Transmission media

Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.

DHCP

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is a network management protocol that is used to dynamically
assign the IP address and other information to each host on the network so that they can communicate
efficiently

Explain SONET and its layers

SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a communication protocol, developed by
Bellcore – that is used to transmit a large amount of data over relatively large distances using optical
fibre.

SONET Layers:

SONET includes four functional layers:

1. Path Layer:
o It is responsible for the movement of signals from its optical source to its optical
destination.
o STS Mux/Demux provides path layer functions.
2. Line Layer:
o It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical line.
o STS Mux/Demux and Add/Drop Mux provides Line layer functions.
3. Section Layer:
o It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical section.
 oEach device of network provides section layer functions.
4. Photonic Layer:
o It corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model.
o It includes physical specifications for the optical fibre channel (presence of light =
1 and absence of light = 0).

Advantages of SONET:

 Transmits data to large distances

 Low electromagnetic interference
 High data rates
 Large Bandwidth

Explain Bootstrap protocol.

Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a basic protocol that automatically provides each participant in a network
connection with a unique IP address for identification and authentication as soon as it connects to the
network. This helps the server to speed up data transfers and connection requests.

What is Telnet? Explain.

Telnet is a network protocol used to virtually access a computer and to provide a two-way, collaborative
and text-based communication channel between two machines.

What is ATM? Explain ATM layer and its function with diagram.
ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It is a switching technique that uses time division
multiplexing (TDM) for data communications.

Routing Algorithm
Distance Vector Routing – 
 It is a dynamic routing algorithm in which each router computes a distance between itself and
each possible destination i.e. its immediate neighbors.
 The router shares its knowledge about the whole network to its neighbors and accordingly
updates the table based on its neighbors.
 The sharing of information with the neighbors takes place at regular intervals.
 It makes use of Bellman-Ford Algorithm  for making routing tables.
 Problems – Count to infinity problem which can be solved by splitting horizon. 
– Good news spread fast and bad news spread slowly. 
– Persistent looping problem i.e. loop will be there forever.
Link State Routing – 
 It is a dynamic routing algorithm in which each router shares knowledge of its neighbors with
every other router in the network.
 A router sends its information about its neighbors only to all the routers through flooding.
 Information sharing takes place only whenever there is a change.
 It makes use of Dijkstra’s Algorithm  for making routing tables.
 Problems – Heavy traffic due to flooding of packets. 
– Flooding can result in infinite looping which can be solved by using the Time to live
(TTL) field. 

IP stands for Internet Protocol and v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4). IPv4 was the primary

version brought into action for production within the ARPANET in 1983. 
IP version four addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in decimal notation. 
Example- 192.0.2.126 could be an IPv4 address. 
Parts of IPv4
 Network part: 
The network part indicates the distinctive variety that’s appointed to the network. The network
part conjointly identifies the category of the network that’s assigned.
 Host Part: 
The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your network. This part of the IPv4 address is
assigned to every host. 
For each host on the network, the network part is the same, however, the host half must vary.
 Subnet number: 
This is the nonobligatory part of IPv4. Local networks that have massive numbers of hosts are
divided into subnets and subnet numbers are appointed to that.

IP address is your digital identity. It’s a network address for your computer so the Internet knows
where to send you emails, data, etc.

IPv6 or Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that allows communication to take
place over the network. IPv6 was designed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in
December 1998 with the purpose of superseding the IPv4 due to the global exponentially growing
internet users.
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:  

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links. 
Features:  
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media: 
(i) Twisted Pair Cable – 
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types: 

(ii) Coaxial Cable – 

It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel
conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband
mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks
widely use Coaxial cables. 

.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable – 
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for the
transmission of large volumes of data. 
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer)
supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M.
Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of
the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is
also called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the ground
plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.

(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of dielectric.
2. Unguided Media: 
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals. 
Features:  
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media: 
(i) Radio waves – 
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless
phones use Radio waves for transmission. 

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite. 

(ii) Microwaves – 
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of
the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution. 
(iii) Infrared – 
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Classes of IP addresses
TCP/IP defines five classes of IP addresses: class A, B, C, D, and E. Each class has a range of valid IP
addresses. The value of the first octet determines the class. IP addresses from the first three classes (A,
B and C) can be used for host addresses. The other two classes are used for other purposes – class D
for multicast and class E for experimental purposes.

The system of IP address classes was developed for the purpose of Internet IP addresses assignment.
The classes created were based on the network size. For example, for the small number of networks with
a very large number of hosts, the Class A was created. The Class C was created for numerous networks
with small number of hosts.

What Does Message Switching Mean?

Message switching is a network switching technique in which data is routed in its entirety
from the source node to the destination node, one hope at a time. During message routing,
every intermediate switch in the network stores the whole message. If the entire network's
resources are engaged or the network becomes blocked, the message-switched network
stores and delays the message until ample resources become available for effective
transmission of the message.

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a
shared medium. If analog signals are multiplexed, it is Analog Multiplexing and if
digital signals are multiplexed, that process is Digital Multiplexing.
The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into several number
of logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data
stream to be transferred. The device that does multiplexing can be simply called
as a MUX while the one that reverses the process which is demultiplexing, is
called as DEMUX.
The process of superimposing a message signal on a carrier signal so that the message can be
transmitted over long distances is called modulation. Here, the carrier signal is the signal of high
frequency which is used to carry the message signal. The following figure shows the block diagram of
modulation.

The modulation of a signal is performed at the transmitting end in the communication system with the
help of a modulator circuit (a part of modem). In the modulation, a specific parameter, i.e. amplitude,
frequency or phase, of the carrier signal is altered in accordance with the modulating signal or message
signal. After modulation, the modulated signal is transmitted over the communication channel by a
transmitter.
The common types of modulation that are being extensively used in data communication are
− amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, phase modulation, polarization modulation, pulse
code modulation, quadrature amplitude modulation, etc.
The modulation process is widely used in transmission of signals using electromagnetic waves, radio
waves, optics (in fiber optics), etc.

What is Demodulation?
The process of obtaining the original message from the modulated signal is called demodulation. In
simple words, demodulation is the process of separating a message signal from a carrier signal. The
process of demodulation is shown in the following block diagram.

The electronic circuit that is used to perform the demodulation process is called demodulator, it is the part
of the modem. The process of demodulation is performed at the receiver end of a communication system.

Difference between Modulation and Demodulation

Modulation and demodulation are the basic processes involved in data communication. There are many
differences between modulation and demodulation that are highlighted in the following table −

Basis of
Modulation Demodulation
Difference

The process of superimposing a low energy message The process of extracting the message signal
Definition signal on a high energy carrier signal is known as from a modulated signal is known as
“modulation”. “demodulation”.

The process of modulation is performed at Demodulation is performed at receiving end

Operation end
transmission end of the communication system. of the communication system.

The electronic circuit that is required to perform The electronic circuit required to done
Circuit required modulation is called modulator. demodulation is called demodulator or
sometimes, detector.

In modulation, the message signal is added on a In demodulation, the message is separated

Process
carrier wave for transmission. from the carrier signal.

Modulation process is need for mixing of two signal of Demodulation is needed for recovery of
Need
different parameters together. original signal from a mix of two signals.

The main purpose of modulation is to transmit the The purpose of demodulation is to regain the
Purpose
messages to long distances. original message at the receiver end.
 Process The process of modulation is comparatively simple. The demodulation involves relatively more
complexity complex process for the recovery of data.

In modulation, the parameter of the signal (such as

Signal In demodulation, the signal parameter is
frequency, amplitude, phase, etc.) is transformed
transformation transformed from high to low value.
from low to high value.