MOTIVATION

Motivation defined

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.1. Intensity:
Intensity:how
howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries
 Motivation defined … cont’d.

It is a process that starts with with a physiological or

psychological deficiency or need that activates
behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.
Need: Created when there is a physiological or psychological
imbalance.
Drive: It is action oriented and provides an energizing thrust.
Incentives: Alleviate needs and reduces drive

An inner state that activates and moves an individual

towards an intrinsic goal
 Elements of Work Motivation

Which behaviors does a

Direction of Behavior person choose to perform
In an organization?

How hard does a person

Level of Effort work to perform a
chosen behavior?

When faced with obstacles

how hard does a person keep
Level of Persistence trying to perform a
chosen behavior successfully?
 Motivation

• Intrinsic • Extrinsic
– actually performing – Based on acquisition
the behavior of material or social
– Behavior performed rewards
for its own sake
 Motive

 Unlearned & Physiologically based

Primary Motive  Hunger, Sex, Pain avoidance

 Unlearned but not Physiologically based

General Motive
 Curiosity, Manipulation & Activity Drive

Secondary Motive  Learned

 Secondary Motive
Need for achievement
Doing better than competitors
Attaining or surpassing a difficult goal
Solving a complex problem
Carrying out a challenging assignment successfully
Developing a better way to do something

Need for power

Influencing people to change their attitudes or behavior
Controlling people and activities
Being in a position of authority over others
Gaining control over information & resources
Defeating an opponent
 Secondary Motive
Need for Security
Secured job
Protection against loss of income or disaster
Protection from physical harm
Protection from hazards

Need for Status

Right car, right clothes
Right company, right job
Right degree, right university
Living in the right neighborhood
 Executive privileges
 Classification of Motivation Theories

– Content theories.
• Focus on profiling the needs or drives that people
seek to fulfill.
– Process theories.
• Focus on people’s thought or cognitive processes.
– Reinforcement theories.
• Emphasize controlling behavior by manipulating its
consequences.
 Content Theories of Motivation

 Content theories
– Motivation results from the individual’s attempts to
satisfy needs
– Focuses on goals, incentives that people seek to
achieve to remain satisfied and perform better
 Major content theories
– Maslov’s Need-Hierarchy theory
– McGregor’s Theory X and Y
– Herzberg Two-factor theory
– ERG theory
– McClelland Needs theory
 Each theory offers a slightly different view.
 Maslov’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Higher-order
needs

Self-
actualization
needs

Esteem needs

Social needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs
Lower-order
needs
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
 Herzberg Two Factor theory
• Job Satisfiers ( Motivators) are related to job
content (E.g. New equipment); Job Dissatisfiers
(Hygiene Factors) are related to job context
(surrounding aspects , say bad boss, no training)
• Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, but do not
lead to motivation
• Taken together, Motivators and hygiene factors
are Two-factor theory of motivation
• Factors such as company policy & administration,
supervision, salary when adequate, placate
workers; else dissatisfy workers
ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Concepts:
Concepts:
AAlower
lowerlevel
levelneed
needdoesdoes
not
nothave
haveto tobe
befulfilled
fulfilledfor
for
aahigher
higherlevel
levelneed
needto tobe
be
Core Needs motivating
motivating
Existence: survival More
Morethan
thanoneoneneed
needcan can
(physiological , material be operative at the
be operative at the samesame
well-being) time.
time.
Relatedness: social, IfIfaahigher-level
higher-levelneedneed
interpersonal cannot
cannotbe befulfilled,
fulfilled,the
the
relationships. desire
desiretotosatisfy
satisfyaalower-
lower-
level need increases.
level need increases.
Growth: intrinsic desire
for personal development.
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nPow

nAch nAff
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs … contd.

Acquired needs theory.

– Need for achievement (nAch).
• The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to
solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
– Need for affiliation (nAff).
• The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with others.
– Need for power (nPower).
• The desire to control others, to influence their behavior,
or to be responsible for others.
 Exhibit 4-4 Summarizing the
Various Needs Theories

Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland

Self-Actualization
Growth Motivators Need for Achievement
Esteem
Need for Power
Affiliation Relatedness
Hygiene
Need for Affiliation
Security Factors
Existence
Physiological
 Process Theories of Motivation
• Concerned with cognitive antecedents that go into
motivation or effort and how they relate to one
another
• Based on the notion that individuals make
conscious decisions about their job behavior
• Focus on the thought processes through which
people choose among alternative courses of action
• Two process theories:
– Equity theory
– Expectancy theory
 Stacy Adams’ Equity Theory
• Argues that a major input into job
performance and satisfaction is degree of
equity (or inequity) that people perceive in
their work situation
 Equity Theory

Referent Comparisons that an employee can use:

Self-inside: An employee’s experiences in a different
position inside his/ her current organization
Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation
or position outside his/ her current organization
Other-inside: Another individual or group of
individuals inside the employee’s organization
Other-outside:Another individual or group of
individuals outside the employee’s organization
 Equity Theory … contd.
Outcome Comparisons result in:
Positive Inequity Person's outcomes > Other's outcomes
Person's inputs Other's inputs

Negative Inequity Person's outcomes < Other's outcomes

Person's inputs Other's inputs

Equity Person's outcomes < Other's outcomes

Person's inputs Other's inputs
 Equity Theory … contd.
Positive inequity (Results in guilt)
• Individual feels he/she has received relatively more than
others in proportion to work inputs.
Negative inequity (Results in anger)
• Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than
others in proportion to work inputs.
Equity (Results in fairness)
• Individual feels he/she has received as much as others in
proportion to work inputs.
 Equity Theory … contd.
 Equity restoration behaviors.
– Change work inputs.
– Change the outcomes received.
– Leave the situation.
– Change the comparison person.
– Psychologically distort the comparisons.
– Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of
the comparison person.
Equity Theory … contd.
Coping methods for dealing with equity
comparisons.
– Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in the
workplace.
– Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given.
– Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given.
– Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the reward
is based.
– Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in the
situation
 Equity Theory: Example

INEQUITABLE
INEQUITABLERELATIONSHIP
RELATIONSHIP
Andy is Bill is
overpaid underpaid
compared to Bill compared to Andy
Bill’s outcomes
Andy’s outcomes ($25,000/year)
($30,000/year) Bill’s inputs
Andy’s inputs (40 hours/week)
(40 hour/week)

Andy feels guilty Bill feels angry

EQUITABLE
EQUITABLERELATIONSHIP
RELATIONSHIP
Andy is equitably paid Bill is equitably paid
compared to Bill compared to Andy
Andy’s outcomes Bill’s outcomes
($30,000/year) ($30,000/year)
Andy’s inputs Andy feels Bill feels Bill’s inputs
(40 hour/week) satisfied satisfied (40 hours/week)
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• Model is built along the concepts of:
– Valence: Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular
outcome
– Instrumentality: Degree to which a first-level outcome will
lead to a desired second-level outcome
– Expectancy is the perceived probability (0 to 1) assigned to a
given level of effort leading to a given level of performance /
first level of outcome

• The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way

depends on the strength of the expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
 Expectancy Theory …contd.
• It depicts a process of cognitive variables
that reflect individual differences in work
motivation
• Everyone has a unique combination of
valences, instrumentalities, expectancies
Expectancy Theory …contd.
 Overview of Expectancy Theory

Effort
Effort Performance
Performance Reward
Reward

Valence
Valenceof
of
Expectancy
Expectancy X Instrumentality
Instrumentality X reward
reward

MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
Abilities
Abilities Role
Roleperceptions
perceptions
and
andtraits
traits and opportunities
and opportunities

JOB
PERFORMANCE
How are motivation, job satisfaction,
and job performance related?
 Motivators
• Intrinsic
– A person’s internal desire to do something, due
to such things as interest, challenge, and
personal satisfaction.
• Extrinsic
– Motivation that comes from outside the person,
such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible
rewards.
 Motivation for Specific Organizational Goals
• Employee Recognition (to show people
matter)
• Improved Productivity (Variable pay
programs / Rewards)
• Other types of performance (Leadership
effectiveness, new goals, knowledge,
competency, Commission beyond sales)
• Motivating Specific Groups
 TYPES OF REWARDS AND
THEIR OBJECTIVES
A.Membership and Seniority-Based Rewards
B.Job Status-Based Rewards (based on job
evaluation and worth of job)
C.Competency-Based Rewards (based on skills,
knowledge, other underlying characteristics that
lead to superior performance.
D.Performance-Based Rewards (Individual, Team,
Organizational)