1985. When Brit-
ish scientists at the Halley Bay station in
Antarctica saw the results of their measure-
ments, they thought that there was some-
thing wrong with their instruments. At
once they were replaced, but the results
stayed as alarming as before. When their
conclusions were published in the scien-
tific magazine Nature, the world recog-
nized that something had to be done and
quickly. A question that is often asked is
“Why the hole in the ozone layer occurs
only over Antarctica?” During the polar
night the temperature in the stratosphere
drops to sometimes -100o Celsius. At lower
temperatures the demolition process of the
ozone molecules is strengthened. At the be-
43
The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
ginning of spring (September - October)
it goes from bad to worse. Each year a cold
wedge of ice clouds moves in over Antarc-
tica. At about the same time of year the
Sun returns to the continent after the win-
ter dark months, and the combination of
sunlight, ice clouds and CFCs form a mix-
ture that destroys the ozone.
What effects does ozone depletion have?
The ozone layer plays an important role in
the atmosphere. It protects us from the
harmful effects of certain wavelengths of
UV radiation, particularly UV-B radiation
(radiation between the wavelengths 280-
320 nanometers). Overall, ozone destruc-
tion process over Antarctica reduces the
total amount of stratospheric ozone on a
global scale.
 The Story of ANTAR
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ARCTICA

Why Arctic doesn’t have an “Ozone Hole”?
Unlike Antarctica, which is a continent sur-
rounded by oceans, the Arctic is an ocean
surrounded by mountainous continents.
This means that the stratospheric circula-
tion is much more irregular, and the tem-
Arctic Circle
Arctic View 660 300 North
perature does not fall as low as it does in
the Antarctic. Stratospheric clouds are
therefore, less common, which prevents the
formation of a deep ozone hole over the
Arctic.
Greenwich
North Pole
Meridian

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44

VIII
THE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TO
ANTARCTIC SCIENCES
ANTARCTIC
I ndian Antarctic Research Programme is
one of the finest examples of a coordinated
long-term research effort of key national re-
search institutions. It is also an important
component of international scientific
community’s effort to understand this remote
icy continent. Antarctica plays a key role in
the global climate. India has been pursuing
research in the fields of earth atmospheric,
biological, human physiology, communica-
tion, space and weather sciences etc. Antarc-
tica provides a unique envi-
ronment to study the inter-
actions of glaciation and cli-
mate without human inter-
ferences.
Atmospheric Sciences
Sciences
Antarctica has attracted the
attention of scientific com-
munity all over the world since it is one of
the most important climate regions with a
potential to influence long-term global cli-
mate change. India Meteorological Depart-
ment (IMD) is participating in Antarctic ex-
45
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The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
peditions since beginning for conducting at-
mospheric studies. Other Institutions include
National Physical Laboratory, National In-
stitute of Tropical Meteorology, National In-
stitute of Oceanography, National Geophysi-
cal Research Institute, Indian Institute of
Technology (Delhi) etc. Continuous record-
ing of surface weather parameters at Maitri
has provided necessary input for understand-
ing the variations in the Antarctic atmospheric
circulation patterns. Surface characteristics
and insulation features over
Antarctica also influence the
energy budget of the globe,
which in turn control the cli-
mate. The scientific com-
munity has recognized that
ozone depletion could in-
crease the levels of UV rays
on the earth. Indian Scien-
tists are monitoring the ozone hole above the
Maitri station and have found that the hole
depth is fluctuating from year-to-year. The
observations at Maitri also showed an event
of major stratospheric warming during 2002.

Biological Sciences
Sciences
Biological studies on the ice shelf and fresh
water lakes have been carried out since the
first expedition. Researchers have studied
the composition, spatial distribution and
influence of different physical and chemi-
cal factors on eco-biology of fresh water
environment. The invertebrate fauna, birds
like Penguin and South Polar Skua of
Schirmacher Oasis have also been studied.
Genetic information of Antarctic Algae,
Mosses & Lichens is an exciting field of
study proposed to be mounted by NCAOR
in Antarctica. The microbiologists work-
ing at NCAOR in collaboration with Cen-
tre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
(CCMB), Hyderabad aims at unraveling
the molecular basis of the survival of mi-
crobes under extreme climatic conditions.
Findings of this research can help to de-
46
The Story of ANTAR
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ARCTICA
velop better technologies for the easy sur-
vival and living habits of mankind in the
Antarctic. Indian scientists are making an
attempt to highlight the bacterial diversity
of Antarctica, the biotechnological poten-
tial of the cold-loving bacteria and also to
understand their survival strategies. Stud-
ies on the bacterial diversity of Antarctica
have led to the identification of a number
of new species of bacteria from Antarctica
such as Sphingobacterium antarcticum,
Pseudomonas antarctica, Planococcus
antarcticus, Pseudonocardia antarctica,
Planococcus maitriensis, Arthrobacter
gangotriensis etc. As of now, only about 120
new species of bacteria have been identi-
fied from the frozen continent. India has
added 20 new species to this list.
Sampling for Biological Studies
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA

Studies on the human biology and behav- vey of India (GSI) and National Geophysi-
ior of expedition members are being done cal Research Institute (NGRI). In the light
for regular monitoring and to examine of continental drift theory (see section on
their responses in extreme conditions. For Geology of Antarctica), Antarctica formed
example a research program has been a major part of the super continent
initiated to study the disturbances in sleep,Gondwanaland, from which India, Austra-
salivary melatonin hormone concentration lia, Africa, South America, Madagascar have
and their daily rhythm. Initial results show drifted apart. From the point of view of
that there was no phase shift in the earth sciences, therefore, Antarctica pro-
acrophase in the melatonin level was ob- vides a vital link in the reconstruction of
served during the period of observation at Gondwanaland. The proximity of Eastern
Antarctica except in April and August. Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) of India to a
large part of East Antarctica in recon-
Earth S ciences
Sciences structed models of the supercontinent and
Indian efforts in earth science studies over the fact that mineral enriched zones of
Antarctica were initiated by Geological Sur-

Gondwanaland reconstruction c.400million years ago

47
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

Gondwanaland continents were in contact of metamorphism, deformation, and time

with Antarctica in the geological past; un- of formation of the rocks. To work out an
derline the importance of studying Ant- evolutionary model and finally compare
arctica geologically. India has been carry- these results with the Indian counterparts,
ing out integrated geophysical, geological the above studies have been carried out in
and geochemical inves- the Schirmacher Oasis,
tigations in Antarctica. and parts of Wohlthat
The objective of these ranges.
studies is a reconstruc- India has also been suc-
tion of Greater cessful in retrieving ice
Gondwanaland by cores to decipher
finding out the past palaeoclimatic history
geological events, their of polar continental ice.
field configuration, the An ice core is a sample
pressure and tempera- of the ice that might
ture conditions of the have been burried over
melt that gave rise to hundreds or even thou-
the rocks and the nature sands of years. This ice
Ice Core Drilling

Ice Core Archival Facility Ice Core Processing

48

preserves the trapped air bubbles represent-
ing gases from geological past. The com-
position of these ice cores, especially the
presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes,
provides a picture of the climate as well as
the time of the deposition of snow. Because
water molecules containing heavier isotopes
exhibit a lower vapor pressure, when the tem-
perature falls, the heavier water molecules will
condense faster than the normal water mol-
ecules. The relative concentrations of the
heavier isotopes in the condensate indicate
the temperature of condensation at the time,
allowing for ice cores to be used in global
temperature reconstruction. In addition to
the isotope concentration, the air bubbles
trapped in the ice cores provide an opportu-
nity to measure the atmospheric concentra-
tions of trace gases, including greenhouse
gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and ni-
trous oxide. The air bubbles may also con-
tain traces of aerosols, which are produced in
great concentrations during volcanic erup-
tions. Shallow cores, or the upper parts of
cores in high-accumulation areas, can be
dated exactly by counting individual layers,
each representing a year.
The Indian contributions towards glaciologi-
cal studies in Antarctica were initiated in
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The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
1982-83. The initial observations recorded
fluctuations of polar continental ice margin,
ablation and accumulation pattern of the ice
shelf, details of stratigraphic zonation within
the shelf ice, melting rates on shelf ice during
the polar day etc. The net average accumula-
tion of snow over the ice shelf near the In-
dian research base is estimated to be more
than 50 cm. Studies also indicate that the
growth patterns have a strong temporal bias,
encompassing different segment of the year.
Surface drift is the major source of both ac-
cumulation and ablation.
Scientists are conducting different geomag-
netic measurements in Antarctica to compre-
hend the response of the experimental setup
to various atmospheric, electrical and meteo-
rological conditions and assess the role of so-
lar wind-magnetosphere-ionosphere interac-
tions in modulating the Global Electric Cir-
cuit etc.
The studies on seismo tectonics and
geodynamical processes between Antarctica
and Southern Indian Peninsula by GPS-Ge-
odesy and seismology were initiated in 1997
by the National Geophysical Research Insti-
tute (NGRI). The primary objective of ob-
taining the signatures of geodynamical and
crustal deformation processes have already

been achieved and more detailed studies are
being currently done.
India’s research activities in the polar remote
sensing field concentrates on cryosphere re-
mote sensing which aims at the extraction
of sea ice surface characteristics from the
The 2003 Antarctic Total Solar Eclipse at Antarctica
observed electromagnetic signatures sensed
by the space borne sensors. The threshold
technique of quasi co polarized ratio and
quasi co polarized difference during win-
ter and summer have been used to distin-
guish water and ice pixels for delineating
the sea ice in the background of open sea.
Some of these studies have been fine tuned
50
The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA
and some long-term investigations have
been initiated.
Environmental Sciences
Sciences
A comprehensive study of the different en-
vironmental components viz., air water,
land, noise is being carried out at the
Indian Polar research station Maitri, in
compliance with the statutory require-
ments of the Antarctic Treaty. India has
established an Environmental Monitoring
Laboratory at Maitri. The objectives are
to assess the impacts of various scientific
programmes and their logistic support

facilities on the fragile system of Antarc-
tica, identify the major sources of pollu-
tion and quantification of pollution load.
Previous studies reported that the level of
pollution at Maitri are not alarming but
Shri Arun Chaturvedi
Participant of X, XII (Wintering), XV
(Wintering & Leader), XIX (Wintering
& Leader), XXII, XXV, XXVII (Winter-
ing & Leader) Expedition.
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The Story of ANTAR
ANTAR CTICA
ARCTICA
there is a scope for concern looking into
the critical aspects of Antarctic environ-
ment and the carrying capacity of the
environment surrounding the Maitri
station.
Shri Ajay Dhar
Participant of V, VI (Wintering), XV,
XVIII (Wintering & Leader), XXII,
XXIII, XXVI (Leader Larsemann Team),
XXVII (Leader Larsemann Team)
Expedition.
 The Story of ANTAR
ANTARCTICA
ARCTICA

IX
AMAZING FACTS ABOUT ANT
FACTS ARCTICA
ANTARCTICA

Area Ice-free area

1.39 times bigger than the USA (2% of total)
13,829,430 km2 280,000 km2

Largest Ice Shelf

Shelf Mountains
Ross ice shelf: Transantarctic Mountain chain:
(about the size of France) 3,300 km
510,680 km2 Highest mountain: Mt. Vinson - 4,892 m

Temperature Wind
Lowest recorded - 89.2°C Maximum recorded gust:248.4 km/h
Ice Population
Antarctica has 70% of all the worlds freshwater About 4,000 on scientific bases in the
Frozen as ice and 90% of all worlds ice short summer 1,000 total in winter
Mean thickness is 1,829 m around 25,000 summer tourists -
are no permanent residents and no native
population.

Governance Discovery and Exploration

Governed by the Antarctic Treaty System 1st time anyone set foot was in 1821
1st overwintering in 1898
South Pole was first reached in 1911

“If Antarctica’s ice sheets melted, the worlds oceans would rise by 60 to 65 metres (200 - 210ft) - everywhere.”

“The largest land animal in Antarctica is an insect, a wingless midge, Belgica antarctica, less than 1.3cm
(0.5in) long. There are no flying insects (they’d get blown away), just shiny black springtails that hop like
fleas and tend to live among penguin colonies”.

“When the Antarctic sea-ice begins to expand at the beginning of winter, it advances by around 40,000
square miles (100,000 square kilometres) per day, and eventually doubles the size of Antarctica, adding
up to an extra 20 million square kilometres of ice around the land mass”.

“One of the biggest icebergs ever (possibly the biggest iceberg ever) broke free from the Ross ice shelf in Antarctica in
2000”.
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EPILOGUE
EPILOGUE

Dear Reader,
Antarctica has remained as an area of immense curiosity and awe due to
its inaccessibility and inhospitable climate. Though the scene is changing fast with the
opening of ice runways and ships carrying tourists, yet this continent continues to be
the last wilderness because of no permanent habitation.

We have attempted to bring together information scattered at various locations

for students interested in knowing different aspects pertaining to Antarctica. The ac-
count varies from the discovery of the continent to stories of heroism, gradual shifting
of scene from the days of huskies to automobile/ motorized ships/ aircrafts, the unique
flora and fauna capable of surviving in the extreme cold and finally the Indian initiative
in this land.

We sincerely hope that the book will stimulate our young minds, which is the
main objective of this ‘popular series’.

(Rasik Ravindra)
Director
NCAOR

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BIBLIOGR APHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Many articles, books and websites were consulted in search of material for this book.
While all known and unknown sources are thanked, the main ones are listed below.
Arun (2005): Rochak aur Romanchak Antarctica, Prabhat Prakashan, New Delhi.
Australian Antarctic Division: www.aad.gov.au
British Antarctic Survey: www.antarctica.ac.uk
Global Warming: http://www.climatehotmap.org/index.html
Gateway to Antarctica: http://www.anta.canterbury.ac.nz
Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica: Third and Ninth Scientific Reports.
International Polar Year: www.ipy.org
Kids Design Antarctic Experiments: http://web-japan.org/kidsweb/news/05-02/
antarctica.html
New Zealand Antarctic Survey: www.antarcticanz.govt.nz
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research: www.ncaor.gov.in
National Science Foundation: http://www.nsf.gov/
Nova warnings from the ice: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/warnings/)
Polar meteorology web module: http://www.weather.nps.navy.mil/~psguest/polarmet
Polar regions: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~leung/intl/pola/webpage.html
Portals of the world: http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html
Scott Polar Research Institute: http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk
The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research: www.scar.org
The Commission for the conservation of the Antarctic marine life: www.ccamlr.org
The secretariat of the Antarctic and southern ocean coalition (ASOC): www.asoc.org
The South Pole: www.south-pole.com
The explorer web: (http://www.thepoles.com/)
Teachers experiencing Antarctica and Arctic: http://tea.armadaproject.org
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Researc
Researchh Team
Manish Tiwari National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
C.M. Laluraj National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
Lalit Kumar Ahirwar National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research

Advisors
S. Mukherjee Geological Survey of India
Arun Chaturvedi Geological Survey of India
K. R. Gupta Geological Society of India
N. Khare National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
Ajai Saxena Ministry of Earth Sciences

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56