Nirma University

DATA COMMUNICATION
2CS202

Study of Network Components

Data Name: Mitalee Vaghasia

Roll No: 22BCE190

Practical No.: 1
Date: January 5, 2024
1 Data Communication
Data refers to the raw facts that are collected which is presented in a form
that is agreed and accepted upon by is creators and users. Data can be
any text, image, audio, video, and multimedia files. Communication is an
act of sending or receiving data. Thus, data communication refers to the
exchange of data between two or more networked or connected devices over
a transmission medium.

1.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

1. Delivery: The data must reach the right user and destination.
2. Accuracy: The data should be sent via the communication system
precisely and error-free. Data corruption during transmission could
have an impact on the accuracy of the data being delivered.
3. Timeliness: Data delivery of audio and video must be delivered with-
out any delay; this type of data delivery is known as real-time trans-
mission.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. The timely deliv-
ery of data might be impacted by uneven jitter.

1.2 Components Required for Data Communication

Data communication involves the use of a communication system consisting
of hardware and software. The hardware components include the sender and
receiver devices, as well as the intermediary devices via which the data is sent.
The software components include rules or protocols that specify what is to
be sent, how it is to be communicated, and when it is to be communicated.
There are mainly five components of a data communication system:
• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Transmission medium
• Protocol (set of rules)

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1.2.1 Message
This is a data transmission system’s most beneficial feature. The term ”mes-
sage” refers to a piece of data or information that needs to be communicated.
A message could be sent via any type of file, including text, audio, video,
etc. Data representation can be done in many different forms.

1. Text: Both uppercase and lowercase alphabet combinations are used

in the text. It is stored as a pattern of bits. Common encoding system:
Unicode and ASCII.

2. Numbers: A number is a set of digits that ranges from 0 to 9. It

is stored as a bit pattern. Common encoding schemes: Unicode and
ASCII.

3. Images: The smallest component of an image is called a pixel. A

picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements. Bits are used to represent
the pixels. Every pixel in an image, whether it is in color or black and
white, requires a variable amount of bits to represent its value.

4. Audio: Sound is another format for data that can be broadcast and
recorded. Audio data is not discrete; it is continuous.

5. Video: Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie.

1.2.2 Sender
A source must be present in order for a message to be transferred from
the source to the destination. In a data transmission system, the sender
is a component of the source. It is a device that sends data message. The
gadget could have the form of a workstation, laptop, video camera, computer,
smartphone, or other device.

1.2.3 Receiver
The message sent by the source has finally reached its destination. This
gadget is a message receiver. Similar to the transmitter, the recipient may
be a workstation, phone, computer, or other device.

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1.2.4 Transmission Medium
Throughout the whole data communication process, a means of bridging the
gap between the sender and the recipient must exist. It is the actual route
the data or a message takes to get from one place to another. Transmission
media include twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves, microwaves,
and other unguided (wireless) and guided (with wires) media.
1. Guided (with wires) media:
Guided Transmission media use a cabling system that directs data sig-
nals along a defined path. Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-
optic cable are prime instances of guided media, also known as bounded
media, which offer a channel from one device to another.
2. Unguided (without wires) media:
Data is sent via unguided medium without the need of a physical con-
ductor. The term ”wireless communication” is used to describe this
kind of communication.
It uses wireless electromagnetic signals to send data.
There are three types of Unguided Media
(i) Radio waves
(ii) Micro waves
(iii) Infrared.

1.2.5 Protocol
The designers of the communication systems had already created a number
of sets of rules to regulate data communications; these rules function as a sort
of agreement between the communicating devices. These are defined as pro-
tocol. The protocol is a collection of guidelines that control the exchange of
data. There wouldn’t be any communication between two connected devices
if there was no protocol in place between them. As a result, the protocol is
required for data communication to occur.

2 Computer Networks
Computer Networking is the practice of connecting computers together to
enable communication and data exchange between them. A computer net-
work is defined as a set of nodes. A node can be any device capable of

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transmitting or receiving data. Users can communicate more easily due to
computer networking.

2.1 Types of Networks:

The most basic type of network classification depends on the network’s geo-
graphical coverage.

2.1.1 PAN (Personal Area Network)

A personal area network (PAN) is a network that connects electronic devices
in a user’s close vicinity. A PAN can range in size from a few millimeters to
a few meters. The link between a Bluetooth earpiece and a smartphone is
one of the most common real-world example of a PAN.

2.1.2 LAN (Local Area Network)

A local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network that connects
multiple terminals or computers inside a single building or geographic area.
The connections between the devices could be wired or wireless.
Ethernet, Token rings, and IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN are examples of stan-
dard LAN technology.

• Ethernet:
Ethernet is the most used LAN technology, and it is defined by IEEE
standards 802.3. Ethernet’s widespread use is due to its ease of under-
standing, installation, and maintenance, as well as its low-cost network
implementation. Furthermore, Ethernet provides versatility in terms
of the topologies that can be used. Ethernet often employs a bus topol-
ogy. The physical layer and the data link layer of the OSI model are
where Ethernet operates.

• Ethernet Cables:
An Ethernet cable is a type of network cable that is used to link two de-
vices to a high-speed wired network. This network cable is constructed
of four-pair cable with twisted pair conductors. It is utilized for data
transmission at both ends of the line and is referred to as an RJ45
connector.

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Cat 5, Cat 5e, Cat 6, and UTP cables are the different types of Ether-
net cables. Cat 5 cable can handle a 10/100 Mbps Ethernet network,
but Cat 5e and Cat 6 cable can support a 10/100/1000 Mbps Ethernet
network.
TYPES OF Cat5 CABLES:

– 1. Straight Through Cable

Straight-through cable is a type of CAT5 with RJ-45 connectors
at each end, and each has the same pin out. It complies with either
the T568A or T568B standards. For consistency, it employs the
same color code throughout the LAN. This type of twisted-pair
cable is used in local area networks (LANs) to connect computers
or network hubs such as routers.

– 2. Crossover Cable
A crossover cable is a type of CAT 5 cable with one end config-
ured as T568A and the other as T568B. Pin 1 is crossed with Pin
3 in this sort of cable connection, while Pin 2 is crossed with Pin 6.
A crossover cable connects two or more computing devices. Crossover
cable internal wiring reverses transmission and reception signals.
It is commonly used to link two devices of the same sort, such as
two computers or two switches.

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2.1.3 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network type that covers a city’s
or a local area’s network connection. A wired network, such as data cables,
connects the network’s coverage region.

2.1.4 WAN (Wide Area Network):

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is intended to connect devices over long dis-
tances, such as between states or countries. In most cases, the connection
is wireless and communicates via radio towers. Multiple LAN and MAN
networks can be combined to form a WAN network.

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2.2 Connecting Components required in a Network
2.2.1 Connectors
A device that eliminates or implements a condition of access for network
devices such as PCs, hubs, and switches. Connectors are distinguished by
their physical appearance and mating features, which include jacks and at-
tachments (male connectors) or attachments and ports (female connectors).
Connectors are used to connect guided (wired) transmission media to de-
vices such as hubs, servers, and workstations.
There are several types of connectors as follows:

1. Twisted Pair Cable Connectors:

Almost all new connections have been built in recent years using a
twisted pair cabling technique. In almost all circumstances, UTP (Un-
shielded Twisted Pair) is used instead of STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
since it is less expensive, easier to install, and manage.
RJ45 is the standard UTP connector (RJ stands for Registered Jack).
RJ45 connections are used on CAT6 and CAT5e cables. These twisted-
pair Ethernet cable connectors resemble ordinary telephone cord con-
nectors in appearance. However, they are broader because they have
eight conductors as opposed to four conductors on a telephone jack.

2. Coaxial Cable Connectors:

BNC connectors are F-series connectors that are often seen in homes.
This RG59 or RG6 coaxial cable connector is used for cable television

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 equipment, broadcast TV antennas, and CCTV security camera sys-
tems. They are simple to attach and disconnect from equipment and
provide low-cost, reliable connections to communications devices and
other wires.
To install a BNC connector, first remove the cable’s protective shields
with a stripping tool. A specific compression crimper is used to squeeze
the connector around the conductive material once it has been put onto
the end.
Twist-on F-connectors are also available for quick and easy repairs to
television equipment without the use of specific tools.

3. Fiber-optic Cable Connectors:

Fiber optic connectors require different types of connectors from those
used with coax or twisted-pair cables, such as CAT5e. These types of
connectors in networking must align glass fibers with precision to allow
for communication.

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4. USB Connectors:
USB, which stands for Universal Serial Bus, is one of the most widely
used I/O connectors in electronics. This particular connector allows
for the transmission of both data and power over a single wire. USB
connections are most typically used to connect computers to periph-
eral devices such keyboards, computer mouse, printers, audio devices,
and digital cameras/camcorders. They are also found in data storage
devices like as USB flash drives. These USB connectors have several
advantages, including rapid transmitting speeds, easily recognizable
ports, and low cost.

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2.2.2 Cables
A cable is a conductor or collection of conductors used to transport electric
power or telecommunication signals from one location to another. Electric
communication cables send voice messages, computer data, and visual pic-
tures to telephones, wired radios, computers, teleprinters, facsimile machines,
and televisions using electrical impulses.
• Twisted-Pair Cable:
Twisted pair cable is created by twisting two distinct insulated wires
and running them parallel to each other, which reduces crosstalk be-
tween pairs of wires. Signal transmission dates back to the early days
of the telegraph and radio. Balanced signal transmission provides the
benefits of better signal-to-noise ratio, crosstalk, and ground bounce
that are especially significant in high fidelity and broad bandwidth sys-
tems.
Twisted pair cables are classified into two categories based on whether
or not they have a shielding layer: shielded twisted pair (STP) cable
and unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable.

• Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable, also known as coax cable, is a form of copper cable that

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 contains an inner conductor surrounded by foam insulation, is symmet-
rically wrapped in a woven braided metal shield, and is then covered
with a plastic jacket. This distinct design allows coaxial cable runs to
be put next to metal objects like gutters without the power losses that
other types of transmission lines experience.
When compared to twisted pair cable, coaxial cable functions as a high-
frequency transmission wire comprised of a single solid copper core. It
has 80 times or more transmission capability.
This type of cable is commonly used in feedlines that connect radio
transmitters and receivers to their antennas, computer network con-
nections, and the distribution of cable television signals.

• Fiber-Optic Cable:
Fiber optic cable is made up of a series of glass threads, each of which
may transport messages modulated onto light waves. The design and
structure of fiber optic cable is complex. This cable features an outer
optical shell that surrounds and traps the light within a central core.
The inside of the cable (the core) must be designed in two ways: single-
mode and multi-mode; while the difference may appear little, it makes
a significant impact in the performance and utilization of fiber optic
cables.

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2.2.3 Network Inter-Connecting Devices
Network devices, often known as networking hardware, are physical devices
that enable computer network hardware to communicate and interact with
one another. Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter,
and more.

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1. Repeater:
A repeater is a device that operates at the physical layer. Its job is to
regenerate the signal over the same network before it becomes too weak
or corrupted to allow the signal to be transmitted for a longer period
of time over the same network. Repeaters not only enhance the signal
but can also regenerate it. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it
bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting
following the original strength. It’s a two-port device.
2. Hub:
A hub is essentially a multi-port repeater. A hub joins many wires from

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 various branches, such as the connection in star topology that connects
separate stations. Because hubs cannot filter data, data packets are
broadcast to all connected devices. Furthermore, they lack the intel-
ligence to determine the best routing for data packets, resulting in
inefficiencies and waste.

3. Bridge:
At the data link layer, a bridge operates. A bridge is a repeater with
the added functionality of filtering content based on the source and
destination MAC addresses. It is also used to connect two LANs that
utilize the same protocol. It has a single input and output port, making
it a two-port device.

4. Switch:
A switch is a multiport bridge that has a buffer and a design that
can improve its efficiency (having a large number of ports means less
traffic) and performance. A switch is a device that operates at the
data connection layer. The switch can perform error checking before
forwarding data, which makes it incredibly efficient because it does
not transfer errors and only forwards valid packets to the correct port.
In other words, the switch splits the collision domain of hosts while
maintaining the broadcast domain.

5. Router:
A router, similar to a switch, routes data packets depending on their
IP addresses. The router serves primarily as a Network Layer device.
Routers often connect LANs and WANs and use a dynamically updat-
ing routing table to decide how to route data packets. The router splits
the broadcast domains of the hosts that are connected to it.

6. Gateway:
A gateway serves as a connection point between two distinct networks
operating on different networking models. It functions as a mediator
that receives data from one system, translates it, and then forwards it
to another system. Often referred to as protocol converters, gateways
can function at any layer of the network. They are typically more
sophisticated than switches or routers and are known for their ability
to convert protocols.

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 7. Brouter:
This device, known as a bridging router, merges the capabilities of
both a bridge and a router. It can operate at the data link layer or
the network layer. As a router, it can route packets between differ-
ent networks, and as a bridge, it can filter traffic within a local area
network.

8. NIC:
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component that allows
a computer to connect to a network. It is a circuit board installed
in a computer that provides the computer with a dedicated network
connection. It can also be referred to as a network interface controller,
network adapter, or LAN adapter.
A network interface card (NIC) allows communication between com-
puters linked via a local area network (LAN) as well as communication
over a large-scale network using Internet Protocol (IP).

3 OSI Model
OSI is an acronym that stands for Open Systems Interconnection. ISO -
’International Organization for Standardization’ - created it in 1984. It is a
seven-layer architecture, with each layer performing a specific purpose. All
seven levels work together to convey data from one person to another across
the globe.

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3.1 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• Standardizes interfaces for physical transmission media, specifying:

– Mechanical aspects like connectors and cables, including maxi-

mum cable length
– Electrical characteristics of transmission lines
– Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery

• Encodes data from the Data Link Layer into signals for transmission
on the sender side.

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 • Decodes signals received from the transmission medium into data for
the Data Link Layer on the receiver side.
• Defines characteristics of interfaces between devices and transmission
media.
• Handles the representation of bits, converting 1s and 0s into signals
and vice versa, without concern for the meaning or interpretation of
the bits.
• Defines the data transmission rate (data rate) and ensures its mainte-
nance.
• Ensures synchronization of bits by maintaining the same bit rate and
synchronized clocks between sender and receiver.
• Defines line configuration, specifying whether it’s a point-to-point or
multi-point link.
• Specifies physical topology, determining how devices are connected to
the network (e.g., mesh or point-to-point connections).
• Defines transmission mode, indicating the direction of data transfer
between sender and receiver (simplex, half duplex, or full duplex).
• Main responsibility: Transmits bits from one hop to the next.

3.2 Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Enhances reliability of the physical layer with error detection and cor-
rection mechanisms.
• On the sender side, the Data Link layer receives data from the Network
Layer, divides it into fixed-size frames, and sends it to the physical
layer.
• On the receiver side, the Data Link layer receives bits from the physical
layer, regroups them into frames, and sends them to the Network Layer
(Framing).
• Provides physical addressing by appending sender and receiver ad-
dresses in the frame header.

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 • Ensures flow control, preventing data loss due to sender-receiver speed
mismatches.
• Implements error control mechanisms, identifying and retransmitting
lost or damaged frames.
• Manages access control in multipoint connections, determining which
device has the right to send data.
• Main responsibility: Facilitates hop-to-hop transmission of frames.

3.3 Layer 3: Network Layer

• Ensures data delivery to the receiver through multiple intermediate
devices.
• At the sending side, the network layer receives data from the transport
layer, divides it into packets, adds addressing information, and passes
it to the data link layer.
• At the receiving end, the network layer receives frames from the data
link layer, converts them back into packets, verifies physical addresses,
and sends packets to the transport layer.
• Responsible for source-to-destination data delivery, involving routing
through multiple networks and intermediate devices.
• Relies on logical addressing (IP address) and routing to achieve data
delivery.
• Logical addressing involves the use of IP addresses for device recogni-
tion, with sender and receiver IP addresses in the header.
• Routing is the process of determining the best path for packets using
routing algorithms.
• Divides data into packets with sequence numbers for rearranging on
the receiving end.
• Network layer does not handle flow control or error control.
• Main responsibility: Transmission of packets from source to destina-
tion.

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3.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• Logical address at the network layer enables data transmission, but the
transport layer ensures process-to-process delivery.
• At the sending side, the transport layer receives data from the session
layer, divides it into segments, and sends it to the network layer.
• At the receiving side, the transport layer receives packets from the
network layer, arranges them into the correct sequence of segments,
and sends them to the session layer.
• To achieve process-to-process delivery, the transport layer uses port
addresses (16-bit addresses) to identify sending and receiving processes.
• Port addresses, also known as Service Point Addresses, are assigned to
processes (e.g., TELNET uses port 23, HTTP uses port 80).
• Data can be transported in a connection-oriented or connectionless
manner, impacting whether segments are received in order or indepen-
dently.
• The transport layer handles segmentation and reassembly, assigning
sequence numbers for proper segment order.
• Conducts end-to-end flow control and error control functions, different
from the node-to-node approach of the data link layer.
• Main responsibility: Ensures process-to-process delivery of the entire
message.

3.5 Layer 5: Session Layer

• The session layer establishes and synchronizes communication sessions,
also known as dialogs.
• Also referred to as the network dialog controller, the session layer is
responsible for initiating and coordinating dialogs.
• At the sending side, the session layer receives data from the presenta-
tion layer, adds synchronization points (syn bits), and forwards it to
the transport layer.

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 • On the receiving end, the session layer receives data from the transport
layer, removes inserted synchronization points, and passes the data to
the presentation layer.

• Checkpoints, or synchronization points, indicate the status of data

transfer, preventing the retransmission of specific segments.

• Example: A checkpoint after the first 500 bits ensures that these bits
are not resent if a retransmission occurs at the 650th bit.

• Main responsibility: Dialog control and synchronization.

3.6 Layer 6: Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer handles communication between devices with
different platforms, performing data translation, encryption, and com-
pression.

• At the sending side, the presentation layer receives data from the ap-
plication layer, adds a header with encryption and compression infor-
mation, and sends it to the session layer.

• On the receiving side, the presentation layer receives data from the
session layer, decompresses and decrypts it as needed, and translates
it back based on the receiver’s encoding scheme.

• Translation is crucial for devices on different platforms to understand

the messages used for communication.

• Compression facilitates faster data transfer, with both compression at

the sender and decompression at the receiver handled by the presenta-
tion layer.

• Encryption involves transforming the original message for secure trans-

mission, with decryption performed at the receiving end to recover the
original message.

• Main responsibility: Presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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3.7 Layer 7: Application Layer
• The application layer offers services for users to communicate data to
the receiver, such as using the X.400 service for sending emails.

• X.500 functions as a directory service, offering information and dis-

tributed object access.

• X.400 provides services for the storage and forwarding of emails.

• FTAM (File Transfer, Access, and Management) allows access to files

on remote computers and provides mechanisms for their local transfer
and management.

• Main responsibility: The application layer’s primary role is to grant

access to network resources.

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