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Data Communications and Computer Networks: Medium Problem (Noise)
Data Communications and Computer Networks: Medium Problem (Noise)
Data communications has an ancient history, as people have always had an interest in
communicating with each other. Different methods have been used and associated with each
method are various advantages and disadvantages. A major problem with communications is
ensuring that the receiver gets the message sent by the transmitter.
Examples of medium:
Communication facilities have an ancient history, but we tend to think of the advent of the
telegraph and later the telephone as the beginning of modern communications. Extensive
telegraph and telephone networks were established all over the world, decades before the
emergence of computers.
In the telegraph network text was transmitted using codes, beginning with Morse, and then
Baudot codes. These were predecessors of the modern ASCII code, which is frequently used in
computers to represent text.
The concept of a start-stop code system was developed to tell a receiver that a character was
being transmitted. Seven pulses were transmitted on the line. Five were used to represent the
character. A start pulse indicated that a character was to be transmitted and a stop pulse that the
character was finished.
This idea is the basis of the RS232 serial interface. The serial interface is the communications
interface used between computers and devices such as modems, printers and computer terminals.
RS232 is the name of the standard that defines the interface (e.g. how many wires are used, what
each wire is used for and so on).
Computer Networks
Definition
A computer network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.
• Resource sharing: programs (O.S., applications), data, equipment (printers, disks) are
available to all users of the network regardless of location.
• High reliability: By replicating files on different machines and having spare cpus, users
are more immune from hardware/software failure.
• Less cost: Small machines have about 1/10 the power of a mainframe but 1/1000 the
cost. By using such machines with file server machine(s), a local area network LAN can
be cheaply installed. It is easy to increase the capacity by adding new machines.
LANs can carry data at varying speeds depending on the communications medium used. If they
are based on the telephone network this speed may range from 56 Kbps to less than 10 Mbps.
However, if they are based on optical fibre, much higher speeds are possible.
WANs are widely used in banking. The financial markets are also heavily dependent on wide
area computer networks.
They provide for remote database access, which is the basis for airline reservations and home
banking. They also provide electronic mail or e-mail.
LANs are used in many offices, schools, colleges and hospitals. They are suitable for networking
within a building or campus area. Because of the short distances involved they are typically
(though not necessarily) faster than WANs in that it is cheap to use high quality communications
media such as coaxial cable and optical fibre. They can carry data at very high speeds e.g. from
10 Mbps to 100 Mbps being very common speeds, while speeds of up to 1000 Mbps are
possible.
A good example is a LAN with a file server. The users store files access software on the file
server, but use their own PCs for processing. Dedicated servers may also be used for email or for
printing: mail servers and print servers.
Network Configuration.
The user machines in a network are called hosts. The hosts are connected by a subnet which
carries messages between hosts. The subnet is made up of transmission lines (trunks, channels,
circuits) and switching elements (computers). Transmission lines carry bits and the switching
elements connect the transmission lines.
The shape of a computer network can vary conceptually from a single straight line, usually
referred to as a bus, to a many sided polygon with each node connected to all the others.
1. Broadcast subnets: In this system a message is broadcast over the network and all
machines have the possibility of receiving the message. LANs usually use broadcast
subnets. Each machine has its own unique address and typically will only "listen" to
messages that are sent to this address.
2. Point to Point subnets: Here, a message is transmitted from one computer to another
computer and so until the destination computer is reached. This is analogous to the postal
system where a letter is transferred from post-office to post-office. WANs usually use
point to point subnets
Broadcast Sub-networks
These are typically configured as either a bus or a ring network. They can be further classified
as Static or Dynamic.
In a static broadcast subnet each computer gets a chance to transmit and can only broadcast a
message when it's turn comes around. This is a rather inefficient use of network time, since if the
computer, whose turn it is to transmit, has nothing to transmit, then the network is left idle. It has
the advantage that two stations can never transmit a message simultaneously. A simultaneous
transmission of messages causes a collision where the messages get corrupted and so are not
received. They must be re-transmitted.
A dynamic broadcast subnet makes more efficient use of the network. This system allows any
station to transmit at any time the network is free of traffic. In this case, when a computer wishes
to transmit, it follows the following protocol:
2. If the network is free, transmit the message otherwise wait for a small amount of time and
repeat from step 1.
3. Check to see if the message is still on the network (Collision Detect). Two machines
could have carried out step 1 at same time, found the network free and proceeded to
transmit their messages, thus causing a collision. If a collision is detected then wait for a
random but small amount of time and repeat from step 1.
In the event of a collision, both computers will wait for random time periods so that it is unlikely
that they will cause another collision. The likelihood of collisions is directly related to the
number of active users on the network i.e. the network traffic.
The above protocol is referred to as CSMA/CD, which stands for Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detect. Multiple Access means that many users can access the network at any
time.
If possible, the point to point subnet transmits directly to the relevant station. If no direct route is
available, it will send the message to a "switch" which re-transmits the message to the
destination. The best known example of this type of network is the telephone network (Public
Switched Telephone Network or PSTN. also referred to as the Plain Old Telephone System or
POTS)
Network Topologies.
Computer networks can be configured in a number of ways as shown below. The ring and bus
topology are used in broadcast subnets. Messages are broken into smaller units called packets
for transmission on a network.
With the ring configuration each packet of information is sent off around the ring on its own.
The same applies to a bus. The packets travel out to the ends of the line where they will
encounter a device called a terminator. It serves the network as a refuse collector, intercepting
and absorbing any signal that reaches the end of the bus and prevents it from being reflected
back.
The complete network, which is a point to point subnet, differs from the others. In this
configuration each station is connected directly to every other station on the network. Its biggest
advantage is speed, however it is not very practical because of the number of connections that
would be required.
The principles for the tree, intersecting loop and star configurations are the same as those
discussed in the loop. The telephone network is based on the tree topology. A terminal-
mainframe model has a star topology.
a) Ring b) Bus
c) Complete d) Loop
g) Star
Data is transmitted as signals. The number of signals per second is the frequency of the signal.
This is measured in Hertz (Hz). One cycle per second is 1 Hz. One million cycles per second is
1 MHz.
Bandwidth
The maximum range of frequencies that can be transmitted is the bandwidth of the medium.
This determines the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted. A coaxial cable might
have a bandwidth of 10 to 100 MHz. An optic fibre has a bandwidth of up to 108 MHz.
The higher the bandwidth the more data that can be transmitted per second, hence the popularity
of optic fibres. In fact, computers cannot yet utilise the full capacity of optic fibres i.e. they
cannot transmit at the speed which the fibre is capable of carrying.
Transmission Media
• Copper Wires
o Twisted Pair (tp)
o Coaxial Cable (coax)
• Fibre Optic
• Wireless
o Microwave
o Infrared
o Radio
Capacity: dependent on the distances involved but can be up to several Mbps over a few Kms.
For example ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) lines offer speeds from 64Kbps to over
1 Mbps and have been available to home users for Internet access, for several years. More
recently (2003), DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) and in particular ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) lines
are available to home users with speeds of 1.5 to 6 Mbps. ISDN and ADSL both use digital
TPs may be shielded (stp) or unshielded (utp) with the shielded having extra insulation.
However, it is the rate of twisting (number of twists per inch) that is the most important
characteristic. They are also classified into Category-5 (CAT-5) and Category-6 (CAT-6).
CAT-5 can carry 10 or 100 Mbps (10/100Mbps) over short distances e.g. up to 100 metres
approx. The communications standard used in this case is called 10/100-Base-T.
This is the type of cable that is often used in building to connect PCs to a LAN. Usually, the
CAT-5 cable connects to a device know as a hub which is less than 100 metres from each PC.
There may be a hub for each floor/laboratory in a building.
CAT-6 cable operates at 100/1000Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet) and is typically used to interconnect
hubs. It is more expensive than CAT-5 cable.
Large organisations frequently have a so-called "backbone" network that interconnects separate
LANs in different buildings/rooms as in the diagram below. Over short distances CAT-6 cable
may be used but optic fibre is also often used as it can cover longer distances.
Hub
CAT-6
Backbone
Hub
Three floor Building with CAT-6 Cable Backbone connecting LANs on each floor
The original Ethernet standard was based on 10 Mbps coaxial cable. Ethernet is the most
popular LAN standard and was developed at Rank Xerox (who also developed the mouse, laser
printer and Graphical User Interface (GUI) software. Ethernet LANs can be based on tp, coax or
optic fibre.
Capacity
10 to 100 Mbps for distances of up to 1 km. Frequently used in LANs but is being replaced by
utp/stp in most LANs.
Optic Fibre
Uses light to carry data and has a huge bandwidth. Very thin glass fibres used. To date capacity
of 1000 Mbps over 1 km is feasible.
It is used in WANs, LANs for interconnecting hubs and also for linking telephone exchanges.
Excellent noise immunity as it does not suffer from electrical interference and is therefore
suitable for harsh environments such as factory floor.
Wireless
Line of Sight: Infrared and Microwave
Physical cables have a major problem if you have to cross private or public property where it
may be difficult or very expensive to get permission, in addition to the costs of laying the cable.
Using line of sight transmitters avoids this problem.
Microwaves can be used over long distances e.g. A 100m tower can transmit data for distances
over 100 km. Cheaper than digging a trench. Relatively high speeds of 10 Mbps upwards are
possible.
Satellite: operate in same fashion as microwaves where the satellite operates as a ‘Big
microwave repeater in the sky’!! Satellite communication has a high bandwidth giving up 50
Mbps speeds and a given satellite may be able to have many "channels" at this speed.
A bridge on the other hand only passes traffic from one LAN to another LAN if the traffic is
addressed to a machine on the second LAN. This leads to more efficient usage of the network.
So, traffic from LAN B below will only be routed to LAN C via the bridge, if that traffic is
destined for a machine on LAN C.
LAN A B LAN X
R R
LAN B B LAN Y
B Building 4
LAN C
Building 1 Site-wide
Backbone
Computer A Computer B
Interface
If the computers are different locations (cities, countries) then public carrier facilities
may be used. One common technique is to use the public switched telephone network
(PSTN) and a modem which enables you connect computers to the PSTN:
Computer A Computer B
PSTN
Modem Modem
The model above is the typical method that a home user employs to connect to the Internet,
where Computer A represents the user's computer and Computer B represents the Internet server
of the user's ISP (Internet Service Provider e.g. Eircom in Ireland). The ISP server would have a
high-speed connection to the Internet which is shared among the users.
In the case of a number of computers to be connected which are separated by long distances then
two possibilities for networking present themselves: the use of private data networks and the
use of public data networks. Both e public and private networks are connected to the Internet.
The earliest computer networks made use of the PSTN (telephone network) for data transmission
between user equipment located at different locations as shown in an earlier diagram. The data
rates using the PSTN are typically less than 56,000 bps and the cost is based on connection time.
Together these factors make the PSTN unattractive for large-scale data communications and led
large organisations to develop private data networks.
Private data networks were set up using leased lines from the telephone authorities to connect a
connect a number of switching nodes or multiplexers. ISDN lines allows speeds from 64 kbps to
several Mbps. Since it very expensive to set up such networks, they are used by very large
organisations such as banks. They are known as private enterprise-wide networks. Such
organisations would install their own switching system which can handle both voice and data
communications.
Enterprise-wide
Site A Network Site B
PBX PBX
IMUX IMUX
Leased Lines
DSE DSE
IMUX
Phones
Data Switching
DSE Exchange
Computers
DSE
PBX
IMUX Intelligent
Site C Multiplexer
Private Network
Modems
Phone lines deal with frequencies of 300 to 3000 Hz. A computer outputs a serial stream of bits
(1’s, 0’s). A modem is a device that accepts such a bit stream and converts it to an analog signal,
using modulation. It also performs the inverse conversion. Thus two computers can be connected
using two modems and phone line.
Using a modem, a continuous signal (tone) is sent in the range 1000 to 2000 Hz. To transmit
information, this carrier signal is modulated. Its amplitude, frequency, phase or a combination
can be modulated .
DC SIGNALS
FROM TERMINAL MODEM
OR COMPUTER
DC SIGNALS
MODEM TO A TERMINAL
OR COMPUTER
This diagram illustrates the carrier signal always present between two modems.
FREQUENCY MODULATION
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
The serial interface between the modem and computer is governed by the RS-232 standard (also
known as the CCITT V24 standard).
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission takes place in the form of pulses representing bits (1’s and 0’s). This is the
type of communication used internally in computers. The high-speed trunks linking central
phone exchanges use digital transmission. It has a lower error rate than analog transmission.
The local loop (from phone to exchange) is still analog. This must be converted at the exchange
to digital. A device called a Codec (coder/decoder) does this. It samples the analog signal 8000
times per second and encodes the signal digitally by representing each sample as a binary
number. The technique used is called Pulse Coded Modulation or PCM.
Types of Transmission
There are three types of transmission.
1. Simplex: information is transmitted in one direction only and the roles of transmitter and
receiver are fixed. This form is not used for conventional data transmission.
2. Half Duplex (HDX): transmission is allowed in both directions but in only one direction
at a time. Data communication systems that use the telephone network usually transmit in
HDX.
3. Full Duplex (FDX): sender/receiver can transmit and receive from each other at the same
time. In order to transmit in FDX, the user usually has private direct lines.
SIMPLEX
HALF DUPLEX
FULL DUPLEX
For example 4 users could each operate terminals at 10,000 bps connected to mainframe over a
single 40,000 bps line as shown in the figure below. The 4 lines from the terminals are connected
to a multiplexer which is connected to another multiplexer by the 40,000 bps line. The second
multiplexer de-multiplexes the signal onto 4 separate lines for the computer. This gives us
efficient line usage and saves money.
C
o
m
M M p
U U u
X High X t
Speed e
Line r
Terminals
Multiplexing is also used for voice transmission where optic fibres and microwave cable can
handle from 8000 to 16000 simultaneous conversations. There are a number of types of
multiplexing. Two common ones are Time Division Multplexing (TDM) and Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM).
Typically standards fall into two groups: official standards (from national standards bodies) and
de facto standards established by common usage.
An early official standard was the EIA RS-232-C for data transfer over wires. (Electronic
Industries Association Recommended Standard)
Standards for LANs (local area networks) were proposed by the American Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), an influential organisation.
A recommendation for standards called X-25 for access to and transmission methods for packet
switched data networks (PSDNs) were proposed by the CCITT.
The International Standards Organisation (ISO) took an initiative to develop universal data
communication standards to unite standards bodies, computer and telecommunications
manufacturers and users. The ISO Open Systems Interconnection (OSI ) reference model was
put forward as a framework to develop standards for data communication products. An open
system is one that is prepared to communicate with any other open system by using agreed rules
or protocols on how the communication should take place.
ARPANET:
ARPANET was one of the first WANs and a forerunner of the Internet.
It used a network protocol called IP (Internet Protocol) to handle the interconnection of WANs
to LANs. It used a transport protocol call TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) to govern
transmission of data. The two are often referred to as TCP/IP and the major protocols of the
Internet. It also provided protocols for file transfer (FTP), remote login (TELNET) and e-mail
(SMTP). These three protocols are still very important and widely used protocols
Internetworking is the term used for the connection of two networks. The growth of
internetworking between LANs and WANs and WANs and WANs led to what is now referred to
as the Internet. A computer that provides for the interconnection of two different networks is
called a gateway.