1. Explain microwave communication.

(5 marks)
Microwave wireless communication is an effective type of communication, mainly this
transmission uses radio waves, and the wavelengths of radio waves are measured in
centimeters.
In this communication, the data or information can be transfers using two methods. One is the
satellite method and another one is a terrestrial method.
Wherein satellite method, the data can be transmitted through a satellite that orbit 22,300 miles
above the earth.
Stations on the earth send and receive data signals from the satellite with a frequency ranging
from 11GHz-14GHz and with a transmission speed of 1Mbps to 10Mbps.
In the terrestrial method, in which two microwave towers with a clear line of sight between
them are used, ensuring no obstacles to disrupt the line of sight. So it is used often for the
purpose of privacy.
The frequency range of the terrestrial system is typically 4GHz-6GHz and with a transmission
speed is usually 1Mbps to 10Mbps.
The main disadvantage of microwave signals is, they can be affected by bad weather,
especially rain.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a low power wireless communication
 Mobile Communication Systems
 Bluetooth Technology
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Radar
 Radio Frequency Identification

2. What is Cellular system? Explain.

The immense potential of conventional telephone cannot be exploited to its maximum due to the
limitation imposed by the connecting wires. But this restriction has been removed with the advent of
the cellular radio.

Frequency Scarcity Problem

If we use dedicated RF loop for every subscriber, we need larger bandwidth to serve even a limited
number of subsc in a single city.
Cellular Approach

With limited frequency resource, cellular principle can serve thousands of subscribers at an affordable
cost. In a cellular network, total area is subdivided into smaller areas called “cells”. Each cell can
cover a limited number of mobile subscribers within its boundaries. Each cell can have a base station
with a number of RF channels.

Frequencies used in a given cell area will be simultaneously reused at a different cell which is
geographically separated. For example, a typical seven-cell pattern can be considered.

Advantages of Cellular networks:

 It is flexible enough to use the features and functions of almost all public and private
networks.

 It has increased capacity.

 It consumes less power.

 It can be distributed to larger coverage area.

 It reduces interference from other signals.

3. What is TDMA? Explain.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an

accurate synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver.
TDMA is used in digital mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically
assign a frequency for the exclusive use of a time interval.
In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a
station. However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used
for the multiple access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies.
The mobile system that uses this technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.
In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each user is
assigned definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example, user ‘B’ sends after user
‘A,’ and user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak power becomes a problem and larger
by the burst communication.
4. Explain DECT in detail.

DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications) is a digital wireless telephone

technology that is expected to make cordless phones much more common in both businesses
and homes in the future.

Like another important wireless standard, Global System for Mobile communication (GSM),
DECT uses time division multiple access (TDMA) to transmit radio signals to phones.

Whereas GSM is optimized for mobile travel over large areas, DECT is designed especially
for a smaller area with a large number of users, such as in cities and corporate complexes.

DECT has five major applications:

1. The "cordless private branch exchange."

2. Wireless Local Loop (WLL)

3. Cordless Terminal Mobility

4. Home cordless phones

5. GSM/DECT internetworking

5. What is Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP?

Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:

Agent Discovery: Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent
advertisement messages. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement messages observes
whether the message is from its own home agent and determines whether it is in the home network or
foreign network.
Agent Registration: Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent sends a registration request
(RREQ) to the foreign agent. The foreign agent, in turn, sends the registration request to the home
agent with the care-of-address. The home agent sends a registration reply (RREP) to the foreign agent.
Then it forwards the registration reply to the mobile node and completes the process of registration.

Tunneling: It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called
encapsulation. It takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the care-of-address.
Whenever the home agent receives a packet from the correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet
with source address as home address and destination as care-of-address.

6. Write a note on Architecture of the file system.

A file system is a process of managing how and where data on a storage disk, which is also referred to as
file management or FS.

FAT8, FAT12, FAT32, FAT16 are different file systems and NTFS

Two or three layers are contained by the file system. Sometimes, these layers function
combined and sometimes are explicitly separated.
For file operations, the API (Application Program Interface) is provided by the logical file
system, like OPEN, CLOSE, READ, and more because it is accountable for interaction with
the user application.
Also, for processing, the requested operation is forwarded to the layer that is located below it.
Furthermore, for various concurrent instances of physical file systems, the second optional
layer allows support, which is a virtual file system.
And each concurrent instance is called a file system implementation. The third layer is
responsible for handling buffering and memory management, which is called the physical file
system.
It is concerned with the physical operation of the storage device and processes physical blocks
being read or written. Furthermore, to drive the storage device, this layer interacts with the
channel and the device drivers.
7. What is Modulation?
A radio transmission needs to have some kind of purpose, and that purpose is almost always
sending some kind of information.
In the case of a radio or TV station, the information is contained in the sound or picture. For a
cellular phone, the information is the sound of the telephone call.
For a computer connected to Wi-Fi, the information is the data that you are sending.
The process of adding this information to the radio wave is called modulation.
The process of getting the information after the signal is received is called demodulation or
detection.
one of the earliest types of detector, known as the "cat's whisker." It is made up of a thin piece of
wire which contacts a piece of mineral (usually galena).
When a radio signal goes in, this simple detector is able to remove the sound that has been
modulated onto the radio wave.
Most modern radio receivers use a part called a diode, which is the modern equivalent of the cat's
whisker.

8. What is Ad-hoc networks?

An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect and communicate
with each other.
The term ad hoc is a Latin word that literally means "for this," implying improvised or impromptu.
Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs).
The devices communicate with each other directly instead of relying on a base station or access
points as in wireless LANs for data transfer co-ordination.
Each device participates in routing activity, by determining the route using the routing algorithm
and forwarding data to other devices via this route.
The ad hoc wireless network is basically a decentralized form of a wireless network. The network
is not dependent upon the common wireless infrastructure

The different types of Ad-hoc networks are:

Mobile Ad-hoc networks (MANETs)
Vehicular Ad-hoc networks (VANETs)
Wire Less mesh networks
Smart Phone Ad-hoc networks (SPANs)
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
9. Define Mobile Network Layer.
Layer-3 in the OSI model is called Network layer. Network layer manages options pertaining to host and
network addressing, managing sub-networks, and internetworking.
Network layer has the responsibility to route the packets from source to destination, mapping different
addressing schemes and protocols.
Layer-3 Functionalities
Addressing devices and networks.
Populating routing tables or static routes.
Queuing incoming and outgoing data and then forwarding them according to quality of service
constraints set for those packets.
Internetworking between two different subnets.
Delivering packets to destination with best efforts.
Provides connection oriented and connection less mechanism.
Network Layer Features
Quality of service management
Load balancing and link management
Security
Interrelation of different protocols and subnets with different schema
L3 VPN and tunnels can be used to provide end to end dedicated connectivity.
1. Briefly explain File system.(10 Marks)

 A file system is a process of managing how and where data on a storage disk, which is also
referred to as file management or FS. It is a logical disk component that compresses files
separated into groups, which is known as directories.

The file system enables us to view a file in the current directory as files are often managed in a
hierarchy.
 FAT: FAT is a type of file system, which is developed for hard drives. It stands for file
allocation table and was first introduced in 1977.
 It also helps to extend the life of a hard drive as it minimizes the wear and tears on the hard
disc. Today, FAT is not used by later versions of Microsoft Windows like Windows XP,
Vista, 7, and 10 as they use NTFS. The FAT8, FAT12, FAT32, FAT16 are all the different
types of FAT (for file allocation table).

GFS:
 A GFS is a file system, which stands for Global File System. It has the ability to make enable
multiple computers to act as an integrated machine, which is first developed at the University
of Minnesota. But now it is maintained by Red Hat.
 When the physical distance of two or more computers is high, and they are unable to send files
directly with each other, a GFS file system makes them capable of sharing a group of files
directly.
 A computer can organize its I/O to preserve file systems with the help of a global file system.

HFS:
HFS (Hierarchical file system) is the file system that is used on a Macintosh computer for creating a
directory at the time a hard disk is formatted.
Generally, its basic function is to organize or hold the files on a Macintosh hard disk.

NTFS:
NTFS is the file system, which stands for NT file system and stores and retrieves files on Windows
NT operating system and other versions of Windows like Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 7,
and Windows 10. Sometimes, it is known as the New Technology File System.
As compared to the FAT and HPFS file system, it provides better methods of file recovery and data
protection and offers a number of improvements in terms of extendibility, security, and performance.
UDF:
 A UDF is a file system, stands for Universal Disk Format and used first developed by OSTA
(Optical Storage Technology Association) in 1995 for ensuring consistency among data written to
several optical media.
 It is used with CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs and is supported on all operating systems. Now, it is
used in the process of CD-R's and CD-RW's, called packet writing.

2. Briefly explain Mobile Transport Layer.

 The transport layer is a 4th layer from the top.
 Transport layer is used in the reference model to establish an end to end connection.
 The main role of the transport layer is to provide the communication services directly to the
application processes running on different hosts.
 The transport layer provides a logical communication between application processes running
on different hosts. Although the application processes on different hosts are not physically
connected, application processes use the logical communication provided by the transport
layer to send the messages to each other.
 The transport layer protocols are implemented in the end systems but not in the network
routers.
 A computer network provides more than one protocol to the network applications.
 For example, TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols that provide a different set of
services to the network layer.
 All transport layer protocols provide multiplexing/demultiplexing service. It also provides
other services such as reliable data transfer, bandwidth guarantees, and delay guarantees.
 Each of the applications in the application layer has the ability to send a message by using
TCP or UDP. The application communicates by using either of these two protocols. Both TCP
and UDP will then communicate with the internet protocol in the internet layer.
 The applications can read and write to the transport layer. Therefore, we can say that
communication is a two-way process.
3. How does World Wide Web works?
 World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web pages stored
in web servers and connected to local computers through the internet.
 These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the content
of these sites from any part of the world over the internet using their devices such as computers,
laptops, cell phones, etc.
 The WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and media to your device.
 The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in HTML and connected
by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP.
 These links are electronic connections that link related pieces of information so that users can
access the desired information quickly.
 A web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A particular
collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is called a website, e.g.,
www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc.
 So, the World Wide Web is like a huge electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple
servers across the world.
 Small websites store all of their Webpages on a single server, but big websites or
organizations place their Webpages on different servers in different countries so that when
users of a country search their site they could get the information quickly from the nearest
server.
 So, the web provides a communication platform for users to retrieve and exchange information
over the internet. Unlike a book, where we move from one page to another in a sequence, on
World Wide Web we follow a web of hypertext links to visit a web page and from that web
page to move to other web pages. You need a browser, which is installed on your computer, to
access the Web.
4. What is Wireless application protocol (WAP)? Explain.
 [WAP is] the de facto worldwide standard for providing Internet communications and
advanced telephony services on digital mobile phones, pagers, personal digital assistants, and
other wireless terminals − WAP Forum.
 WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. The dictionary definition of these terms are as
follows.
 Wireless − Lacking or not requiring a wire or wires pertaining to radio transmission.
 Application − A computer program or piece of computer software that is designed
to do a specific task.
 Protocol − A set of technical rules about how information should be transmitted and
received using computers.
 WAP is the set of rules governing the transmission and reception of data by computer
applications on or via wireless devices like mobile phones. WAP allows wireless devices to
view specifically designed pages from the Internet using only plain text and very simple black
and white pictures.
 WAP is a standardized technology for cross-platform, distributed computing very similar to
the Internet's combination of Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), except that it is optimized for:
 low-display capability
 low-memory
 Low-bandwidth devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), wireless
phones, and pagers.
The WAP forum 2.0 version was introduced in 2002 that helps to enhance the wireless user
experience, and uses a cut-down version of XHTML with end-to-end HTTP and carries the wireless
world closer to the internet with a suite of specifications. It offers support for protocols like HTTP,
TCP, and IP that provide an environment, which allows wireless devices to use present internet
technologies. Additionally, it is configured by the operator and can include billing information,
telephone numbers, location, and other handset information. It includes various features; such are as
follows:
 It enhances of WAP Push functionality.
 For describing the device capabilities, it provides a user agent profile.
 Furthermore, it also offers an external functionality interface for supporting external plug-in,
such as functionality in micro browsers.
Advanced internet languages like extensible hypertext markup language (XHTML) and compact
hypertext markup language (CHTML) are also supported by the WAP browsers today.

5. What is Global system for Mobile communication (GSM)? Explain

 GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology used
for transmitting mobile voice and data services. Important facts about the GSM are given below
 The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in the
early 1970s.

 GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European
mobile telephone standard.

 GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is implemented globally.
  GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time-slots.
GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most parts of the
world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and 1900 MHz

 GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular subscribers.

 GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for
transmitting signals.

 GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of
data rates.

 Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries
throughout the world.

 GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service. Roaming is
the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.

 GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other streams
of user data, each in its own timeslot.

Why GSM?
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
 Improved spectrum efficiency
 International roaming
 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
 High-quality speech
 Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone company
services
 Support for new services

The GSM network can be broadly divided into −

 The Mobile Station (MS)
 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)